Class 11

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 1 Meaning, Scope and Significance of Political Science Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 1 Meaning, Scope and Significance of Political Science

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the definition and scope of Political Science.
Or
Define Political Science and discuss its scope.
Answer:
Man is a social animal. For the satisfaction of his needs he depends upon society. While living in society, man is to abide by certain definite rules and regulations because in the absence of these rules there will be no peace and order in the society. Some sort of political organisation or political arrangements are required for making and enforcing these rules.

In the absence of discipline in society there will be anarchy and disorder. There is a great truth in Aristotle’s saying that “Man is a social and political animal.’ That is why it is most essential for man to five in the State. In fact, State is a poilticallv organised society. According to Aristotle, “The State comes into being for the sake of mere life; it continues to exist for the sake of good life.” The State is the pivot or subject-matter for the study of ‘Political Science’. Political Science studies everything concerning the State.

In ancient.times the word ‘Politics’ was used for the term ‘Political Science’. The term Politics is derived form the Greek word ‘Pohs’ which means the City-State, the general form of political organisation obtaining in ancient Greece. In the ancient Greece there were small City-States. ‘Politics’ therefore, meant to an ancient Greek the science of the ‘City-State’ or pertaining to State and Government. In place of ‘City-States’ we have big territorial States now-a-days.

Now-a-days Political Science is the science which studies the origin, necessity, development, nature and future of the State; It is also said that ‘Political Science begins and ends with the State’. Some writers are of the opinion that Political Science is not only the study of the State but also of the Government. But the Government is an organ of the State and the study of the State also’includes the study of the Government. Therefore, it is not essential to make use of the word ‘Government’ alongwith the word ‘State’.

Different Definitions of Political Science. The scholars have given different definitions of Political Science which are given as follows:
1. According to Garner, “Political Science begins and ends with the State.”

2. According to Paul Janet, “Political Science is that part of Social Science which treats the foundations of the State and principles of Government.”

3. According to Bluntschii, “Political Science is the science which is concerned with
the State, which endeavours to understand and comprehend the State in its fundamental conditions, its essential nature, its various forms of manifestations, its development.” ‘

4. According to Sir John’R. Seeley, “Political Science investigates the phenomena of government as Political Economy deals with Wealth, Biology with Life, Algebra with Numbers and Geometry with Space and Magnitude.”

5. According to Dr. Leacock, “Political Science deals with Government only.”

6. According to Gettell, “Political Science may be defined as the Science of the State. It deals with the associations of human beings that form political units, with the orgnisations of their governments, and with the activities of these governments in making and administering law and in carrying on inter-State relations. The topics in which it is mainly interested are State, government and law.”

7. According to Gilchrist, “Political Science deals with the general problems of the State and government.”

8. According to Lord Acton, “Political Science is concerned with the State and with the conditions essential for its development.”

9. According to Leacock, “Political Science deals with Government.”

10. According to Demock, “Political Science is concerned with the State and its means and Government.”

Modern Definitions:
But modern scientists have started looking at Political Science from a different point of view. According to Lasswell anti Kaplan, “Political Science is an empirical inquiry in the study of the shaping and sharing of power.” According to Haszar and Stevenson, “Political Science is the field of study concerned primarily with the power relationship among men, between men and the State and among States.”

David Easton says, “Political Science is the study of authoritative allocation of values as it is influenced by the distribution and use of power.”

According to William Robson, “The focus of interest of Political is clear and unambigious. It centres on the struggle to gain or retain power, to exercise power or influence others and to resist that exercised.”

Writers like Kaplan, Dahl and Almond and many others regard Political Science to be a study of the political system as a whole. Political Science is also concerned with human elements. In short major concerns of Polititfhl Science are State, Government, Man, Power and Authority. Penock and Smith have rightly said that “Political Science refers to all that has to do with the forces, institutions and organisational forms in any society, that are recognised as having the most inclusive and final authority existing in that society for the establishment and maintenance of order, the effectuation of other joint purposes of its members and the reconciliation of their differences.”

Scope Of Political Science:
The writers on Political Science differ regarding its scope. Gamer is of the opinion that Political Science is only the study of the State. According to Gettell, Political Science mainly studies the State, the government and the law. Dr. Leacock is of the view-point that it is concerned only with the study of the government. In fact the scope of Political Science is very wide. It studies man in connection with organised political society.

The scope of Political Science can be explained in the following way:
1. Study of the State. State is the pivot round which Political Science revolves. The main object of Political Science and sphere of its activity is the State. It deals with the analytical study of the State i.e., its origin and end. According to Bluntschli, “Political Science is the science which is concerned with the State, which endeavours to undertsand, and comprehend the State in its fundamental conditions, its essential nature, its various forms of manifestations, its development.”

According to Gettell, “Political Science is the historical investigation of what the State has been, an analytical study of what the State is and a politico-ethical discussion of what the Stage ought to be.” This way we can study the present, the past and the future of the State.

(i) The State:What it has been?
The ‘present’ of a thing is the result of certain things happened in the past. Therefore, the present position of the State cannot be understood completely and thoroughly unless we come to know about the past of the State. With the help of the study of history we are to find out, how the .State came into existence, why did it come into existence? At the time of its origin, what the nature of the State was, what rights and duties were enjoyed by it and through what stages it had to pass to reach the present form. We are to see this thing also that with what institutions the State was concerned in the past and with which things they were confronted with in the past.

(ii) The State: What it is?
We study in Political Science, the nature and objects of the State and its relationship with the citizens. What means are adopted by the State for the satisfaction of its needs? The individual seeks the help of various social, political, economic and cultural groups for the development of his personality and the State is considered superior and . powerful to all these groups and associations. The study of the present State also includes its welfare activities.

(iii) The State: What it ought to be?
The present form of the State is not its final form, The State has continuously progressed and even at present its progress is continuous. Political Science also studies what the State ought administration of political affairs and determines the proper province and functions of the State. It aims at improving political institutions and organisations in the light of changing ideas and political theories.

2. Study of Political Thought:
What is State? Why should the people obey the orders of the State? Is there any limit to the powers and the right of State? Under what circumstances and on what grounds have the people the right to disobey and violate the ordeirs of the State? It is a very fundamental and basic question. From time to time the political philosophers have answered these questions. These answers have come to us in the form of ism, like the Idealism, Individualism, Utilitarianism, Socialism, Communism, Anarchism, Facism and Gandhism etc. The study of all the above mentioned theories is an important part of the scope of Political Science.

3. Study of Government:
]The study of government is most essential in Political Science. The government is that agency of the State through which it formulates and expresses its will. The study of the State without the study of the government is incomplete. The government is one of the essential elements of the State.

How the government is formed, what are its various forms, what are the merits and demerits of the various forms of government, what are the various organs of the government and what are their relations to one another? How are the civil and military officials appointed and what are their duties? Political Science also studies all these things. Besides this, it also studies the relationship between the central and the local government. It also studies the methods of distribution of powers between the Centre and the States.

4. Study of Politcal Institution:
The scope of Political Science also includes the study of political institution. This covers a study of constitutions of different countries of the world and national, regional an’d local governments.

5. Study of Political Theory:
Political theory is the most important branch of Political Science. Political Science studies Political theory, Political philosophy and Political ideas of great political thinkers e.g., Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Hegel, Marx, Gandhi etc.

6. Study of Political Forces:
Political Science does not study the State from the formal point of view but it also studies it from the informal point of view. In the State so many groups and organisations function to influence its policies and its working. There are pressure groups, interest groups and other political economic, social and religious organisations which function in each State and influence its working.

Each group which influences the policies of the government either directly or indirectly has an important place in Political Science. Political Science also studies the electoral system, organisation of public opinion, public relationship and the means of propaganda in the State.

7. Study of International Relations and International Organisations:
Political Science studies State not only as institution but also as a personality of entity in the family of the States. It studies the behaviour of State in relation to other States. Political Science also studies various international organisations like League of Nations, United Nations, I.L.O., U.N.E.S.C.O., W.H.O. etc. It studies aims, functions, organs and role of the United Nations. ‘

8. Study of Man:
Today it is beyond all doubts that State is the only agency for individual happiness and is in-fact its end. It has rightly been said that it is the foremost duty of modem State to be an instrument for happiness of man. Political Science studies the nature of relationship between the individual and the State. It examines how man should adjust himself with the society. The problem is how to reconcile the authority of the State with the liberty of rW- individual. Political

Science studies this problem also. Political Science is concerned not only with the political aspect of the life of the individual but it is also concerned with the social, economic and intellectual aspect of his life. In other words Political Science studies the individual as a whole.
9. Study of Power and Authority:
Today Power and Authority have become very popular elements of political science. These factors play very important role. That is why power and authority are the subjects of political science.

10. Study of Political Parties:
Political Parties especially in a democratic system play a very important role. No democratic system is possible without political parties. We study the ideology, basis, principles, policies and programmes of political parties.

11. Study of Controversies:
Controversies and conflicts among person to person, group to group, party to party and nation to nation etc. are also the subject matter of political science. Wasby says that, “Where there is politics, there is controversy; where there is no controversies there is no politics.” Why controversies and conflicts arise and what is their solution is also the scope of political science.

12. Study of Leadership:
Another important subject of politics is leadership.Leadership means to have capacity to organize human means for achievement of particular goals. Leadership is important in politics and plays an important role in taking decisions.

13. Study of Influence:
According to some political scholars among with power, influence is also a central subject of politics. According to Laswell, “The study of politics is the study of influence and the influential.” Eric Rowe has regarded influence instead of power as the main subject of politics.

14. Study of Legitimacy: We also study in politics the concept of Legitimacy and crisis of Legitimacy.

15. Study of authoritative allocation of values:
Values are also one of the important subject matter of politics. According to David Easton, “Politics is concerned with the authoritative allocation of values for society.”

Conclusion:
The above mentioned facts clearly indicate that the scope of Political Science is very vast. Gettell is right when he says that, “The topics in which it is mainly interested are State, Government and law. Political Science is concerned not only with political institution but also with political ideas.” Garner’s saying that “Political Science begins and ends with the State” is absolutely correct. The study of Political Science, in fact, revolves round the State.

Question 2.
What is the significance of studying Political Science?
Or
Discuss the utility of studying Political Science.
Answer:
Some scholars attach no importance to the principles of Political Science in this scientific era, but it is a wrong conception. According to Ivor Brown, “Sensibly handled with a commonsense attitude to the real value of social life, political theory is both a concrete and fruitful study.”

Every individual is a citizen of the State and thereby an inseparable part of the State. So the study of Political Science is essential for every inhabitant. Administration used to be in the hands of kings, wazirs and a few officials in the ancient time, but people themselves are the rulers and the subjects in the modern age. So every citizen is naturally interested in Political Science. Its importance is enhancing every day and following are few benefits of studying Political Science:

1. True Knowledge of the Political Terminology:
The first and foremost advantage of studying Political Science is that .one gets a true knowledge of political terminology. None can accurately understand the Terms State, Government, Society, Nation and Nationalism etc. without studying Political Science. The citizens rightly conceive the meaning of freedom and equality through the study of Political Science.

2. Knowledge of State and Government:
The main subject of Political Science is State and Government. Each individual is an inhabitant of the State and he can progress only by remaining in the State. The State, now-a-days, is a welfare State and so influences every aspect of an individual. By studying Political Science, one can understand as to how the State originated. What are the aims of a State? How can these objects be fulfilled? What is a Government? etc.

3. It shows relationship between the State and Man:
One understands the true relationship between State and Man by studying Political Science. What is the relation between an individual and State has been a ticklish question since the ancient times. Previously people considered State to be all in all. State could treat the individuals the way it liked to and that is why individuals were cruelly treated in the past. But now, through the study of Political Science, we understand the true relationship between the State and Man.

4. Knowledge of Rights and Duties:
The study of Political Science gives us the knowledge about our rights and duties. This knowledge is very essential for becoming a good citizen. A citizen can develop his personality fully only if he is having full knowledge about his rights and duties. This knowledge is given by the study of Political Science.

5. Success of Democracy:
With the advent and popularity of modern democracies, the study of Political Science has become almost indispensable. In a democratic State the government is not run by experts but it is manned by ordinary citizens. It is the citizens who choose their legislators and administrators. If the citizens are -hot educated and they are not conscious of their rights and duties, it is impossible to expect from them to elect right type of legislators and administrators.

Bad government is bound to do great harm to the society. If the people do not get political education, they will remain ignorant about their rights and duties. They will not have the knowledge of electoral process and their participation in the government. In the absence of political education the people do not elect right type of representatives.

6. Selection of Political Ideas:
Political Science helps us in selecting good ideas. There are so many political ideals and political philosophies in the world. Different philosophers at different times have advocated different political philosophies. There are various political movements in different countries of the world at different times.

By studying Political Science we can come to know about the merits and demerits of various political ideals. We can judge the effects of a political movement on the political conditions of the country. We can go into the various aspects of political ideals and can select the best one. In a democratic form of government the study of Political Science is of great advantage.

7. Formation of healthy Political Parties:
A democratic government cannot function without the existence of political parties. The study of Political Science helps in understanding the formation, the nature and the working of political parties. Sometimes there exist various groups in a country, some groups are formed on the basis of religion and some are formed with a particular selfish motive. An ordinary citizen cannot properly understand the nature of these groups.

These groups are not political parties in the strict sense of the term. These groups do not in any way promote national interest. The study of Political Science reveals that political parties should be formed on economic or political basis. People having the knowledge of Political Science will form political parties on healthy grounds, and these parties will always function in the best interests of the nation. The parties based on healthy grounds will function in the best interests of nation whether they form the government or sit in the opposition.

8. Knowledge of the governmental systems of other countries:
In the modem age nobody can lead an isolated life. Each country is to maintain relations with other countries of the world. The study of Political Science helps us a lot in undertsanding international relations. We come to know about the forms of government prevailing in other countries and the political ideals which these countries have adopted. We maintain our relations with all these countries on the basis of their political ideologies.

Different countries have adopted different forms of governments. Some countries have adopted monarchy, some dictatorship, some unitary form of government, some federal type of government, some parliamentary and some have adopted presidential form of government. We come to know about the advantages and disadvantages of all these forms of governments by the study of Political Science. We make the maximum use of the experiences of other countries.

9. Solution of Current Problems:
The study of political science helps people to acquire habits of clear thinking, keen observations and fair dealings. The study also gives them a thorough knowledge of the political institutions of the country. In course of time as their knowledge and experience increase they will find themselves able to find out the solution of various current problems.

Political Science is based on sound principles and these principles can be of great use in solving various political problems. If the citizens and the administration understand the problems, they can frame suitable laws to solve them. If the administrators take suitable steps, there is no reason why the country does not make progress.

10. Toleration:
Political Science teaches the lesson of toleration to the people. In the modern age it is most essential that the people should possess the spirit of toleration. No country today can maintain relations with other countries of the world without developing the spirit of peaceful co-existence.

Political Science teaches that all the countries in the world should live in harmony with one another. The sovereignty and territorial integrity of each country should be respected by all other countries. If the different countries of the world do not develop the spirit of toleration, the world is bound to become a battlefield.

The citizens should also develop the spirit of toleration. Most of the countries have adopted the democratic form of government and in democracy every individual gets the freedom of speech and expression. Everybody can have his say. It is just possible that the view-point of a person is not liked by others, but it does not mean that person should not be allowed to express his opinion.

Political Science teaches us that we must listen to the view-point of others very carefully even if we do not agree to that view-point. This always helps in tolerating the view-point of our opponents and in the development of the spirit of co-existence. The spirit of co-existence and toleration develops only by studying the subject of Political Science.

11. Efficiency in Administration. Now-a-days it is an age of democracy and the government of the country is run by the people themselves. The study of Political Science gives the knowledge of nature, forms, functions and various organs of government to the individual. If an individual gets the opportunity of entering into government service he will run the administration very efficiently. If a person gets the chance of serving as an administrator, as a minister or as a legislator the study of Political Science will help him a lot in running the administration smoothly.

The study of Political Science makes an individual a good man, a good citizen, a good administrator and a good legislator. He will make constructive criticism of the government and will contribute his best to the administration of the State. Conclusion; The above-mentioned facts clearly indicate that this subject is of utmost importance for the citizen of a State. Hie study of the subject is most essential for each and every individual.

The study of this subject helps in the development of individual personality and he reaps the fruit of the study of the subject throughout his whole life. An individual having the knowledge of this subject contributes his best to the development and progress of the country. The entire human race is benefited by the study of Political Science. It is more useful for the students because the student of today is the administrator, minister, legislator and government official of tomorrow. Most of the problems of our country can be solved by the study of this subject.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define the term “Political Science”.
Answer:
The scholars have given different definitions of Political Science. According to Garner, “Political Science begins and ends with the state.” According to Dr. Lea cock, “Political Science deals with government only.” According to Gilchrist, “Political Science deals with the general problems of the state and government.” Writers like Kaplan, Dahl and Almond and many others regard political science to be a study of the political system as a whole. In short, political Science deals with state, government, Man, Power and Authority.

Question 2.
Describe the origin of the world ‘Political Science’.
Answer:
In ancient times the world ‘Politics’ was used for the term ‘Political Science’. The term Politics is derived from the Greek word ‘Polis’ which means the City state, the general form of Political organisation obtaining in ancient Greece. In the ancient Greece there were small City-States. “Politics’ therefore meant to be in ancient Greece the Science of the City-State’ or pertaining to State and Government. Aristotle concentrated his study on these City-States. He drew his practical and therorical conclusion in his study in the famous book ‘Politics’. In place of City-State we have big territorial states now-a-days.

Question 3.
Distinguish between Politics and Political Science.
Answer:

• Politics is the practical aspect of Political Science while Political Science is the academic aspect of Politics.
• Political Science originated earlier than Politics.
• Political Science is moral-based while Politics is based on convenience.
• Political Science and Politics have different aims.

Question 4.
Give any four definitions of Political Science according to traditional view.
Answer:
Four Traditional definitions are:

• According to Garner, ‘Political Science begins and ends with the state.”
• According to Paul Janet, “Political Science is that part of Social Science which treats the foundations of the state and the principles of Government.”
• According to Gilchrist, “Political Science deals with the general problems of the State and government.
• According to Willoughby, “Political science has to deal with state, government
  and law.”

Question 5.
How was Political Science viewed by the traditional Political thinkers?
Answer:
Garner, Paul Janet, Bluntschli, Seeley, Leacock, Gettell and Gilchrist are traditional Political scientists.

1. Traditional Political Science thinkers viewed Political Science as a study of the State. According to Gamer, “Political Science begins and ends with the State.”
2. According to traditional political thinkers, Political Science is the government. According to Dr. Leacock, ‘Political Science deals with Government only.”
3. Traditional political thinkers viewed Political Science as the study of both state and government. According to Gilchrist, “Political Science deals with the general problems of state and government.”
4. According to traditional political thinkers like Willoughby, “Political Science has to deal with state, government and law.”

Question 6.
Give any four definitions of Political Science according to modern view.
Answer:

1. According to Lasswell and Kaplan, ‘Political Science as an empirical inquiry is the study of the shaping and sharing of power.”
2. According to Haszar and Stevenson, “Political Science is the field of study concerned primarily with the power relationship among men between men and the State and among States,”
3. David Easton says, ‘Political Science is the study of authoritative allocation of values as it is influenced by the distribution and uses of power,”
4. Robert Dahl says, “Political analysis deals with power, rule or authority.”

Question 7.
Explain the scope of Political Science.
Answer:

• Political Science deals with the analytical study of the state. It studies the past, present and future of the state.
• In Political Science, we study various theories i.e., Individualism, Socialism, Communism, Fascism, Gandhism etc.
• Political Science deals with the government. It studies all aspects of government.
• Political Science studies International relations and International organisations like United Nations.

Question 8.
Explain the modern view regarding the scope of Political Science.
Answer:
Modem Political Science regard Political Science as the study of power. According to Lasswell and Kaplan, ‘Political Science as an empirical inquiry is the study of the shaping and sharing of power.” Political Science studies political system. Dahl, Almond and many others regard Political Science to be a study of the Political System as a whole.
According to Arnold Brecht, Political Science studies-

1. Group,
2. Equibirum,
3. Power, Control and influence,
4. Action,
5. Elite,
6. Decision,
7. Anticipated Action and
8. Functions.

In short the scope of Political Science includes the study of Power, Authority, Legitimacy, Influence, Pressure Groups, Politicals System, etc.

Question 9.
What is the modern view of Political Science?
Answer:
After 2nd World War, many important changes took place in the field of the study of political science. Modem political scientists have launched a ‘Protest Movement’ against the traditional view of political science. Modem view of Political Science is very broad and comprehensive. It covers a wide range of Political, social, economic and culture activities of a ‘political’ man. It studies all kinds of problems, conflicts, stuggle for power, decision-making process leadership, political behaviour, the politics of caste, politics of religion, etc.

Question 10.
Political Science is infact a Science. Give four arguments in support of it.
Answer:
Many writers call political science a Science. Aristotle was the first to call it the Master Science.
1. Political Science is a Science because knowledge of political science is systematic. The facts regarding the life of the State are collected from history and these facts are classified, co-ordinated and systematised.

2. The scholars of Political Science agree on certain fundamental principles and conclusion of Political Science. For examples there is no denying the fact that democratic government is the best form of government. It is more permanent that most other forms of government.

3. In political science conclusions are based on deep study and deservation.

4. There is scope for predicting things in Political Science.

Question 11.
Political Science is not a science. Give four arguments.
Answer:
The writers who do not accepts Science as a science have put forth the following agruments.
1. Lack of Unanimity on Fundmentals: The scholars of Political Science do not hold unanimous opinions regarding the theories, subject matter and conclusions of Political Science.

2. Unsystematic:
The knowledge of this subject is not systematic. Its growth is very slow, irregular and unsystematic. Sometimes it is very difficult to co-relate different aspects of the subject-matter. Like other physical science its knowledge is not systematic and results are not uniform or universal.

3. Prediction is difficult:
The claim of Political Science as a science is also ruled out on the ground that prediction is difficult in this subject. It cannot predict the coming events. In all other physical sciences prediction is possible.

4. Impartial and objective investigation or research is not possible.

Question 12.
Write four significances of study of Political Science.
Answer:
The significance of Political Science is enhancing every day and following are the benefits of studying political science:-
1. The first advantage of studying Political Science is that one gets true knoledge of political terminology. None can accurately understand the terms State, Government, Society, Nation, Nationally, etc. without styding Political Science.

2. The study of Political Science gives us the knowledge about our rights and duties. This knowldege is very essential for becoming a good citizen.

3. By studying Political Science one can understand as to how the state originated? What are the aims of a state? How can these objects be fulfilled? What is a government, etc.?

4. The study of a Political Science help us in understanding the true relationship between state and individual.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Give the definition of the term “Political Science”.
Answer:
The scholars have given different definitions of Political Science. According to Garner, “Political Science begins and ends with the state.” According to Dr. Leacock, “Political Science deals with government only.”

Question 2.
Describe the meaning of ‘Political Science’.
Answer:
In ancient times the world ‘Politics’ was used for the term ‘Political Science’. The term Politics is derived from the Greek word ‘Polis’ which means the City state. In the ancient Greece there were small City-States. ‘Politics’ therefore meant to be in ancient Greece the Science of the City-State’ or pertaining to State and Government. In place of City-State we have big territorial states now-a-days.

Question 3.
Distinguish between Politics and Political Science.
Answer:

• Politics is the practical aspect of Political Science while Political Science is the academic aspect of Politics.
• Political Science originated earlier than Politics.

Question 4.
Explain the scope of Political Science.
Answer:

• Political Science deals with the analytical study of the state. It studies the past, present and future of the state.
• In Political Science, we study various theories i.e., Individualism, Socialism, Communism, Fascism, Gandhism etc.

Question 5.
Political Science is infact a Science. Give two arguments in support of it.
Answer:
Many writers call political science a Science. Aristotle was the first to call it the Master Science.
1. Political Science is a Science because knowledge of political science is systematic. The facts regarding the life of the State are collected from history and these facts are classified, co-ordinated and systematised.

2. The scholars of Political Science agree on certain fundamental principles and conclusion of Political Science. For examples there is no denying the fact that democratic government is the best form of government. It is more permanent that most other forms of government.

Question 6.
Political Science is not a science. Give two arguments.
Answer:
The writers who do not accepts Science as a science have put forth the following agruments.
1. Lack of Unanimity on Fundmentals. The scholars of Political Science do not hold unanimous opinions regarding the theories, subject matter and conclusions of Political Science.
2. Unsystematic. The knowledge of this subject is not systematic. Its growth is very slow, irregular and unsystematic.

Question 7.
Write two significances of study of Political Science.
Answer:
The significance of Political Science is enhancing every day and following are the benefits of studying political science
1. The first advantage of studying Political Science is that one gets true knoledge of political terminology. None can accurately understand the terms State, Government, Society, Nation, Nationally, etc. without styding Political Science.

2. The study of Political Science gives us the knowledge about our rights and duties. This knowldege is very essential for becoming a good citizen.

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Write down any one traditional definition of Political Science.
Answer:
According to Dr. Leacock, “Political Science deals with government only.”

Question 2.
Write down any one modern definition of Political Science.
Answer:
According to David Easton, “Politics is the authoritative allocation of values.”

Question 3.
Political Science is a science. Give any one argument in its favour.
Answer:
The principle of cause and effect relationship applies in Political Science.

Question 4.
Political Science is not a science. Give any one argument in its favour.
Answer:
There is a lack of uniformity among scholars regarding its principles.

Question 5.
On the basis of traditional view, mention the names of any two subjects regarding the scope of Political Science.
Answer:

• Study of the past, the present and the future of the State.
• Study of the Government.

Question 6.
On the basic of modern view of politics, mention the names of any two subjects regarding the scope of Political Science.
Answer:

1. Groups
2. Balance.

Question 7.
Which scholar has called Political Science ‘A Universal Science’?
Answer:
Aristotle, the father of Political Science, has referred to Political Science as a universal science.

Question 8.
Who is considered the father of Political Science?
Answer:
Aristotle.

Question 9.
From which word has the word ‘Politics’ been derived?
Answer:
‘Politics’ word has been derived from ‘Polis’.

Question 10.
From which language has the word ‘Polis’ been derived?
Answer:
The word ‘Polis’ has been derived from Greek language.

Question 11.
What is the meaning of the word ‘Polis’?
Answer:
The meaning of the word ‘Polis’ is city state.

Question 12.
Write down any one significance of Political Science.
Answer:
We get true knowledge of political terminology.

Fill in the blanks:

1. …………… is the writer of book ‘Republic’.
Answer:
Plato

2. …………… do not accept Political Science as a Science.
Answer:
Maitland

3. State and …………… are the pivot round which Political Science revolves.
Answer:
Government

4. The government is that …………… of the state through which it formulates and expresses it will.
Answer:
Agency.

True or False statement:

1. State is the Pivot round which political science revolves.
Answer:
True

2. In ancient times the word ‘Politics’ was used for the term Economics.
Answer:
False

3. The meaning of word ‘Polis’ is city-state.
Answer:
True

4. According to Gamer, Political science only concern to govt.
Answer:
False

5. Political science also studies U.N.O, I.L.O, UNESCO and W.H.O.
Answer:
True

Choose the correct Answer

Question 1.
The term Politics is derived from:
(A) Latin word ‘Polis’
(B) Greek word ‘Polis’ Greek
(C) English-word ‘Political’
(D) word city-state.
Answer:
(B) Greek word ‘Polis’ Greek

Question 2.
Political Science deals with:
(A) Society
(B) Government only
(C) State only
(D) State and Government.
Answer:
(D) State and Government.

Question 3.
The term ‘Politics’ for political science had been used first by
(A) Catlin
(B) Hobbes
(C) Morhiavelli
(D) Aristole.
Answer:
(D) Aristole.

Question 4.
Aristole is famous book on political science is the:
(A) Republic
(B) Prince
(C) Politics
(D) Laws.
Answer:
(C) Politics

Question 5.
Who is the father of Political Science.
(A) Plato
(B) Aristotle
(C) Karl Marx
(D) Laski.
Answer:
(B) Aristotle

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 5 Culture Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 5 Culture

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. What differentiates humans and animals?
(a) Culture
(b) Group
(c) a + b
(d) Any group
Answer:
(a) Culture

2. What is transmitted from one generation to another?
(a) Society
(b) Scooter
(c) Culture
(d) Car
Answer:
(c) Culture

3. What is not necessary for the diffusion of culture?
(a) Breaking up of the country
(b) Conflict
(c) Cultural barrier
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) Cultural barrier

4. What is necessary for Sanskritisation?
(a) Values of group
(b) Psychological preparation
(c) Collective Culture
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Psychological preparation

5. Which sociologist divided culture into material and non-material aspects?
(a) Ogburn
(b) Giddings
(c) Maclver
(d) Parsons
Answer:
(a) Ogburn

6. Non-material culture is
(a) Concrete
(b) Concrete and abstract
(c) Abstract
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) Abstract

7. Material culture is
(a) Concrete
(b) Concrete and abstract
(c) Abstract
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Concrete

8. When did Ogburn use the word ‘Culture Lag’?
(a) 1911
(b) 1921
(c) 1931
(d) 1941
Answer:
(b) 1921

9. What is the developed form of culture?
(a) Civilisation
(b) Material culture
(c) Country and society
(d) Non-material culture.
Answer:
(a) Civilisation

Fill in the Blanks:

1. …………….. said that culture is a complete way of living life.
Answer:
Klied Kulkkohan

2. There are …………… parts of culture.
Answer:
two

3. Ideas, ideals, values, etc. are the examples of …………… culture.
Answer:
non-material

4. …………… are the rules which are expected to be obeyed by everyone.
Answer:
Values

5. The concept of cultural lag was given by ……………..
Answer:
William F. Ogburn

6. ………………. is transmitted from one generation to another.
Answer:
Culture

7. Chair, table, car, etc. are the examples of …………….. culture.
Answer:
material

True/False:

Question 1.
Who said that “Man is a social animal.”?
Answer:
These words are of Aristotle.

Question 2.
What differentiates humans from animals?
Answer:
Humans have a culture but animals don’t have.

Question 3.
In what type of environment man lives?
Answer:
Man lives in two types of environment-natural and man-made.

Question 4.
What is culture?
Answer:
Whatever man has achieved till today is his culture.

Question 5.
Of which thing, culture is the result?
Answer:
Culture is the result of interactions between humans.

Question 6.
How many types of culture are there?
Answer:
Culture is of two types—material and non-material culture.

Question 7.
What is material culture?
Answer:
The things which we can see or touch are part of material culture.

Question 8.
What can we include in material culture?
Answer:
Books, chairs, tables, fans, planes, T.V., cars, etc. can be included in material culture.

Question 9.
What is non-material culture?
Answer:
All the things which we can’t see or touch are part of non-material culture.

Question 10.
What can we include in non-material culture?
Answer:
Ideas, norms, values, traditions, etc. can be included in this culture.

Question 11.
What is civilization?
Answer:
The developed form of culture is known as civilization.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is culture?
Answer:
Our ways of living, philosophy, ideas, machines, etc. all the material and non-material things are part of the culture. All these things are created and used by us. So, culture is that on which we can think upon, work upon, and can keep with us.

Question 2.
Give two features of culture.
Answer:

• Culture is transmitted from one generation to another as children from their parents’ behavior.
• Culture fulfills human needs because if anything is invented, it is used by every day.

Question 3.
What is civilization?
Answer:
The developed form of culture is civilization. All the material and useful things that help humans to win over the natural environment and to control nature are part of civilization.

Question 4.
What is Acculturation?
Answer:
Acculturation is a process in which people of two cultures come in contact and if not all then adopt most of each other’s traits. After adopting each other’s most of traits, many changes come in them.

Question 5.
What is Cultural Pattern?
Answer:
When elements and cultural families come in contact and get related to each other, a cultural pattern is formed. Each cultural pattern is having a role to play in society, such as traditions.

Question 6.
What is Subculture?
Answer:
Each specific group has a few cultural traits. Hindus have a particular culture and Hindu culture is a part of Indian culture. This one aspect of culture, which is based on certain characteristics, is known as sub-culture.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is culture?
Answer:
Culture is the main characteristic of human society which differentiates it from animal society. Man becomes a social human because of culture and it differentiates one person from another, one group from another, and one community from another. We include all those things in the culture which a man learns and adopts in this human society like customs, values, laws, ways of wearing, music, language, literature, knowledge, ideas, folkways, mores, etc. All these things which are included in social heritage are known as culture.

Question 2.
Is culture abstract?
Answer:
Culture is concrete as well as abstract. In this material things like chairs, tables, scooters, cars are part of material culture and are concrete things. But when we are talking about values, customs, traditions, then these are part of non-material culture. They are abstract because we cannot see them. So we can say that culture is concrete as well as abstract.

Question 3.
Characteristics of culture.
Answer:

• Culture is transmitted from one generation to another.
• Culture is social.
• Culture can be learned.
• Culture fulfills the needs of society.
• Changes often come in culture.
• Culture maintains the social system of society.
• Every society has its own culture.
• Material and non-material things are also included in culture.

Question 4.
How culture is social?
Answer:
Culture is social because neither one man can make the whole culture and nor it is the property of anyone. When anyone invents anything then this invention is not his personal thing but becomes property of society because that thing will be used by the whole society. In this way, different things of culture are used by society. In this way, the universality of that thing is an essential element of culture. So culture is not individual but is social.

Question 5.
Culture is learned behavior.
Answer:
Culture is learned by humans were: It is not a biological quality that a man gets from his parents by birth. Man learns culture by Socialization. No one brings thoughts and ideas by birth but he learns them by interacting “with other persons of society. Every type of work is learned by society. From this, it is clear that culture is a learned behavior.

Question 6.
Ogburn’s views about culture.
Answer:
According to Ogburn, Social heritage is culture and it is of two types.

• Material Culture: All those things are included in a Material culture which can be seen and can be touched like cloth, table, chair, car, machine, etc.
• Non-material Culture: All those things are included in Non-material culture which cannot be seen and cannot be touched like ideals, traditions, values, etc.

According to Ogburn, “It is necessary to differentiate between material and non-material culture for analysis. But here one thing should be kept in mind that they are the interrelated parts of social institutions and society.

Question 7.
What is Material Culture?
Answer:
The meaning of material culture is by that cultural thing which has been made by man. This culture is concrete because we can see it and can touch it like T.V., scooter, car, chair, table, plane, etc. All these things are concrete and are part of material culture.

Question 8.
What is Non-Material Culture?
Answer:
Non-material culture is that culture in which all those things are included which are abstract. We can neither see them nor touch them. We can only feel them like traditions, customs, values, skills, norms, etc. All these things are abstract and that’s why they are included in Non-material culture.

Question 9.
Cultural lag.
Answer:
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, change in different parts of culture never comes at the same speed. The speed of change of one part is more as compared to the other. But culture is a system. It is made up of many parts. Its different parts are inter-connected and inter-related. This system of culture can be maintained if the change in all parts of culture will come at the same speed. Actually what happens is that if one part of culture is changed due to any invention then another part of the culture, which depends upon that part, also changes. But the change in the second part comes very late. How much time will this second part will take, depends upon the nature of the second part. This lateness goes on for many years because of which problem comes in the system. This lagging behind one part from another is known as cultural lag.

Question 10.
Civilization.
Answer:
Culture has two parts—material and non-material. In material culture, all those things are included which we can touch and see like table, chair, machine, book, building, car, plane, etc. In non-material culture all those things are included which we cannot touch and see, only can feel like thoughts, feelings, religion, rituals, ideals,s, etc. Material culture is concrete and non-material culture is abstract. We can take out the meaning of civilization from this. The useful things, tools, or organization, with the help of which man has won over nature and the natural environment and controlled them, is known as civilization.

Question 11.
The difference in culture and civilization.
Answer:

• Civilization always develops but culture never develops.
• Civilization can be adopted without any change, but not the culture.
• Culture is internal and civilization is external.
• Civilization can be measured but not culture.
• Civilization can be passed on without effort but not the culture.

Question 12.
Acculturation.
Answer:
Acculturation is a process in which people of two different cultures come in direct contact with each other and adopt most of the elements of each other. With this process of adoption of elements, many changes come in both cultures.

Question 13.
Cultural Pluralism.
Answer:
Cultural Pluralism is the next form of acculturation. When two cultures come in contact with each other then they transmit each other’s elements and slowly and slowly they accommodate with-each other. But in this process of accommodation one thing is important and that is these both cultures have the permission to maintain the elements of their own culture with the elements of other cultures. This condition is known as cultural pluralism.

Long Answer Type Question:

Question 1.
What is civilization? What is the difference between culture and civilization? Write in detail.
Answer:
Culture has two parts: material and non-material. In material culture, all those things are included that we can touch and see like table, chair, machine, book, building, car, plane, etc. In non-material culture, all those things are included which we cannot touch and see but can feel like thoughts, feelings, religion, rituals, ideals, etc. Material culture is concrete and non-material culture is abstract. We can take out the meaning of civilization from this. The useful things, tools, or organizations, with the help of which man has won over the nature and natural environment, are known as civilization. All these things are part of our culture. Civilization is known as the developed form of culture. In culture, all those things are included which man has achieved from the beginning till today. But civilization is that with which man becomes modern.

To know about the exact meaning of civilization let us See the definitions of civilization given by different sociologists.

• According to Fichter, “Civilized people are those people who are sedentary, literate and complex in their behavior.”
• According to Weber, “In civilization, all those useful material things and the methods of their formation and usage are included.”
• According to Ogburn and NimkofT, “Civilization may be defined as the later phase of the superorganic.”
  From this definition, it is clear that according to Ogburn and Nimkoff, civilization is the later and developed form of culture.
• According to. Giffen, “A culture becomes a civilization only when it possesses written language, science, philosophy, a specialized division of labor and a complex technology and political system.”
• According to Gillin and Gillin, “The more or complex and developed form of culture is civilization.”
• According to Maclver and Page, “Civilization is the mean of fulfilling needs.” Maclver says that civilization is the material culture and in this, all those things are included which are useful. In this way again according to Maclver, “Meaning of civilization is from all the mechanism and organization planned by man to control useful things and conditions of life.”

In this way, after looking at these definitions we can say that the developed form of culture is civilization and according to sociologists civilization is the higher level of culture. But here one problem comes and that problem is that Maclver and Page do not agree that only material things are part of civilization. According to him the development of intellectual, religious thoughts, feelings, ideas, etc. should also be part of the culture.

According to Maclver and Page, all these things which were made by man like machines, cars, banks, money, building, etc. are part of civilization but all these things are developed by keeping in mind the social conditions of society. That’s why the things like religion, art, philosophy, literature, feelings should also be included in culture. In this way according to him, material things made by man are civilization and man-made non-material things are culture.

Difference between Culture and Civilization:

1. Civilization always develops but not culture. If we compare ancient society and modern society then it will be clear that civilization develops but not the culture. We can say that development came in machines, cars, motors but we cannot say that religion, art, ideas are also developed which are part of non-material culture. We can’t say that views of today’s people, religion, ideals, feelings are more higher and developed than the people of earlier societies. Maybe not. So in this way we can say that civilization develops but not the culture.

2. Civilization can be adopted without any change but not the culture. Civilization can be adopted without any change but not the culture. We can transmit any machine, tractor, motor car from one generation to another but is it possible with ideas, norms, religion, etc? Maybe not. Ideas, religion, ideals cannot be adopted without any change because when we transmit ideas, religion, ideals to next-generation then the change is necessary. For example, there is a lot of difference between Indian Christians and European Christians.

3. Culture is internal and Civilization is external. In civilization, a number of external things are included and that’s why it is concrete. In culture, many internal things of humans are included like ideas, feelings, religion, ideals, ways of behavior. That’s why it is internal and abstract. Civilization expresses culture.

4. Civilization can be measured but not culture. Civilization can be measured but not culture. All the things coming into civilization are useful for us and that’s why they can be measured on the basis of specific units. But the things which are coming in a culture like ideals, religion, ways of behavior, feelings cannot be measured on any unit because we have not made any unit to measure them. In this way, we can say that civilization can be measured but not culture.

5. Civilization can be passed on without effort but not the culture. In civilization, all those things are included which ard used by a man. Because they are related with external life of man therefore there is no” need of any special effort to transmit it to next-generation or to another country. But culture is opposite to that. Culture is related to all those things which are not external but internal to’ us and no one can see them. If it will not be transmitted to others then these will come to an end with that man only. That is why to transmit them from one person to another we need special efforts. Civilization can be adopted without any special effort but culture cannot be adopted without any specific effort.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 4 Social Groups Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 4 Social Groups

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which of these is not the feature of Primary Groups?
(a) Stability
(b) Formal relations
(c) Individual relations
(d) Small in size
Answer:
(b) Formal relations

2. What is the social importance of Primary Groups?
(a) They play an important role in socialisation
(b) An individual gets security in primary groups
(c) They are the important means of social control
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

3. What does not exist in secondary groups?
(a) Primary control
(b) Competition
(c) Formal control
(d) Individualism
Answer:
(a) Primary control

4. Primary groups are ……………. in size.
(a) large
(b) indefinite
(c) small
(d) unlimited
Answer:
(c) small

5. Which of these is the feature of social groups?
(a) Own structure of the groups
(b) Group- an organisation of individuals
(c) Functional division of society
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

6. Family is a type of ………………
(a) Outgroup
(b) Secondary group
(c) Primary group
(d) Conscious group
Answer:
(c) Primary group

7. Which of these is large in size?
(a) Primary group
(b) Secondary group
(c) Conscious group
(d) Unconscious group
Answer:
(b) Secondary group

8. Which of these is a primary group?
(a) Peer group
(b) Play group
(c) Family
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

9. Which of these is a secondary group?
(a) Trade union
(b) Political party
(c) Group of scientists
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

10. What is necessary among the members of a primary group?
(a) Physical proximity
(b) Formal relation
(c) Social system
(d) Conflict
Answer:
(a) Physical proximity

11. Which of these groups is quite helpful in socialisation?
(a) Reference groups
(b) Horizontal groups
(c) Secondary groups
(d) Unconscious groups
Answer:
(c) Secondary groups

Fill in the Blanks:

1. ……………. gave the classification of In group and Out group.
Answer:
Summer

2. …………….. is an important example of In group.
Answer:
Family

3. The concept of reference group was given by ………………
Answer:
Robert Merton

4. Members of a group have ……………. feeling.
Answer:
We

5. Groups that are quite close to an individual are known as ……………… groups.
Answer:
primary

6. Membership of …………….. group is taken when required.
Answer:
secondary

7. …………… groups have a formal organisation.
Answer:
Secondary

True/False:

1. Group of people, who have relations among them, is known as a social group.
Answer:
True

2. There is no need for relations in groups.
Answer:
False

3. The Classification of primary and secondary groups is given by cooley.
Answer:
True

4. There is no physical proximity in primary groups.
Answer:
False

5. Membership of secondary groups is taken to achieve certain goals.
Answer:
True

6. Formal relations are there in secondary groups.
Answer:
True

7. Close relations are there in primary groups.
Answer:
True

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
What do we call if 10 persons stand together at a place?
Answer:
It will be just aggregate of people.

Question 2.
What is group?
Answer:
Aggregate of individuals who have social relations among them is known as group.

Question 3.
What is necessary for a group?
Answer:
Relations between humans are necessary to become a group.

Question 4.
What is the importance of group?
Answer:
Group fulfills all the needs of individuals.

Question 5.
Give one definition of social group.
Answer:
According to Maclver, “By group we mean any collection of human beings”.

Question 6.
Who used the term ‘Reference Group’?
Answer:
H.H. Hyman was the first to use the term ‘Reference Group’.

Question 7.
Who gave the classification of primary and secondary groups?
Answer:
This classification was given by Charles Herton Cooley.

Question 8.
What type of relations are there in primary groups?
Answer:
Primary groups have close, intimate and informal relations.

Question 9.
Give any feature of primary groups.
Answer:
People have physical proximity. They are small in size and permanent.

Question 10.
Give examples of primary groups.
Answer:
Family, neighourhood, play groups are the examples of primary groups.

Question 11.
What are secondary groups?
Answer:
Such groups whose membership is taken to achieve certain objective is known as secondary group.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Social Group.
Answer:
In Sociology, a group is a collection of similar people who have relations among them based on action-reaction, common objectives, personal interests etc. They are very much connected with each other.

Question 2.
Definition of Social Group.
Answer:
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one another, they may be said to constitute a social group.”

Question 3.
Meaning of we-feeling.
Answer:
Members of a group have we-feeling among them and as a result, they help each other. That’s why a feeling of affinity develops among them and they protect each other’s interests.

Question 4.
Similarity of behaviour in group.
Answer:
Members of a social group have similarity of behaviour among them because they have common ideals, habits, views etc. So, their behaviour is quite similar to each other and they never work against each other.

Question 5.
Cooley’s classification of Primary Groups.
Answer:
Charles Herton Cooley gave three types of primary groups:

• Family
• Play Group
• Neighbourhood.

Question 6.
What are primary groups?
Answer:
The groups which are quite close to us, in which we interact on daily basis and with which we have physical proximity are known as primary groups. These are small in size and have informal relations.

Question 7.
Give one feature of primary groups.
Answer:
Primary groups are small in size so people know each other very well. People have regular contacts and they have close and informal relations among them. It greatly affects their relations.

Question 8.
What are secondary groups?
Answer:
These groups are large in size. People do not have physical proximity. They hardly know each other personally and formal relations exist among them. These are known as secondary groups.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Meaning of Social group.
Answer:
The meaning of Social group is the contact and relation of one person with other people. If some persons will stand at one place then they cannot be called as a group because there is one conscious condition in the group. In this only physical proximity is not there but mutual feeling and relations are also necessary and members should have commonness, common consciousness and common interests are necessary.

Question 2.
Name the book of Cooley and his classification of the group.
Answer:
Charles Horton Cooley has written a book called ‘Social Organization’ and in this book, he has classified groups in two parts:

• Primary groups: Members have closed and informal relations in them.
• Secondary groups: Members have formal relations in them.

Question 3.
Classification of Sumner of Social group.
Answer:
Sumner has written his book ‘Folk Ways’ and has given the classification of the group in this way.

• In group and we group: These are those groups of which person is the member and he thinks them as his group like my city, my home etc.
• Outgroup and the group: It is that group of which person is not the member and whom he thinks to be external like other’s house, other’s community, other’s country etc.

Question 4.
The elements of a social group.
Answer:

• The similarity of aims. Members of these groups are tied with each other to attain the common aims of the group.
• Two or more than two individuals. In a group collection, two or more two groups exist. A person cannot make a group.

Question 5.
Classification of groups given by Dwight Sanderson.
Answer:

• Voluntary group. Voluntary groups are those groups in which a person takes membership according to his wish and whenever he wants, he can leave membership of this group.
• Involuntary group. Involuntary groups are those groups in which a person cannot select himself. It means that this group is not according to the wish of men like family, caste, race etc.
• Delegate group. In these groups, a person takes part as the representative of the people.

Question 6.
Primary Group.
Answer:
According to Cooley, “By primary groups, I mean those characterized by intimate face to face association and cooperation. They are primary in several senses but chiefly in that they are fundamental in forming the social nature and ideals of the individual. The result of intimate association is a certain confusion of individualities in a common whole, so that one’s very self, for many purposes of least, is the common life and purpose of the group. Perhaps the simplest way of describing this wholeness is by saying that it is a ‘fae. It involves the sort of sympathy and mutual identification for which ‘we’ is the natural expression.

Question 7.
Importance of Primary groups.
Answer:

• Primary groups play an important role in the process of socialization of man.
• A man comes to know about himself in the primary group.
• They are very important in the personality development of an individual.
• Individual gets protection only in these groups.
• Primary groups are the important base of social control.
• The psychological needs of an individual are also fulfilled in these groups.
• Members of these groups are freely related to each other.

Question 8.
Secondary Groups.
Answer:
In modern society, the needs of the persons have been increased up to the extent that man cannot fulfil his needs by becoming members of the primary groups alone. He has to take membership of other secondary groups. The aim of a person is to achieve his objective. Formal relations exist in them and they are large in size. These are known as secondary groups,

Question 9.
Characteristics of Secondary groups,
Answer:

• The area of these groups is wide because the number of members of these groups is quite big.
• These groups have been made to achieve any specific purpose.
• Members have indirect relations in secondary groups.
• Formal organization is there in these groups and some specific rules have been made for these groups.
• Relations in these groups are formal and indirect.
• Membership is optional and a man can leave his membership at any time.

Question 10.
Importance of Secondary groups.
Answer:

• Secondary groups satisfy different needs.
• These groups develop the personality of an individual.
• These groups contribute to social progress.
• Secondary groups make the outlook wider.
• They are helpful in cultural development.

Question 11.
Out Group.
Answer:
People generally use the term ‘They group’ to denote out-group. These are the groups of which an individual is not the member and consider them unknown or out-group. Generally, while living in society, an individual is associated with many members and he considers them as in-groups. But the group with which he is not connected is out group for him. So we can say that the out-groups are other groups with which one is not directly attached. The organisation of such groups is quite loose and unorganised. In comparison to in groups, such groups are of no importance for him. These groups are versal and exist everywhere.

Question 12.
Membership Group.
Answer:
If we need to understand the meaning of the reference group, we need to understand the meaning of the membership group. An individual is a member of any group and he participates in its activities by considering it as his own group. This group is his membership group. Everyone is a member of any group and as a member of this group, he considers it as his own. He even grasps the group’s ideas, values etc. He even starts to consider himself as an indispensable part of this group. His every activity is according to the values of this group. Values, ideals of the group become a part of his identity and while evaluating others, he keeps such ideals in mind. In this way, he is a member of this group.

Question 13.
Reference Group.
Answer:
An individual is a member of any group and this group is a membership group for him. Sometimes it is observed that his behaviour is not according to the values of his membership group but is according to the ideals, values of any other group. Here the question arises that why is this so? As a result, the concept of a reference group came into being. Actually, most individuals are influenced by the ways, values, ideals of any other group. He tries to grasp the values, ideals of the other group and even starts behaving according to this group. He is not a member of this group but many parts of his behaviour are according to that group. Sociologists call it a reference group. That other group that influences our behavioural pattern is a reference group for us. An individual regulates every part of his life according to the ideals of his reference group.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What are Social groups? What are their features?
Answer:
Meaning of Social Group: See Textual Question IV-(1).

Characteristics of a Group:

1. Feeling of Unity: A group can be maintained if the feeling of unity will exist among the members of a group. Because of this feeling, they understand each other. The feeling of cooperation is produced among them. If this feeling of unity will not be there among them then that will not be a group but will be just a collection of people.

2. We feeling: Members of a group help each other if any need arises and with this, we feeling increases. They also protect their own interests by helping each other. With this, the sense of unity also increases among them.

3. Social relations: The most important feature of a group is that its members have mutual social relations. These relations are permanent and come out of the result of their mutual interactions.

4. Membership: Group cannot be made with one person only but the group can be made with two or more than two people. In some groups, membership is limited like in a family where membership is limited only to wife, husband and their children. No other person can be included in this. That’s why the size of the group also depends upon the number of its members.

5. Division of status and role. Group status and roles have been generally divided because of which every member has its role and status in the group. For the functions of the group, some written and non-written rules are also there and the group works according to those rules. Yet some quarrels are also there among the members for their personal interests but they also have some quantity of cooperation which is a special characteristic of the group.

6. Social control. It is necessary for a group to control and regulate the behaviour of its members. Every group has its own traditions, rules which have to be obeyed by every person. If anyone tries to break them then he is punished by the group.

7. Closeness. The relations of members of a group are so close that they have interaction among them. It means that members of the group are closely related to each other. Because of this closeness, they have mutual interaction among them because of which relations increase among them. Members of the group are affected by these relations also.

8. Similar ideas. There is a feeling of closeness among the members of the group. They don’t have the feeling of personal welfare and they are doing joint efforts for the attainment of common objectives. With this, the organization of the group also exists. They have some equality in their outlook and thoughts and this equality of thoughts is also the base of their ideas.

Classification Of Groups:

Question 2.
What do you know about the Classification of Groups? Write in detail. Answer: Many sociologists have tried to classify the groups on the basis of their own points of view. According to Cuber, “Sociologists have developed a great deal of effort to the different problems of classifying groups into types. At first thought, it would seem easy to do but perhaps after further reflection, it will be found to represent numerous difficulties. These difficulties are so great, in fact, that at present we have no overall systematic classification of groups which is entire, acceptable to all sociological scholars.” Different sociologists classify groups on different bases. Some have been classified on the basis of religion, some on an economic base and some on the basis of entertainment.

Some of these types are given below.

A. Charles Horton Cooley, in his book “Social Organization”, has classified groups in two parts and these are:

1. Primary Group
2. Secondary Group

In the Primary group, close and direct relations are there and in Secondary groups, indirect and artificial relations are there.

B. Sapir has classified groups on the basis of physical closeness and common aims ‘and these are:

1. Family
2. Racial group
3. Agricultural group
4. Conflicting group

C. Sumner has classified groups in his book ‘Folk Ways’ and these are:

1. In-group
2. Out-group

In,- In-group we feeling and community welfare feeling is there. Its size is also small. In the out-group feeling of individualism is there. Man is not a member of this group and their size is also big.

D. Sorokin has also classified it in two parts and these are:

1. Horizontal group
2. Vertical group

In Horizontal groups; groups of big size can be included like country, political party, cultural organization, religious organization etc. In the vertical group, man is related to his achieved status by the horizontal group. That’s why he is one part of the Horizontal group.

E. Maclver and Page have also classified it and their classification is:

1. on the basis of size
2. on the basis of intimacy
3. on the basis of interest
4. on the basis of organization
5. on the basis of duration.

F. In his book ‘Cultural Sociology’, Gillin and Gillin has classified group and his classification is:

1. on the basis of blood relations
2. on the basis of physical features
3. on the basis of area
4. on the basis of duration
5. cultural group

G. Classification given by George Dawson is given below:

1. Unsocial groups
2. Pseudo-social groups
3. Anti-social group
4. Pro-social group

H. Dwite Sanderson has divided the group into three parts:

1. Voluntary group
2. Involuntary group
3. Delegate group

A voluntary group is a group in which a man includes himself voluntarily. It depends on him that of which group he should be a member of. An involuntary group is that in which a man’s wish is of no value and he cannot select these groups. For example; family, caste etc. In the delegate group, he includes himself as the representative of the people.

I. Charles A. Ellwood, in his book ‘Psychology of Human Society’ has classified the group into two parts:

1. Voluntary and involuntary
2. Institutional and non-institutional.

In the first type of group family, city, political party, a religious group generally come. In institutional groups, he has included permanent groups like schools, religious institutions etc. In non-institutional groups, he has taken crowds as this type of group.

J. Giddings has divided groups into two parts:

1. Genetic group %
2. Congregate group.

Membership of man in the genetic group is based on his birth and the membership of the congregate group is used on the will of the members. He can leave its membership according to his wish.

K. Miller has classified the groups into two parts:

1. Horizontal group
2. Vertical group.

Horizontal groups are big like country, political parties etc. In vertical groups, small groups are included like an economic group. This group is also a part of the horizontal group. That’s why man is a member of both groups.

L. Tonnies has classified Social groups into two parts:

1. Communities
2. Associations.

M. Park and Burges have also given the classification of group:

1. Territorial group
2. Non-territorial group.

Question 3.
What do you mean by Primary Groups? Explain their features.
Answer:
Meaning of Primary Groups: See Textual Questions IV-(2).

Characteristics of Primary Groups:

1. Physical proximity among members. It is necessary for any primary group that people should have physical proximity among them and that they should sit together. This physical proximity creates an exchange of thoughts among them and people start to understand each other. Cooperation and love increase with the daily meetings, sitting with each other and talking to each other. That’s why close relations are also there among them. If they are equal in position, occupation, gender, caste and age then more closeness can be established.

2. There is stability among these groups. Primary groups are stable in nature. For example, the family in which the child takes birth lives for the whole life. This life of relation also exists in the neighbourhood. That’s why these groups are more stable. These groups have not been made for any specification. When new friends are included in these groups then they become unstable.

3. They are limited in size. Primary groups are limited in size and that’s why their relationships are very close in nature. The less no. of people in the group will increase the understanding capacity of different members. For example when a teacher teaches to a class with less few students then he knows every child personally. In the same way, if more students are there in class then the closeness of teacher with students will be less. Except this we can take the example of joint family. In this type of family, closeness is very less but in the nuclear family, family members have personal and close relations because of less numbers. Limited size always increases closeness and feeling of cooperation. That’s why because of small size in primary groups members are closely related to each other.

4. They have limited self-interests. In primary groups aim of the welfare of group is always kept as primary base. It means that*the interest of the group is kept important. For example, there is no feeling of personal selfishness among the members of the family. If feelings of selfishness will be developed then the family will be disintegrated. Every member of the family works for the welfare of the family and its members. Sometimes in this type of group members have to sacrifice their individual interests because group is not established for a specific purpose. That’s why there are very limited self-interests in primary groups.

5. They have similarity of background. Because of similarity of background there exists some exchange of ideas among people. Members understand each other. If there will be any difference of culture and ideals then even on this base, relations will be at another level. More difference will decrease mutual relationships and less difference will lead to more understanding and strengthening of group.

6. They have mutual cooperation among them. Members of the primary group generally have feeling of mutual cooperation. That’s why if they are less in number even then they move forward with the community feeling. It is so because he thinks that welfare of the group is his welfare. For example every member of the family works for each other’s welfare. Sometimes even after a lot of sufferings a person cooperates with others. It means that a person never thinks about his personal profit but he thinks of collective profit.

Question 4.
Explain in brief the importance of Primary Groups.
Answer:

(1) Primary groups play an important role in the process of socialization of man. First of all man comes in contact with society because of these groups as man depends upon these groups to fulfil his basic needs. According to Kingsley Davis, “The complex process of socialization is that it is handled in those concrete groups- notably the family and the play group-where an emphasis is placed on the conditions and the qualities of primary association.”

(2) Man comes to know about his self in primary group and he gets basic education with the help of members of primary group.

(3) These groups are also very important in the personality development of an individual. Behaviour of the members of these groups always affects an individual. In the friendship type atmosphere of primary groups personality of individual generally develops. In these groups only, man gets many qualities of love, cooperation, sympathy, toleration etc. These qualities help him to become a good citizen of society. In these groups only, man gets norms, values, ideals, traditions of group.

(4) An individual gets protection only in these groups. Members of these groups accept other members’ as a part of the group and help each other whenever any need arises. When child takes birth then he feels protected under the love and affection of family members. A child expresses his views crudely only in primary groups.

(5) Primary groups are the main base of social control. All humans are different by nature. If they will live without any control then the whole structure of the society will be destroyed. That’s why society controls its members. In primary groups an individual learns to live in control which is very helpful for the society. To accept the norms of family, respect of elders, to live under rules, to love everyone, to accept the culture of the family all these things he learns under the effect of these groups. When these qualities are developed in an individual then he contributes properly in the functions of society.

(6) Psychological needs of an individual are also fulfilled in these groups. Man learns to live with others only by living in the main primary groups like family, play group and neighbourhood.According to Maclver and Page, “It is the group through which, as playmates and comrades we first give creative expression to our social impulses. It is the breeding ground of our moves, the nurse of our loyalties. It is the first and generally remains the chief focus of our social satisfaction.”

(7) Members of primary groups are freely related with each other. They don’t have any type of formal pressure. The development of self in an individual is only because of these groups. Man gets mental satisfaction only in these groups. Because of the relations of these groups man is motivated to do many functions. Members of primary groups save its member to go in a wrong way. Man starts to feel that he is not alone and others are with him who will help him when any need arises. This feeling helps him to do more efforts. Co-operation is also an important feature of these groups.

Question 5.
What do you mean by Secondary Groups? Explain their features or characteristics.
Answer:
Meaning of Secondary Groups: See Textual Questions-IV-(2).
Characteristics of Secondary Groups

(1) Humans have indirect relations. Members of secondary groups have indirect relations among them. The process of cooperation is developed indirectly. Members of these groups don’t know each other. Their function is to do the duty and to do their role; for example, thousands of persons work in a factory. The man just works for the pay and even sometimes he is hardly aware of the fact that who is the owner of the factory. They are indirectly related to each other by doing different functions. They play different roles for the attainment of any objective.

(2) They are large in size. Secondary groups are large in size. Membership of people is not definite. They are scattered everywhere. For example members of any political party are scattered everywhere in the country. Except this many other organizations are also there where members are scattered everywhere. Now the needs of a man have increased and he cannot fulfil these needs by living only in primary groups. That’s why he solves his problems by taking membership of these groups. He even uses letters, telephone, telegrams also for his objectives.

(3) They have a formal organization. Some specific rules are generally made for the formation of secondary groups and man has to obey these rules. That’s why the problems of these groups are generally solved by experts. It means that the work of a secondary group is done in an organized way. Man gets status and role according to his ability and qualification. If anyone wants to join these groups then he cannot work according to his wish. For example, if anyone does job in any office then he needs to obey the orders of his officers. He needs to obey rules of the government. In this way we can say that secondary groups have a formal organization.

(4) They have formal and impersonal relations. The mutual relations among individuals are generally formal. They don’t have any impact of primary groups. Man does his work, obeys the rules, gets his pay and still they don.’t know even other employees of their office; for example, when we go to any bank, meet the clerk, do our work and come back. We are not related with any part of the life of that clerk. We have impersonal relations in these groups.

(5) People have option of membership. Membership of secondary group depends upon the will of an individual because these groups have been developed to fulfil any special objective. It means that every person is not the member of every secondary group; for example there are many clubs in our society. When any person wants then only he becomes the member of that group. It is also not necessary that he should be the member of every club. In this way these groups are optional. Man can leave their membership after the achievement of his objectives.

(6) They have active and inactive members. Size of secondary groups is very big. Members of these groups don’t have personal relations because of which all members of the group do not take part in all the activities of the group. For example whenever any function is there then there are many members who take part in the function. Some members do a lot of work and some just become members of the group. This type of members just give fees for their membership.

Question 6.
What is the importance of Secondary Groups?
Answer:
(1) These satisfy different needs. In modern times man cannot fulfil his basic needs by just depending upon primary groups. Man’s needs are increasing day by day. These needs are just not related with area but are related with many area. That’s why for the fulfilment of these needs secondary groups are developed. Every one wants to establish his relations in every sphere so that whenever any need arises his works should be done. That’s why he wants to become the member of these groups.

(2) These groups develop the personality of an individual. Secondary groups help in increasing capacity and personality of an individual. In the earlier societies man was limited to the four walls of the house. It was necessary for an individual to adopt his father’s occupation. Except in this children were under the control of the elder members of the society. They were unable to do any work of their own wish. But with the passage of time secondary groups were formed. Man came out of the four walls of his house and started to develop his personality and qualification. He got full freedom to show his qualities. He was unable to do progress in primary groups. That’s, why secondary groups have developed his personality and increased his level of living.

(3) These groups contribute in social progress. Social progress was done not only with technological and industrial revolution but was done when man started to join secondary groups: Man came out of his house and started to fulfil his needs. Man got that type of atmosphere in which he started to use his capabilities. Progress of man now depends upon his ability. Man wishes to move farward which is very helpful in social progress.

(4) With these outlook becomes wider. Man is connected with a special place because of his membership of a primary group. His membership of primary groups is permanent. That’s why they are small in size. Every one takes care of his interest. For example member of family, play group or neighbourhood only protects his interests. With this type of outlook, area of primary groups is very tight because members only think of their limited interests. On the other hand members of secondary groups think of everywhere. For example, members of secondary groups are related with different castes, religions, classes etc. Members of secondary group’are also affected by customs, traditions, rules etc. They are quite different from primary group. That’s why people have liberty to make relations any where with any one. Because of common interests they work without any discrimination and toleration is also there in the members of these groups.

(5) They are helpful in cultural development. In secondary groups individuals are related with different background but they have to work jointly at one place. For example when they are working in a factory or office then because of formal cooperation cultural exchange also takes place between them. Every one starts to accept each other’s cultural traits. With this cultural development is also there. Except this whenever any new invention comes in any country then other countries also accept that invention. With this cultural mixture also came into being.

Question 7.
Differentiate between Primary and Secondary groups.
Answer:
(1) Difference on the basis of size. Primary groups are small in size and area is also limited. In this group membership is limited to some members. For example membership of a man in family, playground and neighbourhood is limited to a certain extent. Because of small size mutual relations are also close in nature. Small size also increases elements like love, cooperation, sympathy etc.

On contrary to this secondary groups are large in size. Its membership is very wide. They are connected with each other even if they are scattered everywhere. Because of the largeness of area, the relations among members are formal and non¬personal. They are large in size because they are related with the different needs of man. Anyone can become their member for his needs and can leave them after the attainment of his objective. In this way, we can say that primary groups are small in size and secondary groups are big in size.

(2) Difference on the basis of type of relationship. In primary groups, relationships between members are direct and personal. In these groups, members meet each other daily and because of this nothing is hidden between them. They talk to each other openly without any fear and exchange every type of idea. Even they share their sufferings. That’s why in these groups, the word ‘We’ is used instead of ‘My’. In this way in these groups, members have direct, personal and loveable relations among them and they overlook small things.

Mutual relations among members in Secondary groups are indirect. Members are scattered everywhere. They contact each other with the help of means of communication like Letters, Telephone, Press, Radio, T.V. etc. Members of this group don’t know each other in every aspect but they know only one aspect of another person with which they are related. They hardly know about each other’s sufferings and sorrows. In these, they know each other only for their interests.

(3) Difference on the basis of kind of cooperation. Members of primary groups are having collective cooperation. They directly cooperate with each other. They collectively take part in the processes like playing, working, sitting etc. For example, all members of the family cooperate with each other for the development of family. Sometimes even they sacrifice their own interest for the sake of the interests of the family. They don’t have any feeling of competition among them. Everyone contributes towards each other’s interests. In this way the feeling of cooperation connects each other.

In secondary groups members cooperate just for the sake of their own interests because these groups are formed for any specific purpose. In these formal cooperation exists. For example, if students, teachers, principals, peon etc. cooperate with each other then this cooperation is under certain written rules. Any officer orders his clerks under certain rules and clerks have to obey those rules. If they will not obey then they can be thrown out of their job. That’s why a formal type of cooperation exists in these groups.

(4) Difference on the basis of the status of individuals. In primary groups status of members depends upon their birth and family. It means that he gets the status of that family in which he is born. For example, man gets status of father, mother, grandfather, grandmother etc. only in the family. In this man gets ascribed status. In secondary groups, a person’s status is according to his work. It means that the way in which he does his work, he gets status of that kind. For example, man gets different status when he performs different roles of doctor, engineer, clerk, teacher etc. Man can get higher status from lower-status only by hard work. Status of man in this depends upon his abilities.

(5) Difference on the basis of duration. The duration of mutual relations in the members of primary groups is very lengthy. If you will live separate from any one then relations will be decreased and if you will live together for a long time then relations will be strengthened and proximity will increase. By meeting daily, sitting together and by exchanging of ideas mutual relations will definitely be increased. More togetherness, more proximity will be there. So long duration of relations is there in its members. In secondary groups there is no limit of their duration. It can be less and can be more. Man can become a member only for the duration of time until he achieves his objectives. It means that the duration of time is related with the achievement of objectives. With the achievement of objectives, man can cancel its membership.

(6) Difference on the basis of type of background. In primary groups, members have the same background. According to Maclver and Page, “There is thus a level on which every group must dwell, and the person who is too far above or below it, disturbs the process of group participation.” For example family, neighbourhood and playgroups are permanent because of the same background. They know everything about each other because of which love can be maintained.

In secondary groups, members are related with different backgrounds. These groups are formed for any specific motive. A person becomes a member of that group, which can fulfil his needs. That’s why members are coming from different backgrounds. So the difference is also there on the type of their background.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 3 Society, Community and Association Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 3 Society, Community and Association

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1.
Who said this: “Man is a social animal.”?
(a) Maclver
(b) Weber
(c) Aristotle
(d) Plato
Answer:
(c) Aristotle.

Question 2.
What is the need of similarities and differences for the formation of society?
(а) To make relations
(b) For social progress
(c) To take forward society from demographic point of view
(d) All of these.
Answer:
(d) All of these.

Question 3.
According to Marx, which was the first historical society?
(a) Early communism
(b) Feudal
(c) Slave
(d) Capitalist.
Answer:
(a) Early Communism.

Question 4.
Why an individual makes relations with others?
(a) To fulfil his needs
(b) To achieve his objectives
(c) To save himself from other’s selfish interests
(d) All of these.
Answer:
(d) All of these.

Question 5.
Man and society are considered ………… to each other?
(a) against
(b) complementary
(c) equal
(d) none of these.
Answer:
(b) complementary.

Question 6.
Which of these is available in society?
(a) Equality
(b) Cooperation
(c) Conflict
(d) Cooperation and Conflict.
Answer:
(d) Cooperation and Conflict.

Question 7.
An organisation of individuals formed to achieve common objectives ………..
is known as
(a) a society
(b) a class
(c) a group
(d) an organisation.
Answer:
(a) a society.

Question 8.
Which of these is not a community?
(a) People of Kerala in Delhi
(b) People born in USA
(c) Trade union movement
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(d) None of these.

Question 9.
Society is the web of …………
(a) Social norms
(b) Mutual relations
(c) Individual relations
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(b) Mutual relations.

Question 10.
What is the relation between an individual and society?
(a) Man is social by nature and he cannot live alone
(b) Man lives in society to fulfil his needs
(c) Society makes personality of an individual
(d) All of these.
Answer:
(d) All of these.

Fill in the Blanks :

1. Society is made up of ………….
2. Community develops automatically with the ………….. of people.
3. …………… is established deliberately to achieve certain goals.
4. Membership of …………… depends upon one’s wish.
5. Society is …………… in nature.
6. Totem is of great importance in …………. society.
7. Membership of is …………… formal.

Answer:

1. social relations
2. interactions
3. An association
4. association,
5. abstract
6. tribal
7. association.

True/False:

Question 1.
Membership of society depends upon one’s wish.
Answer:
False

Question 2.
Society is made up of social relationships.
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Community develops automatically.
Answer:
True

Question 4.
Association is ‘deliberately formed.
Answer:
True

Question 5.
Membership of association is informal.
Answer:
False

Question 6.
Language is of great importance in human society.
Answer:
True

Question 7.
An institution is a system of norms to achieve certain objectives.
Answer:
True.

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
Who says that the group of persons, is society ?
Answer:
A common man says that the group of persons is society.

Question 2.
If co-operation between the members of society comes to an end, what will happen ? , .
Answer:
If co-operation between the members of society comes to an end, society will also come to an end.

Question 3.
On what factor is society based ?
Answer:
Society is based on social relations.

Question 4.
Who said, “Society cannot move without similarities and differences.” ?
Answer:
These words are of Westermarck.

Question 5.
In which society, totem is of great importance ?
Answer:
Totem is of great importance in tribal society.

Question 6.
Why is society abstract in nature ?
Anseer:
Society is a web of social relationships and relations are abstract which we can’t see. That’s why society is abstract in nature.

Question 7.
What is society ?
Answer:
In Sociology, society is the web of social relationships.

Question 8.
Give one characteristic of society.
Answer:
Society is based on relations. It is also based on similarities and differences.

Question 9.
What is the base of society ?
Answer:
Relations between individuals are the base of society.

Question 10.
What is Community ?
Answer:
Community is a group of people in a geographical area where they spend whole of their lives.

Question 11.
Do all the human groups are Communities ?
Answer:
No, they could be institutions or any other groups.

Question 12.
Give literal meaning of Community.
Answer:
The word community is derived from the Latin word ‘Communities’ which means things held in common or shared.

Question 13.
How does community develop ?
Answer:
Community develops automatically due to human interactions.

Question 14.
Is there any community feeling in community ?
Answer:
Yes, community feeling does exist among the community members

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 15.
What is Association ?
Answer:
When few individuals come together to form an association to achieve their objectives, it is known as association.

Question 1.
Society.
Answer:
The meaning of society is not by the aggregate of people but is by the web of relationships which exist among the people and with which people are connected with each other. When relations are formed by the people, society is formed.

Question 2.
Definition of Society.
Answer:
According to Morris Ginsberg, “Society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or mode of behaviour which mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them in behaviour.”

Question 3.
Two features of Society.
Answer:
(i) Society is based on relations. Society cannot be formed without the relations among the people.
(ii) Society also depends upon similarities and differences. Society cannot exist in their absence.

Question 4.
Abstractness.
Answer:
Society is abstract because it is a web of social relationships which we cannot see or touch. We can only feel them. Because we cannot touch them, that’s why society is abstract in nature.

Question 5.
Importance of language in society.
Answer:
Language is of great importance in the society because it is the best method to express our views and ideals. In the absence of language, we cannot establish relations with any one and then society cannot be established.

Question 6.
Community.
Answer:
When few individuals live in a group, in a particular geographical area, in an organised manner and spend whole of their lives without any particular motive, it is known as Community. We-feeling always exists in society.

Question 7.
Literal meaning of Community.
Answer:
Community is an English word. It is made up of two Latin words ‘Com’ whose meaning is to live collectively and ‘Munus’ which means making. So its meaning is to make collective living.

Question 8.
Meaning of Association.
Answer:
Association is based on particular motive and co-operation. When few individuals, for a particular objective, co-operate with each other and form an organisation, this, organised organisation is known as association.

Question 9.
Definition of Association.
Answer:
According to Gillin and Gillin, “An association is a group of individuals united for a specific purpose and held together by recognized or sanctioned modes or procedure and behaviour.”

Short Answer Type Questions 

Question 1.
Two definitions of Society.
Answer:
(i) According to Maclver, “Society is the system of usages and procedure of authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions of controls of human behaviour and of liberties. This everchanging complex system is called society. It is the web of social relationships.”
(ii) According to Giddings, “Society is the union itself, the organization is the sum of formal relations in which individuals are bound together.”

Question 2.
Characteristics of Society.
Answer:

1. Society is based on relationships.
2. Society depends on likeness and differences.
3. Humans of a Society are interdependent.
4. Society is abstract because it is the web of social relationships.
5. Most important feature of society is that it has the population.
6. Cooperation and struggle are must for society.

Question 3.
Relationship between Individual and Society.
Answer:
Greak philosopher Aristotle once said that man is a social animal. It means that the man lives in society and he is nothing without society. Until or unless he does not spend his life with other people, he remains at the lowest level of civilisation. Man needs to live a long life and for this, he is required to depend upon each other to fulfill his needs.

He needs to depend upon others for almost all of his needs ; like protection, food, education, other services etc. He alone cannot do any thing. With this, his existence is nothing without the society. They both are complimentary to each other and they are nothing without each other.

Question 4.
What is Community ?
Answer:
In simple words when some people are living jointly for a particular purpose then that is called a community. It is a concrete concept. Community is not established with conscious efforts. It also not takes birth but it develops and it develops automatically. When people are living in an area and are doing social processes then community develops automatically.

Community has its own geographical area where members are fulfilling their needs themselves. Members of a community fulfil their every type of need because members have mutual exchange. When people cooperate with each other to fulfil their needs then we-feeling comes in them.

Question 5.
Characteristics of Community
Answer:

1. Every community has we-feeling.
2. Members of the community have role feeling among them.
3. Members of the community depend upon each other to fulfil their needs.
4. Community is permanent and its members are not temporary but are permanent.
5. Members of the community spend their life in community.
6. Every community has its own geographical area in which it lives.
7. Community doesn’t have any specific motive. It comes out spontaneously.

Question 6.
Association.
Answer:
Association is based on cooperation. When some people are cooperating with each other for a specific purpose and make an organization then this organization is known as Association. Association has a definite purpose and anyone can leave it after the attainment of his objective.

Question 7.
Characteristics of Association.
Answer:

1. Association is a group of people.
2. Association is formed for the fulfilment of a specific aim and is established with a lot of thpughts.
3. Association takes birth and destroys.
4. Membership of an association is based on the wish of the person.
5. Membership of an association is formal.
6. Every association selects some of its office bearers. .
7. Every association has some definite rules.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define Society. Give its characteristics.
Answer:
Definitions of society given by different sociologists .are given below :

1. According to Maclver, “Society is the system of usages and procedures, of authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions of controls of human behaviour and of liberties. This ever-changing complex system we call society. It is the web of social relationships.”

2. According to Giddings, “Society is the union itself, the organization is the sum of formal’ relations in which individuals are bound together.”

3. According to Talcot Parsons, “Society may be defined as total complex of human relationships in so far as they grow out of action in terms of means and relationship intrinsic or symbolic.”

4. According to Cooley, “Scfciety is the complex of forms or processes each of which
is living and growing by interaction with the others, the whole being so unified that what takes place in one part affects all the rest.”

5. According to Green, “A society is a larger group to which any individual belongs.”

6. According to Reuter, “An abstract term that connotes the complex of interrelations that exist between and among the people.”

After looking at these given definitions we can say that these definitions are of two types.
The first type is of functional definitions and the second type is of structural definitions. From functional aspect we can define society as a web of groups in which people have complimentary relations, which help the people to do their functions of life and will help the people to fulfil their wishes by living with them. From structural aspect society is a social culture of customs, habits, institutions, wishes etc.

In this way society has been defined from functional and structural aspect that it has been made by mutual relationships of humans and with that it is a system or web, not only the collection of people.

1. Society is based on relationships. According to Maclver and Page, “Society is the web of social relationships.” It means that society is based on social relationships. Why the word Web’ is used here ? Because thousands of relationships exist in society. Just in one family more than 15 types of relations exist. From this we can imagine that how many types of relations are there in society.

Society is not just a collection of humans. For the formation of society some type of relations should be there. But here one” thing should be kept in mind that these relations should be complimentary. If these relations are not complimentary then society cannot be made. Social relations exist in every type of society and among all humans because the relations of humans Are based on mutual consciousness.

2. Society depends upon likeness and differences. Society depends both upon likeness and differences. Without them society cannot exist. Yet they both are opposite to each other but they cannot live without each other. Sometimes uniformity comes in society and sometimes differences come in -society and that’s why they are complimentary to each other.

Social relations can be established if there will be some type of uniformity in them because without this they cannot attract each other and society cannot be formed. Except this differences are also necessary.

3. Interdependence. For the,existence of society interdependence is a necessary element. It is necessary for humans to keep relations with other persons to fulfil their needs because it is not possible for every person to do all of his works. He has to depend upon others. The way in which man grows his dependence upon others also increases and his needs also start to increase. In this way interdependence is a necessary element of. society.

4. Society is abstract. Society is abstract because it is the web of relationships. We neither can see these relations and nor can touch them. We can only feel them. Because 4ve cannot touch them and that’s why they don’t have any concrete form. That’s ,why they are abstract. Because relations are abstract, that’s why the society made by relations is also abstract.

5. Population. The most important element of the society is humans. Without humans society cannot be made. If humans will not be there then who will establish relations and how society will be formed. Without the existence of humans, the existence of society is impossible. That’s why population is a necessary factor.

For population many things are required like availability of enough food, protection of population from every type of problem and the continuation of population and society because if the population will not continue then one day will come when everyone will come to an end. In this way without population, the existence of society is impossible.

6. Cooperation and conflict are a must for society. The way in which likes and differences are necessary for the existence of society, in that same way cooperation and conflict are also necessary for the existence of society. Cooperation is a necessary element for the formation of society. Humans live in society and they depend upon each other.

This interdependence is there only if there will be some cooperation among them. For the upbringing of a child many hands play an important role and it depends upon cooperation. Family runs if husband and wife cooperate with each other. In this way in every part of society cooperation is required. In the same way conflict is also necessary. To live man has to struggle with many forces and has to struggle in life.

Question 2.
What do you mean by association ? Explain it with definitions and characteristics.
Answer:
Man is a social animal and as a social animal he has some basic needs. Man does a lots of efforts to fulfil his basic needs. He does three types of efforts.

1. First effort is that he should fulfil his needs alone and without any one’s help. But in today’s modem age it is impossible to live alone and to fulfil all the needs alone.

2. Second way is that he should fulfil his needs by snatching things from others. But it is not possible to fulfil Ms needs by snatching things from the others because this way is non-social and while living in human society he cannot adopt this type of method.

3. The third and the best method is that man should fulfil his needs while living in the society by cooperating with others because this is the base of life. Association is also based on this co-operation. When some people cooperate with each other for a specific purpose and make an organization then this organized organization is known as association.

Association has a definite purpose and any one can leave it after the attainment of his objective. Natural and the social needs of man force him to five in society. Like animals, humans do not have just physical needs but they have other important social needs also which must be fulfilled. In this way when different persons of a society cooperate with each other to fulfil their needs then an association is formed.

Here one thing should be kept in mind that man can leave tMs association after the attainment of his objectives.

Definitions:
1. According to Bogardus, “An Association is usually a working together of people to achieve some purpose.”

2. According to Ginsberg, “An association is a group of social beings related to one another by the fact that they possess or have instituted in common an organization with a view of securing a specific end or specific ends.”

3. According to Gillin and Gillin, “An association is a group of individuals united for a specific purpose and held together by recognised or sanctioned modes or procedure and behaviour.”

From the given definitions it is clear that Association has three main bases:

1. Association is a group of people.
2. This organization is based on cooperation.
3. It fulfil? some of-our needs.

In this way association cannot fulfil all of our needs. In short when people cooperate with each other in an organized and thoughtful way for the attainment of any particular aim then an association is formed.

Characteristics of Association:
1. Association is a group of people. Association is established bysome persons because of which it is known as a group. In this way association is concrete because humans are concrete.

2. Thoughtful establishment. Association does not take place spontaneously like community. It is formed for the fulfilment of any specific aim and is established with a lot of thoughts.

3. Definite aim. Association has a definite aim. Association does not fulfil all the needs of our social life but it fulfils some of our needs and it protects the interests of its members.

4. Association takes birth and comes to an end. Nature of association is temporary because it is established for the attainment of some of our specific aims and after the attainment of those aims, need of association also comes to an end. That’s why it takes .birth and comes to an end.

5. Membership is based on wish. Association is a willful organization. Any one can become member of any association according to his wish and he can leave it at anytime. It is so because when man feels that association is useful for him then he takes its membership and when he feels that his hims are attained then he leaves

6. Formal membership. The membership of an association is formal. Whenever any person wants then he can take its membership and whenever he wants he can leave it but for this he has to resign from its membership. He has to give membership fee also.

7. Selection of office bearers. Every association selects some of its officers like a chairman, deputy chairman, secretary, cashier etc. for conducting and performing its functions. All these are selected for a specific period.

8. Every association has some definite rules. Every association makes some rules for doing its functions and every member has to work according to these rules.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 2 Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 2 Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1.
Who wrote the book ‘Das Capital’?
Answer:
(c) Marx.

Question 2.
Which of these is not directly related with Economics?
(a) Consumption
(b) Religious activities
(c) Production
(d) Distribution.
Answer:
(b) Religious activities.

Question 3.
What is the contribution of Sociology to History?
(a) History uses the material of Sociology
(b) History has included many Sociological concepts in its subject matter
(c) Social History studies sequal development and changes of any institution
(d) All of these.
Answer:
(d) All of these.

Question 4.
Whose words are these, “Society is the detailed form of society”?
(a) Maclver
(b) Aristotle
(c) Weber
(d) Durkheim.
Answer:
(b) Aristotle.

Question 5.
Which of these is the biological feature of human society?
(a) Ability to stand
(b) Developed brain
(c) Ability to speak
(d) All of these.
Answer:
(d) All of these.

Question 6.
What is the difference between Sociology and Economics ?
(a) Subject matter of Sociology is whole of society but study of Economics is confined to economic activities
(b) Outlook of .Sociology is social and of Economics it is economic
(c) Sociology studies the group but economics studies an individual
(d) All of these.
Answer:
(d) All of these.

Question 7.
What name Comte gave to his philosophy ?
(a) Idealism
(b) Positivism
(c) Experimentation
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(b) Positivism.

Question 8.
Which of these branches of Psychology is related with Sociology ?
(a) Social Psychology
(b) Economic Psychology
(c) Structural Psychology
(d) Cultural Science.
Answer:
(a) Social Psychology.

Question 9.
Sociology takes the help of to study historical facts.
(a) Economics
(b) History
(c) Political Science
(d) Anthropology.
Answer:
(b) History.

Question 10.
Which of these methods is used in Psychology ?
(a) Historical Method
(b) Comparative Method
(c) Experimental Method
(d) Structural Method.
Answer:
(c) Experimental Method.

Fill in the Blanks:

Question 1.
………….. called Sociology and Anthropology as twin sisters.
Answer:
Krober

Question 2.
There are areas of the study of Anthropology.
Answer:
two

Question 3.
………….. is related with the development of man.
Answer:
Anthropology

Question 4.
…………… stresses on the study of human events.
Answer:
History

Question 5.
Society is made up of …………..
Answer:
humans

Question 6.
…………. is related with production, consumption and distribution.
Answer:
Economics

Question 7.
studies the functions of state and government.
Answer:

True/False:

Question 1.
Astronomy is a natural science.
Answer:
True

Question 2.
Economics takes the help of sociology to understand social problems.
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Aristotle is known as the father of Political Science.
Answer:
True

Question 4.
Sciences can be divided into four parts.
Answer:
False

Question 5.
Outlook of Political Science is social.
Answer:
False

Question 6.
Inductive and deductive methods are used in Economics.
Answer:
True

Question 7.
Economics is related with production, consumption and distribution.
Answer:
True

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
With what does Anthropology relate ?
Answer:
Anthropology is related with evolution and development of individuals.

Question 2.
Which branch of Anthropology is related with Sociology ?
Answer:
Social and Cultural Anthropology is a branch of Anthropology which is related with Sociology. >

Question 3.
On whose study History gives stress ? .
Answer:
History stresses on the study of human experiences of the past.

Question 4.
What is society made up of ?
Answer:
Society is made up of humans.

Question 5.
Give examples of natural science.
Answer:
Chemistry, Astronomy, Physics, Biology etc.

Question 6.
Why Sociology depends upon History ?
Answer:
Sociology depends upon History to understand modern society.

Question 7.
What type of Science is History ?
Answer:
History is a concrete science.

Question 8.
With what Economics is related ?
Answer:
Economics is related with production, consumption and distribution.

Question 9.
Why does Economics take help of Sociology ?
Answer:
To understand social problems, Economics takes help of Sociology.

Question 10.
Which method is used by History ?
Answer:
History uses descriptive method.

Question 11.
Who is considered as the father of Political Science ?
Answer:
Aristotle is considered as the father of Political Science.

Question 12.
Who wrote the book ‘Arthashastra’ ?
Answer:
Arthashastra was written by Kautilya or Chanakya.

Question 13.
In how many parts can we divide Science ?
Answer:
Science can be divided into two parts-Natural sciences and Social sciences.

Question 14.
Name the branch of Sociology associated with History.
Answer:
Historical Sociology is a branch of Sociology associated with History.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Division of Science.
Answer:
In Science, we try to find new concepts and methods. That’s why we can divide science into two parts and these are :
(i) Natural Sciences
(ii) Social Sciences.

Question 2.
Natural Sciences.
Answer:
Natrual Sciences are the sciences which are related with nature and biological phenomenon about which they try to find new facts, concepts, theories etc., for example, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Astronomy etc.

Question 3.
Social Sciences.
Answer:
Social Sciences are the sciences which try to find concepts, facts and theories related with human society. In these scientific study of social life is done; for exmple, Economics, Political Science, Sociology, Anthropology etc.

Question 4.
History.
Answer:
History studies the past time of human society. It tries to understand and explain social life on the basis of past time events. It is mainly concerned with life and events of different kings, important years of their lives etc.

Question 5.
Economic Institutions.
Answer:
Economic institutions study economic aspects of humans. They study how the money can be produced, distributed and consumed. In simple words, all the economic activities of human society are studied by “economic institutions.

Question 6.
Political Science.
Answer:
Political Science is related with the political aspect of human s’oeiety. It studies origin of state, its development and features, organisation, system of government, other political institutions, associations, their functions etc.

Question 7.
Literal meaning of Sociology.
Answer:
Word ‘Sociology’ is made up of two words ‘Socio’ and ‘Logos’. Socio is a Latin word which means society and Logos is a Greek word which means science. So, the literal meaning of Sociology is science of society.

Question 8.
Methods used in Sociology and Economics.
Answer:
Economics uses Inductive method and Deductive method but Sociology uses a number of methods such as Observation, Interview, Schedule, Questionnaire, Case study, Sociometry method etc.

Short Answer Type Questions 

Question 1.
Division of Science.
Answer:
In Science we research for theories and methods and on the basis of this we can divide Sciences in two parts :
(а) Natural Sciences
(b) Social Sciences.

Question 2.
Meaning of Natural Sciences.
Answer:
Natural Science is that branch of science which is related with nature and biological phenomenon with which it tries to find the related facts and theories; for example, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Astronomy etc.

Question 3.
Meaning of Social Sciences.
Answer:
Social Sciences are those Sciences which find facts and theories related with human society. Scientific study of Social Life is also being studied in this; for example, Economics, Political Science, Anthropology, Sociology etc.

Question 4.
Relation of Sociology with other Social Sciences.
Answer:
All Social Sciences are not only different from each other from the point of view of their subject matter but they are also different from their outlook and point of view. But all the Social Sciences are studying the human society because of which we cannot differentiate one Social Science from another.

For example, Economics is related with economic problems but these economic problems are the one part of Society. That’s why we have to take help of other Sciences to find its solution.

Question 5.
How is Sociology the mixture of Social Sciences ?
Answer:
Sociology is known as the mixture of the other Social Sciences. It depends upon other Sciences for many things and sometimes it depends upon others to solve its problems. Every problem, which exists in Society, cannot be solved by just Sociology. That’s why* we can not differentiate Sociology from other Social Sciences. Sociology alone is unable to find solution of any problem. That’s why taking help of others is known as mixture of Social Sciences.

Question 6.
What is History?
Answer:
History studies the past time of human history. It also studies phenomenon occurred in past and tries to understand ideology of Social Life on the basis of that phenomenon. In this way it analyzes both the situations ‘what was’ ? And ‘How it happened’ ? In this way we can come to know about Social organization, customs, traditions etc. of human history.

Question 7.
Give difference between Sociology and History.
Answer:
These both Social Sciences study same subject matter from different point of views. History studies some specific phenomenon but Sociology finds rules of general phenomenon and explains their inter-relationships. Sociology uses comparative method but History uses descriptive method.

Sociology studies human groups but History gives emphasis on the study of human action. History is related with phenomenon of past but Sociology is related with the Society of present.

Question 8.
Sociology depends upon History. How ?
Answer:
Sociology takes helps of History to understand modern Society because we can get Social facts of ancient Society from History. To use historical method we need the matter of History because of which Sociology depends upon History. Different Social institutions change because they affect each other and to understand this change historical material helps us. Historical Sociology is a branch of Sociology with which we can understand social circumstances.

Question 9.
What is Anthropology ?
Answer:
Anthropology is made up of two Greek words ‘Anthropos’ and ‘Logy’. ‘Anthropos’ means human and the meaning of Logy is Science which means Science of Man. Subject matter of this Science is quite wide. That’s why it has been divided in three parts.

(i) Physical Anthropology. In this human physical features are being studied from which we can come to know about the origin, development and races of man.

(ii) Pre-historic Archaeology. In this branch the early part of human history is being studied about which we don’t have any written proof like by digging of ancient buildings.

(iii) Social and Cultural Anthropology. In this complete human society is being studied. In this every thing of one Society like economic system, political, religion, art etc. is being studied. Social Anthropology studies primitive society.

Question 10.
What is Psychology ?
Answer:
Psychology studies the individual behaviour and it uses Neuro glandular system to understand mental behaviour and processes of humans. In this the related factors of memory, intelligence, attitude, sympathy etc. are studied. Main centre of its study is human. That’s why it studies the behaviour of man.

Question 11.
Give relation between Sociology and Psychology.
Answer:
Actually the social phenomena are related with individual phenomenon and Society cannot be made with humans. We cannot differentiate man and society. Social relations, which exist in society, have been made by humans. Without society man is just like an animal. In this way they both are related with each other.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the relation of Sociology and Anthropology.
Or
How can you say that inspite of different from each other, Sociology and Anthropology are complementary to each other ?
Answer:
The source of origin of Sociology is History but the source of origin of Anthropology is Biology. If we look at the methods, subject matter of these two, then they are different from each other but their relation is very deep. They cannot be separated from each other. They take each other’s help for their existence. To understand both of these, let us study their subject matter so that we can understand their relation.

Sociology is the study of modern society. Sociology studies social relationships, social institutions, social groups and their inter-relations. With that Sociology also studies different parts of culture and many types of institutions of society.

The word Anthropology has been made by two Greek words ‘Anthropos’ whose meaning is human and ‘Logia’ whose meaning is science. So its literal meaning is science of humans. Anthropology is the science of man’.

Anthropology studies the origin and development of man from physical, cultural and social point of view. Scope of Anthropology is very wide.

That’s why it has been divided in three parts :
1. Physical Anthropology:
This part of Anthropology studies the physical features of man with which humans came into being and developed.

2. Pre-Historical Archaeology:
This part of Anthropology finds that part of history about which no written evidence is available. Digging up of old buildings, skeletons, ancient things come under this. With these physical proofs a light is thrown on the origin, development and the culture of man. In this way it tries to find human culture during ancient times.

3. Social and Cultural Anthropology:
It studies completely the human society. It studies everything of a society like economic, political, family system, religion, art, beliefs etc. It analytically does comparative study of contemporary structures, institutions and behaviour. Kroeber called these both as Twin Sisters. According to Malbet, “Sociology and Social Anthropology in their broadest sense are one and the same.”

According to Kluckhon, ’’The sociological attitude has tended towards the practical and present, the Anthropology towards pure understanding and the past.” According to Redfield, “Viewing the whole united states, one sees that the social relations between Sociology and Anthropology are closer than those between Anthropology and Political Science.”

The branch Of Anthropology, the Social Anthropology is very closely related with Sociology. Sociology studies social relationships, their forms, institutions, groups and processes and Anthropology studies ancient society, ancient human’s origin, development and culture.

From this given description it is clear that Anthropolgy studies the ancient societies. The meaning of ancient society is those groups which live in smaller geogrpahical area, less in numbers and who have less contacts with outer world and which use simple technique.

Contribution of Anthropology to Sociology. Sociology takes a lot of help from the study of Anthropology. Physical Anthropology, which studies groups and races, is used by sociologists to understand various institutions and systems. Exept this Sociologists have tried to understand social stratification on racial basis.

Except this Anthropology also tells us that institutions, system and organization of ancient society were very simple which helps Sociology to understand modern society. Anthropology has given material of origin of relation to Sociology.

In this \yay Sociology shows very keen interest in ancient society which is the subject matter of Anthropology. Sociology has borrowed some concepts of cultural area, cultural trait, cultural complexity, cultural lag etc.

from Anthropology and they are very useful for sociological study. That’s why a new branch Cultural Sociology has been developed. According to Samuel Koening,“Our present forms of social life, our customs, or ways of living have their roots in the past that one can best explain them by tracing them back to their sources.”

Contribution of Sociology to Anthropology. It’s not that only Sociology takes help from Anthropology, but Anthropology also takes help from Sociology. It is necessary for Anthropology to understand social interactions and relationships for the origin and development of culture which come in the area of Sociology. No society is without any culture and its origin depends upon interactions and relations.

One more contribution of Sociology to Anthropology is that the Anthropology has made many hypotheses on the basis of knowledge of modern societies to understand ancient societies which have given a lot of help to Anthropology to understand its subject matter. Anthropology has included some of the concepts and methods of Sociology in its own subject matter. Anthropology has studied the cultural and social facts which produce social solidarity.

Difference between Sociology and Anthropology :
1. There is a difference of subject matter between Sociology and Anthropology. Sociology studies social relations, organizations, social system etc. but Anthropology studies the entire society. It means that it studies every aspect of society like religious, political, economic, cultural etc. That’s why it is also known as science of social heritage because it takes care of culture.

2. Anthropology studies those cultures which are small, and static. But Sociology studies those cultures which are large in size and changeable in nature. On this base we can see that Anthropology grows very fast and is known as better than Sociology.

3. Anthropology and Sociology are different sciences. Anthropology studies man and his culture of ancient times. But Sociology studies same subject matter in modern system. In this way Sociology goes even in future but Anthropology keeps itself upto the limits of past.

4. The methods used by Sociology and Anthropology are also different. Anthropology uses participant observation and inductive method and Sociology uses survey, schedule, questionnaire, statistics methods.

5. Sociology is related with social relationship and Anthropology is related with the whole society. In this way there is a difference of scope between both of these.

Question 2.
Explain the relation between Sociology and Economics.
Or
Explain the relation between Sociology and Economics with their differences.
Answer:
Sociology and Economics are both interrelated and as well as different from each other. That’s why to know their relation and difference first of all it is necessary for us to understand the meanings of Sociology and Economics. In simple words, whatever economic activities are being done by a person, are being studied by economics.

Economics tells us that how a person can fulfil his unending demands or wishes with limited resources. Economic demands of a person are fulfilled by money.

That’s why the study of human behaviour related to production, distribution and consumption of money is being done by Economics. In this explanation, much emphasis is given to money but modern economists give more importance to humans instead of money. According to Dr. Marshall, “Economics is the study of activities of simple business of human life.”

In this way Economics studies money on one side and on the other side it also studies humans which are more important. Economics tries to find that how a person earns the money and how he spends that money. At another place Dr. Marshall has written that, “ Economics on one side is a study of wealth and on the other and more important side a part of the study of man.”

Sociology studies human institutions, relations, groups, traditions, folkways, values, mutual relations, system of relations, ideology and results and changes which come in them. Sociology studies the society which is the web of social relationships. Every economic activity of the the person is the result of interactions of humans.

With this, social relations and social system are also affected by economic activities. That is why to know about Social system, we should know about economic institutions and to know about economic activities we should know about social interactions. After looking at the meanings of Sociology and Economics we come to conclusion that both the sciences are related with society and its humans.

Sociology studies the social aspect of society and Economics studies the economic aspect of society. Person is related with both social and economic activities while living in society. Economist is related with economic conditions of a person and Sociologist is related with social conditions of that same person. According to Karl Marx, “Economic factors are responsible for change in society.”

Contribution of Sociology to Economics. Now we will see that how economists need the help of sociologists. Economics tells a person how to fulfill his unending wishes with limited means. Economist can help a person, if he knows about the social conditions of a person and to know about this he needs the help of a Sociologist.

For example, the problem of poverty. This problem is an economic problem. But the reasons behind the occurrence of this problem are social. Until or unless an economist is able to understand the social conditions, he cannot help us in solving that problem.

It means that our society is surrounded by many ideals which forced the person not to do any work like when caste system was prevailing in Indian society then every person used to adopt his hereditary occupation.

If he vas going against this rule, he was generally thrown out of the caste. In this way, we can see that the ties of caste system have been loosened but still persons of higher castes are feeling shy of doing any work. Another is that even today women are not allowed to come out of the house to work in interiors of India.

So after looking at the problem if any economist thinks that by giving money to poor people, this problem can be solved then it will be incorrect. We have to bring change in social conditions to eradicate poverty. We have to make new social ideals by eradicating old social ideals. So, from this given description it is clear that Economist cannot do anything without the help of Sociologists.

It means that they neither can bring social progress nor they can solve their problems. In this way we can say that economists depend upon sociologists for the study of their subject matter. So, we can say that every economic activity of a person is the result of social interactions. That’s why every economic activity can be understood by keeping it in social context. So, if we want to do economic progress of society or we want to make economic planning then we need to take care of social aspect of that society.

That’s why Economics depends upon Sociology. Contribution of Economics to Sociology. Sociology also takes a lot of help from economics. All the aspects of the society are affected by economic activities in modern society. Many famous sociologists like Max Weber, Karl Marx, Durkheim and Sorokin had studied the social sector after studying the economic sector.

Whenever any change came in society due to economic factors then our society was also affected by this. Whenever sociologist wants to study this why social relations of our society are breaking or why humans are adopting individualistic approach then he always studies the economic activities of that society.

After that he feels that the way in which the need of money in society is increasing, in that same way people are trying to get things which give them more facilities. With this the outlook of society also becomes capitalistic. Every person has to work hard to live in society.

That’s why joint families are disintegrating and person becomes individualistic. Except this Sociology also has to take help of Economics to study many social problems; for example, the problem of Drug addiction. . Because of this problem our young generation is weakening day by day.

The main reason of this problem is economic because the way in which people are earning more money with illegal means (smuggling), in that same way they are misusing that money. So, the problem of drug addiction is weakening our society. We have to check those illegal means of earning, to solve this problem so that the other related problems of dowry, drug abuse, gambling etc. can be eradicated. So, Sociology depends upon economics to solve these problems.

In modern times many new economic classes are coming forward like labourer class, capitalist class, consumer class, producer class etc. That’s why to understand the relation of these classes it is necessary for Sociology to understand the economic relations of these classes. To understand their economic relations Sociology needs the help of Economics.

Difference between Sociology and Economics. Sociology and Economics are very much related with each other and they both use each other’s rules and results. But still they are different from each other in many ways.

Their differences are given below :
1. Difference of Scope:
The Scope of Sociology-and Economics is different from each other. Sociology gives a clear picture of different sectors of society. That’s why the scope of Sociology is wide. But Economics is confined only to the study of economic sector of society. That’s why its scope is limited.

2. General and Specific:
Sociology is a general science because it studies every type of social phenomenon which are not related with one aspect of society but are related with the whole society. But Economics is a special science because it is confined only to the economic activities of society.

3. Different point of view:
Sociology is .related to understanding the social activities which exist in society and it studies the social problems. That’s why its point of view is social. On the other side, Economics is related with materialistic happiness of a person like how to earn more money, its distribution and consumption. That’s why its point of view is economic.

4. Difference in unit of study:
Unit of Sociology is group. It studies the behaviour of a person living in group. But on the other side Economics is related with study of economic aspect of a person. That’s why its unit is one person or human being.

5. Difference in methods:
Sociology and Economics both use different methods:
to study their subject matter because the subject matter of both is different. Sociology uses historical method, comparative method, sociometry method. Economics uses inductive method and deductive method.

Question 3.
Discuss the relations of Sociology and Psychology.
Or
What is the relation of Sociology and Psychology ? Explain it with differences.
Answer:
Sociology and Psychology both are deeply inter-related. They both study the behaviour of man. According to Cretch and Cretchfield, “Social Psychology is the science of behaviour of the man in the society.” In short, Sociology studies the social relations and Psychology studies mental relationships. Now we will see literal meaning of Social Psychology.

Social Psychology studies individual behaviour. It means that whatever effect of society is exerted on mental part, Psychology studies that effect. To understand individual behaviour it is not necessary to see its social circumstances but it is necessary to see Neuro Glandular system. Mind, Reflection, Learning, Love, Hatred, Emotions and these are mental processes which are actually studied by Social Psychology. Sociology studies, scientifically, these social processes.

Both these sciences are very much inter-related. According to Maclver, “Sociology in special gives aid tp Psychology just as Psychology gives special aid to Sociology.” According to Allport, “Social Psychology is the study of the behaviour of the individuals in their reactions with other individuals and the behaviour through which individuals stimulate one another in such situations.”

From this given description we can say that the base of scientific study of social phenomenon is Psychology and we can observe it directly. So, in this way they both are inter-related and that’s why a new branch of Psychology called ‘Social Psychology’ came into being. Contribution of Psychology to Sociology. In Sociology we study social relationships.

To understand social relationships, we need to understand human behaviour because the mental and physical needs of a man affect its relations with other human. Psychology studies these mental processes, thoughts, ideas of mind minutely.

To understand behaviour of man and society, Sociology needs the help of Psychology, For this a branch of Psychology, Social Psychology is very helpful which studies experiences, behaviour and personality of humans in the social context.

Sociologists are also of the view that psychological bases are very important to understand the changes of society. In this way we can say that to understand society we need to understand behaviour of man which is the work of Psychology.

Contribution of Sociology to Psychology. Psychology also depends on Sociology to understand human behaviour because behaviour of man is influenced by culture of society and Sociology gives knowledge of that culture.

Man is a social animal. Humans are more dependent upon parents and society than animal. While living in society and with the process of socialization, a number of qualities develop within individuals.

There are certain laws to live in society. Humans can learn these laws by living in society and these laws change with the passage of time and generations. Every culture develops a personality and this personality is the result of cultural experiences of childhood age.

To understand Political Science studies the origin and development of state, organization of state, administrative system of government and functions related with institution. It studies the groups and institutions related with political life of a person. Political Science studies the political life of a person and the related institutions.

It also studies the origin and development of state, characteristics, organization of state, government and its administrative system and the institutions related to state. In this way Political Science studies only political relations. On the other hand Sociology studies social relations, different forms of relations, groups, customs, norms, structures, institutions and their inter relations, mores, traditions, etc.

Political Science studies the politics means state and government and on the other side Sociology studies the main agencies of social control i.e. political institutions. These both sciences study the whole society. Sociology looks at the state as political institution and Political Science looks it in the form of law and organization of state.

On the basis of given description we can say that Political Science is related with study of the institutions which exist in state, government and its organization but Sociology is related with study of institutions of state. But the scope of Political Science is a part of whole society which is being studied by the Sociology. In this way both these are interdependent.

The Contribution of Sociology to Political Science. Political Science considers a person as a political person but it never tells us that how and when he becomes political. For this Political Science takes help of Sociology.

If Political Science takes help of the rules of Sociology then it can make studies related to a person very easy and correct. When Political Science is making its policies then it has to keep in mind the social values, and social ideals.

While making laws, political science has to keep in mind the social conditions of society. Our social customs, traditions, values, culture etc. are made to control the members of society and to run the society in an organized way. But when these are accepted by government then they become laws; for example, we can see that different countries have different customs. Status of women was very low in India. People tried to change this custom.

When some leaders tried to uplift the status of women with some movements, many laws were made to uplift the status of women. It was so because social sanctions were there behind these movements. Actually we cannot overlook the social traditions and customs while making laws for society. Sometimes public movements come into being due to laws made by government.

When government tries to overlook the customs made by society then the society moves toward the situation of social disorganization which can create obstacles in the way of social progress. Political Science depends upon Sociology to know about social conditions or customs. We can solve many problems of society with the help of laws.

So from the given description it is clear that Political Science needs a lot of help from Sociology to study its subject matter. It helps in social progress, development and maintenance of organization. But it doesn’t mean that only Sociology gives help to Political Science. Infact Political Science also gives help to Sociology.

Contribution of Political Science to Sociology. If Sociology gives something to Political Science then it also takes a lot from Political Science. Sociology also depends upon Political Science and it takes its help. We cannot imagine any society without controls, which come from Political Science in the form of law. Sociology has one branch known as Political Sociology.

If we look carefully then we will come to know that Sociology gets real social life from Political Science. Progress of society, organization, institutions, processes, traditions, culture, social relations depends upon this element. If we discuss the ancient society, when Political Science was not started in its complete form, then the life of a person was very simple and the simple life was controlled by informal means of control.

Slowly and slowly with the development of society, it started to feel the need of laws to control the people. For example when caste system was in its full swing in India then many castes were in very good conditions and they were running the society in their own way. But people of lower castes were living in the hell like circumstances. They were tired of these rules. The main reason of origin of caste system was to maintain social balance.

When Political Science strengthened its roots then it started to control the people with the help of laws. Customs of social evils, which were a type of burden on people, were removed or eradicated with the help of laws. Because every one was equal in front of law that’s why people started to respect those laws. Except this it was not possible for society to eradicate those social evils. In that case Political Science came forward for its help.

On the basis of given description we can say that problem is whether social or political, we need help of both the sciences. Sociology and Political Science both study society from different point of views but still their problems are related with society and that’s why they both are inter-dependent.

Difference between Sociology and Political Science:
1. General and Special:
Sociology is a general science and Political Science is a special science. Sociology is related to the study of every aspect of every person of the society. All the social processes, customs, social control etc. come in this. It means that Sociology studies all those phenomenon which are related with every type of human activities.

It studies the whole society and that’s why it is a general science. But on the other hand Political Science studies the political aspect of human life. It means that it studies all those activities which get legality and security from humans, government or state. That’s why it is a special science.

2. Positive and Idealistic:
Sociology is a positive science and Political Science is an idealistic science because it is related with the form of state. Socially sanctioned rules are accepted in this. But Sociology with complete independence means it studies with objectivity.

3. Difference of Scope:
Sociology and Political Science both are quite different from each other from the point of view of their subject matter. Sociology studies the mutual relations of social, religious, historical, psychological, economic institutions and tells us about individual life. But Political Science tells us about the individual life by studying only state and its different parts.

It is related only with state and state’s government but Sociology is related with the relations which exist in every type of social institutions. That’s why its subject matter is wide. Sociology is related with unconscious processes but Political Science is related with the conscious activities of a person. That’s why it is related only with organized communities.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 8 Polity, Religion, Economy and Education Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 8 Polity, Religion, Economy and Education

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Polity, Religion, Economy and Education Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
What do you mean by power?
Answer:
Power is the ability of individuals or groups to carry out their will even when opposed by others.

Question 2.
Name the three types of authority given by Max Weber.
Answer:
Traditional authority, Legal authority and Charismatic authority.

Question 3.
What do you mean by economy ?
Answer:
According to Sociologists, “Economy is human activities which are associated with food or property.”

Question 4.
Mention any two elements of state.
Answer:
Population, geographical area, sovereignty and government.

Question 5.
Who gave the theory of animism ?
Answer:
The theory of animism was given by E.B. Tylor.

Question 6.
Who made a ‘distinction between sacred and profane things ?
Answer:
Emile Durkheim made a distinction between sacred and profane things.

Question 7.
Who discussed the idea of naturism ?
Answer:
The idea of naturism was given by Max Muller.

Question 8.
Who calls religion ‘a belief in supernatural being’ ?
Answer:
E.B. Tylor called religion ‘a belief in supernatural being’.

Question 9.
Give the names of two Semitic religions.
Answer:
Islam and Christianity are the two Semitic religions in India.

Question 10.
What do you understand by sect ?
Answer:
Sect is a religious group which is having some specific rituals.

Question 11.
Give the meaning of cult.
Answer:
Cult is a religious organisation originated from the views and ideology of an individual leader.

Question 12.
Name the two major classes in the capitalist society as given by Karl Marx.
Answer:
Capitalist class and Labour class.

Question 13.
What is formal education ?
Answer:
The education which we get in school, college, university is known as formal education.

Question 14.
Define informal education.
Answer:
The education we get from our family, our daily experiences, our friends etc. is known as informal education.

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
What is stateless society ?
Answer:
The societies where there is no institution called state are known as stateless societies. These are simple and ancient societies. These have very less population and people have direct relations. That’s why, to control individual behaviour, there is no need of a formal organisation called state. Council of elders is enough to do so.

Question 2.
Discuss charismatic authority.
Answer:
When a person is influenced by the other in a way that he can do any thing for him, the authority enjoyed by the other is charismatic authority. Many a time people are influenced by the personality of an individual. Religious leaders, political leaders enjoy such authority.

Question 3.
What is legal-rational authority ?
Answer:
The authority given according to some rules and regulations is known as legal rational authority. Government enjoys legal authority. The President, Prime Minister, different officers have such authority which they enjoy according to the rules given in the constitution.

Question 4.
Write down two merits of Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:
(i) Panchayati Raj System is implemented at local level and common people get a chance to participate in the govt.
(ii) In this system, local problems are solved at local level and the work is done very quickly.

Question 5.
What do you mean by animism and naturism ?
Answer:
(i) Animism : This theory was given by Tylor and according to him, religion originated from the idea of spirit. It means that people believe in spirits and consequently religion originated.

(ii) Naturism : According to this theory, humans in ancient times were afraid of natural phenomona such as thunder, rain, fire etc. That’s why they started worshipping nature and thus religion originated.

Question 6.
What is an interest group ?
Answer:
An interest group is a group formed by people of a particular group who work only for the interests of their people. They never care about the interests of other people while achieving their interests. For example, trade union, labour union, FICCI etc. .

Question 7.
Write a short note on sacred and profane.
Answer:
Durkheim gave a description of sacred and profane things associated with religion. He says that sacred things are those which are considered above all and seen with great respect. These are not general and are away .from our daily functions. But there are few things which we confront and use on daily basis. These are known as profane.

Question 8.
WTrite a short note on totemism.
Answer:
In totemism, any tribe starts to associate itself with any object especially any animal, tree, plant, stone or anything. They give respect to it and worship it. They consider their origin from that thing. That thing is known as totem.

Question 9.
What is a ‘pastoral economy ?
Answer:
It is a type of economy in which people depend upon domestic animals to earn their livelihood. They are known as pastorals. They rear sheep, goat, cow, camel and horse. Such societies live in the plains with lot of grass or in mountains. They change their habitat with the change in climate.

Question 10.
How does agrarian economy differ from industrial economy ?
Answer:
In agrarian economy, main occupation of the people is agriculture and they live on this. These societies have less population and informal relations. In industrial economy, people are engaged in industries to earn their livelihood. These societies have more population and formal relations among
them.

Question 11.
What is Jajmani system ?
Answer:
This is a system of exchange in which lower castes provide their service to upper castes and they get renumeration for their service. One who gets service is known as Jajman and one who gives is known as Kameen.

Question 12.
Discuss capitalist society.
Answer:
Western societies are known as capitalist societies where money is earned by investing in industries. Means of production are in the hands of factory owners and they employ labourers to produce things. Major elements of Capitalism are – labourers, means of production, industries, relations between mechanics and owners etc.

Question 13.
What is socialist society ?
Answer:
This concept was given by Karl Marx which says that whole of the economy is in the hands of labourers. Labourers will start revolution against capitalist and will throw away his authority. Then they will establish classless society. Every one will be equal in front of law and they will get according to their needs.

Question 14.
Give example of privatisation of education.
Answer:
In present age, thousands of private schools have opened up in every town, city and metropoliton eity. Private colleges and universities have also opened up. These are the examples of privatisation of education.

Answer the following short answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
Discuss the views of Emile Durkheim on religion.
Answer:
According to Durkheim, “ A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral comnjunity, called a church, also those who adhere to them.” It means that religion is a collective or social phenomenon which is found as a result of beliefs and practices. On this basis, the people of a group get organised. He divided religious things into sacred and profane.

Question 2.
In what way does religion play an important role in society ?
Answer:
Religion plays an important role in giving stability to society and maintaining social organisation. One religion has millions of followers with common beliefs. Such common beliefs, values and ways of behaviour form a sense of unity atleast in that religion and consequently they unite with each other. This unity helps in strengthening social organization. Each religion tells its followers to give alms, to show sympathy and cooperate with others. It also strengthens society. In this way religion plays a very important role in society.

Question 3.
What is an educational institution ? Write down the educational policies adopted by the government.
Answer:
An educational institution gives necessary knowledge to an individual and makes him a responsible citizen. The educational policies adopted by the government are as follows :

1. According to article 45 of the constitution, free and compulsory education will be given to the children upto the age of 14 years.
2. In 1960, the Kothari Commission laid emphasis on universal enrolment and retention.
3. In 1986, a national education policy was adopted with emphasis on vocational education and equal educational opportunities for deprived groups.
4. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 1986 and 1992 laid emphasis on providing useful and relevant educational for all children in the age group of 6 to 14 years.
5. Right of children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act (2010) states that every child in the age group of 6-14 years will be provided 8 years of elementary education in age appropriate classroom, in the vicinity of the child’s neighbourhood.

Question 4.
Write the functions of education in brief.
Answer:

1. Education helps in the intellectual development of an individual.
2. Education connects an individual with the society.
3. It helps in maintaining balance in society.
4. Education helps in transmitting culture from one generation to another.
5. It helps in developing individual ability.
6. It develops moral values among children.
7. It also helps in doing socialisation of an individual.

Question 5.
Write a short note on types of authority by Max Weber.
Answer:
Max Weber gave three types of authority – traditional, legal and charismatic. Traditional authority is that which is traditionally going on and no one raises question mark against it. Father’s authority is of this type of authority in the house. Legal authority is that which one gets according to certain rules and laws. Government is having such authority. Charismatic authority is that which one gets due to his charismatic personality and his followers accept his orders without any cry. Religious leaders, Political leaders enjoy such authority.

Question 6.
Differentiate a state society from a stateless society.
Answer:
1. Stateless society:
The society which lacks the institution of state is known as stateless society. These are simple and ancient societies. They have less population and people have direct relation among them. That’s why, to control individual behaviour, there is no need of state or government. It is controlled by council of elders.

2. State society:
Modern societies are state societies where authority is in the hands of state which is obtained from the people. Max Weber says that state is a community of people which uses authority in a geographical area with the help of physical force.

Answer the following short answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
What is meant by political institutions ? Discuss in detail.
Answer:
Our society is quite large and the political system is one of its parts. Political system defines those human roles which help in regulating society. Polity and society are closely related. To control social humans, political institutions are required and these are-power, authority, state, government, Legislature, Executive, Judiciary etc.

These political institutions keep formal control on society and the means to keep this control are government, police, army, courts at etc. So, political institutions are the means which help in maintaining social order. Political institutions are mainly associated with the distribution of power. Among all the political institutions, few are quite important and these are :

1. Power:
Power is the ability of an individual or a group to force their will on others even when they are opposed. It means that those who have power, they enjoy it at the cost of others. The quantity of power is limited in society. Those who have more power, they use it on those who have less or no power and influence them. Elders of the family, General Manager of a company, Government, Ministers etc. enjoy such power.

2. Authority:
Power is used with the help of authority. It is a form of power which is just and legal. It is institutional and based on legitimacy. Those who have authority, force their will on others as it is considered legitimate. It is implemented not only on humans but on groups and institutions as well. For example, in dictatorship, authority is in the hands of one person, group or party but in democracy, it is in the hands of elected representatives of the people.

3. State:
State is the most important political institution. It is a group of people having a definite geographical area, have population, government and sovereignty. State is a part of society. It affects all the aspects of life but it cannot take the place of society. State is an agency which controls social associations. State influences all the aspects of society and plays a very important role in maintaining balance between them.

4. Government:
Government is an agency of state which has the authority to control the people. It helps in maintaining peace in society. Government has legal sanction because it is elected under certain rules and .has the majority in legislature. Government is an agency to achieve the aims of state. There are three organs of government – Legislature, Executive and Judiciary.
(i) Legislature : It is a part of government whose function is to make laws for the country. Parliament of the country is known as Legislature.

(ii) Executive : It is another organ of government which implements the laws made by legislature. The President, Prime Minister and other ministers are the part of executive.

(iii) Judiciary : It is the third organ of government which uses the laws made by legislature and implemented by the executive. Our Courts, Judges are the part of Judiciary.

So, different political institutions contribute in running our country in a smooth way. These institutions do their work without interfering in each other’s matters.

Question 2.
Write a note on Panchayati Raj.
Answer:
There are two ways of development of the local areas in our country. Local governments are there for the development of urban areas and panchayati raj institutions are there for the development of rural areas. Institutions of local government are based upon the concept of division of labour because functions here are divided in government and local groups. 70% of the population in our country lives in rural areas. The institution of local government which administers the rural areas is known as Panchayat.

Panchayati Raj expresses only the institutional structure of rural area. When the British Empire was established in our country, the entire country was under the control of landlords and Zamindars. In 1935, Indian government passed a law which has given the complete sovereignty to states and the panchayati laws were given a new form. In Punjab, one Panchayat Act was passed in 1939 whose aim was to give some powers to the democratically elected institutions with which they could be able to work at a unit of local administration.

On 2nd October, 1961 the three tier structure of Panchayati Raj was applied in the whole country. 73rd constitutional amendment was made in 1992 in which powers were decentralized upto the local level. With this the panchayati raj institutions were given many financial and other types of powers.

Many changes have taken place in Indian rural community during last 65 years. Most of the powers of Indian panchayats were taken away by Britishers. They wanted to run these panchayats according to their own way because of which they applied a new and common legal system in all the villages. Today’s panchayats are the results of the laws made after the independence.

Organization of Village Panchayats. There are two types of panchayats in the village. First type of panchayats which are elected according to the laws made by government and are formal in nature. 2nd type of panchayats are informal and they are known as caste panchayats. They don’t have any legal status but they plays a very important role in keeping social control.

Three types of organization of panchayats exists in our country and these are :

(1) Gram Sabha
(2) Gram Panchayat
(3) Nyaya Panchayat.

1. Gram Sabha.r All the adult persons of total population, of the village, are the members pf Gram Sabha and it is the complete unit of the whole population of the village. This is the basic unit on which the whole structure of our democracy rests. Gram Sabha can be made in that village whose population is more then 250.

If the population of one village is less than 250 then two villages can jointly make the Gram Sabha. Every adult of the village is the member of Gram Sabha, who has the right to vote. There is one chairman and some members of every Gram Sabha. It is elected for 5 years. ,

Functions of Gram Sabha. Gram Sabha approves the annual budget and the functions to be done for the development of the village and helps in applying these function. It also helps in doing the functions of social welfare, programmes of adult education and of family welfare. It also plays an important role in keeping unity in the village.

Village Panchayat or Gram Panchayat. Every Gram Sabha elects one Gram Panchayat from its area. In this way the Gram Sabha is an executive institution which elects members for the Gram Panchayat. It has one Sarpanch and 5-13 panches. There are certain places in Panchayats which are reserved for backward classes and females. It is generally elected for 5 years but state government can dissolve them even before 5 years if it will try to misuse its powers.

If any Gram Sabha is dissolved before completion of its term then all of its position will also comes to an end. Village is generally divided in different parts to elect Panchs and Gram Panchayats. Then the Panches and Sarpanch are elected by the members of Gram Sabha.

One third of the total seats in Gram Panchayat are reserved for women and the seats are also reserved for backward classes according to the ratio of their population in that area. Any governmental official and mentally ill person cannot be elected for panchayat. Gram Panchayat works for the sanitation, recreation, development of industries and means of communication. It also solves the problems of the village. Functions of Panchayats.

Gram Panchayat performs many functions for the village which are given below :
(1) The first important function of Gram Panchayat is to raise the economic and social standard of life of the people. There are many social evils in villages. Panchayat motivates the people to remove those evils and tries to change their traditional point of view.

(2) For the allround development of any area, it is necessary that illiteracy should be eradicated from that area and it is the main reason of backwardness of Indian Society. Indian villages are also backward due to this reason. Panchayat tries to open schools in village and motivates the people to send their children in the school. It also arranges the adult education centre to teach the adults of the village.

(3) Panchayat of the village also works for the welfare of the women and children of the village. It also arranges for giving education to females. The function of arrangement of good food and recreational facilities is also of Panchayat.

(4) There are no means of recreation in rural areas. That’s why Panchayat also arranges to provide recreational means in the village. Panchayat arranges for films, organizing fairs and to’opening up of library in the village.

(5) Increase in production is necessary in the agriculture based country. Panchayat tells the people about new techniques of agriculture, arranges for the new seeds and developed fertilizers for them so that their agricultural production could.be increased.

(6) It is very much necessary to establish small scale industries in villages for its allround development. That’s why Panchayat tries to establish small scale industries in villages with the help of governmental help. It helps in economic progress of the village and people get employment in their villages.

(7) Means of irrigation are of great importance in good production of agriculture. Gram Panchayat arranges the wells and tubewells in Gram Panchayat. It also arranges for river water so that the people could be able to irrigate their fields.

(8) Generally people are fighting in villages. Panchayat tries to solve their problems in village. Panchayat Samiti. Panchayats coming in one block are the members of the Panchayat Samiti and Sarpanchs of these Panchayats are the members of Panchayat Samiti.

Members of Panchayat Samiti are also elected. Panchayat Samiti takes care of the functions of the Panchayats which are coming in its area. It checks the developmental functions of the village and directs the Panchayat for the welfare of the village. It is the second level of Panchayati Raj.

Zila Parishad. The highest level of Panchayati Raj is Zila Parishad which takes care of the functions of the Panchayats which are coming in the district. It is an executive institution. Chairman’s of Panchayat Samiti, elected members, members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and Legislative Assemblies are the members of Zila Parishad.

All these take care of the developmental functions done in the villages of the district. Zila Parishad does many functions such as the improvement of agriculture, improvement of land, irrigation, rural electrification, arrangement of seeds and fertilizers, education, industries etc.

Question 3.
In what way do interest groups act as pressure groups ?
Answer:
During the last few decades, a new concept of division of labour has come forward. In this concept, different people are employed in different professions and as a result, many professional groups have emerged. All these professional groups have their personal interests and they continually work to achieve them. So, the groups which care about the interests of their people and continualy work to achieve their aims are known as interest groups.

In present democratic societies, they always try to change political decisions according to their interests. If need arises, they pledge their support to the political parties and through them, try to influence official decisions. Almost all the interest groups have an objective to achieve higher status in the national politics.

That’s why they pressurise the govt to make policies in their favour. When they start to pressurise the govt, they take the form of pressure group. Pressure groups are organised or unorganised groups who influence govt, policies and promote their interests.

The ways in which they try to influence politices are given below :

1. These pressure groups start a movement on a particular issue to gain public support. They take the help of mass media to draw attention of the people.
2. They generally opt. for strikes, processions and create hurdles in government functioning. They declare strikes to raise their voice. Most of the labour unions opt. for this method to get “their demands met.
3. Most of the trade groups create a loby, with few common motives, to pressurise the govt to change its policies.
4. Each pressure .group or interest group is associated with some political party.
   They support these parties during elections to get their demands met after winning elections and forming the government.

Question 4.
Define Religion. Describe its features.
Answer:
The most difficult function for sociologists is to give that definition which should be accepted by every one and all sections of the society. It’s reason is that the nature of religion is very complex and different Sociologists have different views about it.

It is so because different sociologists are related with different countries and different cultures. There are many religions in the world and because of this diversity, they all are unable to reach on any consensus about the definition of religion. But still different Sociologists have given different definitions of religion which are as follows –

• According to Frazer, “Religion is belief in powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life.”
• According to Maclver, “Religion as we understand the term implies a relationship not merely between man and man but also between man and some higher power.”
• According to Durkheim, “Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things is to say things set apart and forbidden.”
• According to Malinowski, “Religion is a mode of action as well as system of belief and an ecological, phenomenons as well as personal experience.”

Therefore, from these definitions it is clear that the base of religion is the belief in super- natural power and this power is believed as superior and powerful to man.

It keeps control over all the elements of life which are important for man. Its one base is emotional. There are many methods and rituals to keep this power happy. It is clear that the acceptance of religion is beyond social because religion is explained by supernatural forces. Religion is used very widely in society. According to sociologists, religion represents the habits and emotional experiences of man. Religion came into being because of the feelings of fear and the respect of humans towards many things.

According to Tylor, religion was developed because of belief of ancient humans in the spirits of ancestors. According to this belief, spirit lives at any place, in any thing or animal after the death. It can affect human life. To keep these spirits happy, man started to worship these spirits and from here the origin of religion starts.

Features of Religion:
1. Belief in Supernatural Power. Religion is the complexity of thoughts, feelings and methods which express its belief in super regulates powers. This power is universal and all powerful. It is believed that this power regulates human action. In this way the first characteristics of religion is the belief in supernatural power.

The basis of this super-natural power are different but this power definitely exists in all religions. If any one doesn’t have faith in this power than he doesn’t have faith in religion and because of, this, existence of that person comes to an end. This power is powerful and better than human power. This power is believed to be beyond the range of human brain about which man says that he is afraid of this power.

2. Rituals. Religious rituals are the actions determined by religion. They are sacred in themselves and are the symbols of sacredness. For example according to Hindu religion, there are many fasts and pilgrimages which are religious rituals. Religious rituals bind together the followers of one religion and differentiate them from the followers of another religion.

3. Religious Acts. Another important feature*of religion is that it has different religious acts and actions. With the help of these religious acts man always tries to keep happy to supernatural powers and he expresses his belief in these supernatural powers by doing those acts. These acts are of two kinds. First one are those actions for which special religious knowledge is necessary.

This function has been done by religious priests in every religion. Second are simple religious acts like prayer and going for pilgrimage which even a layman can do very easily. But in every religion one belief prevails that man can keep natural powers happy by completing religious functions.

4. Religious Symbols. In every religion certain symbols are used to see these super natural powers. Like in Hindu religion portraits and sculptures are worshipped. In every religion some stories are there related to this supernatural powers. People believe that by believing these supernatural stories they can keep happy that almighty.

5. Religious Hierarchy. All the followers of any religion don’t have equal status in religious group. In every religion, a system of hierarchy exists. People who sit at high posts, are generally those who are experts in doing religious acts like priests. At second place those persons come who have full faith in religious representatives and concepts. At the end those persons come who cannot be called as sacred and who do those impure functions given by religion. They are restricted in almost all the religions.

6. Religious books. Every religion has one important feature and that is the religious books related to those religions. In every religion, some religious persons are there who write religious books and every religion has some religious stories whose description is generally given in those books. Like in Hindu religion Mahabharta, Ramayana, Bhagwat Gita, Four Vedas, Manu Smriti etc. are there. In the same way ‘Quran’ of Islam, ‘Guru Granth Sahib’ of Sikhs and ‘Bible’ of Christianity are the religious books.

Question 5.
In what way is religion useful and harmful for the society ?
Answer:
1. To give stability to social organization. Religion plays an important role in providing stability to the society and maintaining social organization. Millions of people are there in one religion who have common beliefs. These common beliefs, values and ways of behaviour forms a sense of unity atleast in that religion with which unity comes in that group.

In this way this unity helps in strengthening social organization. Every religion tells its people to give alms, to show sympathy and to cooperate with others because of which stability comes in society. In this way religion saves its people from instability and gives stability to society.

2. Religion gives, definite form to Social Life. Religion is the collection of customs and mores. These customs and mores are parts of the culture also. In this way balance is maintained between social atmosphere and culture. Because of this balance social life gets definite form. Because of religion people respect customs, mores etc. and others also maintain this balance. In this way because of this balance social life moves in a proper way and all this is because of religion.

3. To organise Family Life. Marriage in different religions is done according to different religious traditions. Because of religious traditions religion becomes permanent and its life and organization strengthens. Every religion defines the duties and rights of different members. It tells the parents ahd children that what are their duties towards each other.

Every one, while living in family, obeys and fulfils the duties towards each other and cooperates with each other to run the family. It helps in maintaining balance between members of the family. All the functions of the family are determined by religion. ‘

4. To remove mutual differences. There are many religions in this world. They do not ask their followers to fight with the followers of another religion. Instead they ask to live with each other with love and peace and they ask their followers to remove their mutual differences. Removal of differences will increase unity in the society. That’s why all the religions and the leaders have tried to uplift the lower castes. Gandhiji had tried all his life to uplift scheduled castes and untouchables.

5. To keep Social Control. Religion is one of the important means of social control. Religion has the sanction of the society behind it. Religion affects the people forcefully even without their wish and the person feels that religion is putting a great effect on him.

Religion controls and directs its followers in such a way that the person has to obey the teachings of religion. Religion is the belief in the supernatural power and people never try to work against the wishes of that supernatural power because they are afraid of it. In this way the behaviour and ways of action are controlled by religion.

6. Social Welfare. Every religion encourages its members to do works of social welfare. In all the religions of the world giving alms is known as sacred. People are giving help to orphanages, hospitals, schools etc. and helping them by giving them money. People of every religion distribute food, clothes, medicine, money to poor people. They are doing this because their religion asks them to do so. In this way religion encourages the works of social welfare.

Dysfunctions or Demerits of Religion:
1. Religion is an Obstacle in Social Progress. Religion is fundamentalist by nature and change is the law of nature. Changes are often coming in society because of which society can develop from materialistic point of view but not from spiritual point of view. Religion is basically against any change.

Religion is not in the favour of any change. In fact it believes in keeping the situation as it is. Changed circumstances are not according to the religion because of which religion opposes the change. By opposing the change it becomes an obstacle.

2. Man becomes Fatalist. Religion says that whatever is written in man’s fate he will definitely get that. He will neither get more than that nor get less than that. After thinking this thing man stops working and says that if he will get according to fate then what is the advantage of doing work ? Whatever is written in his fate he will get that. In this way man leaves everything to fate. But he forgets that a person makes and change his own fate. If he will not work then what he will make and change. In this way man leaves everything to fate and becomes fatalist.

3. Opposite to National Unity. We can call the religion as opposite to National Unity. Generally every religion asks its followers to, go according to its rules and generally these rules are against other religion. While loving their religion, sometimes people start opposing other religions. This opposition results in religious narrowness and intolerance. This religious intolerance is dangerous for the unity of the country and even sometimes communal violence starts in different religions. In this way sometimes religion works against National Unity.

4. Religion Increases the Social Problems. There are certain custo’ms and rituals in every religion and according to priests and religious persons these customs and rituals are necessary for every person. Religious persons call their followers to go against other religion. Because of religion many problems in our country like child marriage, Sati system, Dowry system, no widow marriage, untouchability, poverty etc. came. Religion is responsible directly or indirectly for these problems. The government has made many laws to solve these problems but still religion is an obstacle in the way of their solution.

5. Religion is ah Obstacle in the Way of Change. Religion is always against change and is an obstacle in the way of change. Different types of inventions and discoveries are coming in the world. Because religion is always fundamentalist and that’s why it is against change. Any change of the society is opposed by religion. For example when a law was made against Sati system then it was opposed by religious persons. In this way religion is always against materialistic changes of the world.

Question 6.
Briefly discuss the characteristics of primitive, pastoral, agrarian and industrial economies.
Answer:
(i) Primitive Economy. Many tribes live in far off places in forests and mountains. Yet most of the tribes have joined the main stream due to means of transport and have also adopted the occupation of agriculture but still many tribes are there who still spend their life as hunters and food gatherers. They collect roots, fruits, honey etc. and even are hunting smaller animals. Some tribes also exchange many things. In this way they fulfil their needs in the absence of agriculture.

Those tribes are known as ancient tribes which fulfil their needs in this way. These people not only kill animals but also collect fruits, roots and honey from the jungles. In this way they fulfil their needs even without the presence of agriculture. We can come to know about their culture after looking at their way of hunting.

These societies lack tools and means because of which they are the shadow of ancient tribes. There is no concept of surplus production in their societies. It is so because they can neither produce any thing surplus nor they can keep the surplus production. They live like wanderers. Tribes of Chenchu, Katkari, Kames, Baija, Khariya, Kuch, Paliyan etc. live this type of life.

(ii) Pastoral Economy. Pastoral economy is one of the important parts of tribal economy. Tribal people rear animals for different purposes like to take milk, meat and wool and to carry weight. Pastoral tribes of India live a static and permanent life and none according to the season. Tribes of mountainous region move towards plains in the winter season and come back to their areas in summer season. The main pastoral tribe of India is the Gujjar tribe of Himachal Pradesh which rears buffaloes, cows and sheep for business purposes.

This custom also prevails in the Toda tribe of Tamilnadu. This tribe rears animals and gets milk from them. Milk is used either to exchange things or it is used to fulfil their own needs. Indian tribes generally live a permanent life. They live at one place, rear animals and get many things from them such as milk, wool, meat etc. They also trade in animals such as sheep, goat etc.

(iii) Agricultural economy. The main occupation of rural society is either agriculture or any of the related work because they are very much closely related with nature. Because they are closely related to nature, that’s why their views towards life are very much different.

Yet many other occupations like carpenter, blacksmith etc. are there in villages but they also make tools related to agriculture. Land is considered as a very important thing in tribal society and people like to live here because their life depends upon the land. Even the economic, system and development of people and villages depend upon agriculture.

(iv) Industrial economy. Urban economy can also be called industrial economy because urban economy depends upon industries. Very large industries are there in cities where thousands of people work with each other. Production is also on large scale due to large scale industries. Owners of these larger industries are different individuals.

Production is done for the market. They produce not only for internal markets of the country but for foreign markets as well. Even in some cases, production is being done only for foreign markets. Owners of these big industries produce things only for their profit and they exploit the labourers as well.

We can find a number of occupations and occupational diversity in urban societies. Family, in earlier times, was the unit of productions. All the functions were being done only in the family. But due to advent of urban areas, thousands of occupations and industries were developed. For example we confine many types of functions in a factory and we need specialised person to do any specific type to work.

Only the skilled person can do that specific work. In this way functions in cities are divided among different people because of which division of labour prevails in urban society. People are specialised in their work and that’s why specialisation is of great importance. In this way division of labour and specialisation are two important aspects of urban economy.

Question 7.
Write a note on division of labour.
Answer:
In 1893 Durkheim published his first book in French language called ‘De La Division du Trovail Social’. Yet it was his first writing but it was a strong base of his popularity. On this book only he got doctorate from Paris University in 1893. In this great book he has fully explained the social division of labour. Durkheim’s this book has been divided in three parts. In every part he has analysed the different aspects of labour.

In the first part of his book ‘Functions of Division of Labour’ he has tried to prove that division of labour is the base of social solidarity. With that from the point of view of scientific study he has explained different forms of Law, Types of solidarity, different forms of human relations, crime, punishment, social evolution and some problems of society. In second part of this book he has given detailed explanation of reasons and results of division of labour. In 3rd part of this book he has given some abnormal forms of division of labour.

1. Functions of Division of Labour. Durkheim accepts every , social fact as moral fact. Any social behaviour lives on the base of moral base. As a functionalist first of all Durkheim has given function of division of labour. According to him, division of labour is a social fact, that’s why he started his book from its functional analysis. First of all fourkheim has given the meaning of function.

He has given two meanings of function :
(а) Meaning of function is from system of movement which means from action.
(b) Second meaning of function is from this action or movement and from interrelation according to its needs which means The need to be fulfilled by action. Here Durkheim is using meaning of function from second point of view. In this way by function of division of labour his meaning is that by which basic of social existence is fulfilled by the process of division of labour. Function is that in the absence o’f which, the basic needs of its units cannot be fulfilled.

Generally it is been said that the function of division of labour is the development of society because it is a truth that with the development of division of labour and specialization, civilization in the societies increases. Because of division of labour the production force increases, material and intellectual aspect develops, leisure increases in general life and knowledge increases. That’s why generally division of labour is known as the source of civilization.

But Durkheim was against that. He said that the development of civilization is not the function of division of labour. According to him, the meaning of source is not the function. Increase in leisure, development of material and mental level comes due to result of division of labour. That’s why it is the result of this process, not the function. Meaning of function is not the result.

In the development of the society three kinds of development are included. Three types are :
(a) Industrial or economic aspect
(b) Intellectual aspect
(c) Scientific aspect.

Durkheim was of the view that all these three aspects of development are without moral facts. So with the development of industrial, intellectual and scientific aspect, crime, suicide and other immoral phenomena also increases in societies. So according to him the function of division of labour is not the development of civilization.

But what is the function of division of labour ? According to him to make new groups and their solidarity or unity are the functions of division of labour. He has tried to find any moral need related with the existence of society as the function of division of labour. According to him with the increase in members of society and their inter-relations, slowly and slowly the process of division of labour also develops.

In this process so many new business and social groups have been made. For the existence of society the unity or solidarity of these groups is must. Without the solidarity of these groups we cannot imagine the balance in social system. So solidarity is the moral need of different groups.

According to him this need of society is fulfilled by division of labour. On one side division of labour makes new social groups and with that it also helps in maintaining unity and collectivity of these groups. So the function of division of labour is to establish unity in society. Division of labour is related with the differences of functions of humans and these differences are the bases of social solidarity.

He has given factual base for this social reality. He was of the view that the important function is not that it increases the production with the divided work but it organises and unites them. So division of labour makes new social groups and produces unity among them.

(A) Law and Solidarity. Durkheim had the view .that the function of division of labour is to produce solidarity in society. Social solidarity is a moral fact. To clarify the social solidarity which came from division of labour classifies the laws. According to the classification of laws he has decided the types of social solidarity. To classify laws he has taken sanctions, related to that law, as base.

He has given two types of laws:
(i) Repressive law. Repressive laws can be called as Public laws.
These ar’e of two types.
(a) Penal law. These are related with giving suffering, causing loss, to kill and to obstract independence. We can call them organised Repressive laws.
(b) Diffused law. Some repressive laws are there which are spread in the whole society or group on the basis of morality. That’s why Durkheim is calling them diffused law. According to Durkheim, Repressive laws are related with criminal functions.

These laws explain the crime and its punishment. These laws also show the basic conditions of collective life of society. Every society has its basic circumstances. So in different societies repressive laws are also different. The power of these repressive laws is based in collective mind and collective mind gets power from equalities.

(ii) Restitutive law. Another type of law is the Restitutive law system. These laws provide balance to the imbalance produced in the human relations. In this group civil laws, business laws, constitutional laws, administrative laws are included. These laws are not related with , the whole society but are related with human. These laws are regulating the balance and imbalance produced in the personal relations of members of society. Restitutive laws are joining individuals and society with some middle institutions.

On the basis of these two types of laws according to Durkheim two types of solidarities can be made. These two types of solidarities are the result of two different types of lifestyles. Repressive laws are related with general nature of man and with equalities. But Restitutive laws are related with differences or with division of labour.

The type of solidarity which comes due to Repressive laws, according to Durkheim, is Mechanical Solidarity and the solidarity which comes due to Restitutive laws is called Organic Solidarity whose base is division of labour.

In this way according to Durkheim there are two types of social solidarities :
1. Mechanical Solidarity. According to Durkheim, Mechanical solidarity can be seen in the repressive laws of society. The bases of this solidarity are the equalities available in the members of the society. The society in which the life of members is full of equalities, where general norms of thoughts, beliefs, functions, lifestyle and ideal are there and the society which thinks, works as a collective unit on the basis of these equalities shows mechanical solidarity.

Its members are united like a machine. In old primitive societies mechanical solidarity was there. He was of the view that even crime helps in binding the people in solidarity. In this way there is existence of one social solidarity which comes out of definite conditions of consciousness which are normal for the members of any society. These can be shown by Repressive laws. These are based on the power of collective consciousness.

2. Organic Solidarity. According to Durkheim, the second type of solidarity is organic solidarity. The power of Repressive laws is in collective consciousness. Collective consciousness gets power from equalities. In primitive societies repressive laws were there because the base of social life were equalities. According to Durkheim, modern societies are influenced by division of labour and specialization in which instead of equalities, inequalities are the base. This difference of group or collective life gives importance to individual consciousness.

In modern societies man is not directly united with group. In these societies there is a lot of importance of mutual relations of humans. That’s why he was of the view that in modern societies instead of Repressive laws, Restitutive laws are important. In the societies which are based on differences humans are dependent upon each other. Every human can specialize in one field and for other works he is dependent upon others.

This inter-dependence of members of group or society and their personal inequalities force them to come closer to each other with the help of which solidarity in society would be established. To this type of solidarity Durkheim gives the name of organic solidarity. This can be seen in restitutive social system.

3. Contractual Solidarity. After analysing the mechanical and organic solidarity Durkheim has also written about one more solidarity which is known as Contractual Solidarity. According to Durkheim, the process of division of labour gives birth to contractual relations. People of a group are getting the services of each other on the basis of mutual contracts and mutually they are cooperating with each other.

It is right that in modern societies people are establishing cooperation and solidarity on the basis of contracts. But the function of division of labour is not to give birth to contractual solidarity. According to him, contractual solidarity is individual fact, but it is regulated by society.

2. Causes and Conditions. The second part of book ‘Division of Labour in Society’ is related with causes, conditions and results and these are given ahead :
Causes of Division of Labour. Durkheim has explained division of labour on Sociological basis. He has found the causes of division of labour in the conditions of social life and in the social needs produced from them. From this point of view, he has

divided the causes of division of labour in two parts :
(a) Primary Causes
(b) Secondary Causes.

(а) Increase in the size and density of Population. According to Durkheim, the increase in size and density of population is the central and primary reason of division of labour. He says that the increase of population has two aspects-increase in size of population and increase in density of population.

These both aspects give birth to division of labour. With the increase in population old primitive societies are disintegrating and new mixed societies are coming into being. Population started to concentrate in few centres. The density of population he has divided in two parts :

(i) Material Density:
From physical point of view concentration of people at one place is material density.

(ii) Moral Density:
Because of Material density relations of the people are increasing with which actions and reactions are increasing. The complexity which came out of increased rq,utual relations and inter-relations, Durkheim is calling dynamic or Moral Density.

(b) Unclarity of Collective Consciousness. In secondary reasons of division of labour he has given first place to unclarity of collective consciousness. In equality based societies, collective consciousness is quite strong because of which members of societies cannot be motivated by individual or personal point of view. Collective feelings are showing them the way.

Durkheim was of the view that division of labour and individual specialization is possible in that condition when instead of collective point of view, individual point of view will develop and when individual consciousness suppresses collective consciousness. So according to him, the development of division of labour will be slow and difficult if collective consciousness is strong and definite. If this collective consciousness will be loose enough then the division of labour vyill move with quite a good speed.

(c) Ancestral reason and division of labour. The second cause of the division of labour according to Durkheim is the decreasing influence of ancestral influence. How much more influence these ancestral qualities can exert on man that much less chances will be there for change. In other words for the development of division of labour it is must that we should not give importance to ancestral qualities. The development of the division of labour is possible only if there will be differences in the nature and behaviour of the people.

The result of classifying people on the base of their ancestral qualities and with binding them with their ancestors is that man has not been able to develop his special qualities and does not change. In this way it is an obstacle in the distribution of division of labour. He was of view that with the passage of time and change these ancestral bindings yvill become so weak that their ancestral qualities will also become weak. So slowly and slowly different qualities of people will develop and then division of labour will also develop.

Question 8.
Define economic institution. Write down the changes taking place in economic system.
Answer:
Every person has some of his basic needs like food, cloth and shelter. Man always does efforts to fulfil his basic needs. Because of these efforts, economic institutions come in front of us. But here one question arises that if economic activities of humans are being studied by Economics then what they are doing in Sociology ? Then its answer is that economic activities affect other aspects and institutions of human life like religion, family, marriage, kinship etc.

These institutions are of great importance in the human life. That’s why, because the economic institutions affect all the other institutions, interest of sociology has also increased to study these economic institutions. If any change comes in economic institutions then change also comes in all the other institutions. That’s why the importance of economic institutions has been increased. Now we will see that what are economic institutions.

Economic institutions are those institutions which arrange for the things for production, distribution and consumption for the people. Economic institutions are of great importance in society. That’s why different forms of society have been divided on the basis of economy or economic institutions like hunting society, agricultural society and industrial society. All the other institutions of society like family, marriage, religion etc. are affected by these economic institutions.

Economic institutions tell a person and to his coming generations that every society has some of its limited means. These institutions tell every person that he has to use those limited means, their production, distribution and consumption and how he has to use these means for every one. In this way it is a system with which people satisfy their needs and find the solutions of their economic problems. In this way the functions of economic institutions are the production, distribution, consumption and selection of exchange.

According to Jones, “The economic selection of Exchange, complex of techniques, ideas and customs relating to the exploitation of the environment for the satisfaction of subsistence needs.” According to Davis, “The basic ideas, norms,»and statuses which govern the allocation of scarce goods in any society whether the primitive or civilized, we call it economic institutions.” .

According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “The activities of man in relation to fo,od and property constitute the economic institutions.”
In this way after looking at these given definitions we can say that the definite and organised forms of actions done by man to fulfil his basic needs are known as economic institutions.

Changes Coming in the Economic Institutions :
Right since the beginning of the 20th Century, many changes have started to come in the economic institutions

which are given below :

• Now production is done on a large scale and for this pupose, a new technique of‘Assembly Line’ has emerged. In this, humans and machines both help in producing a new thing.
• Large machines are used in the production so that it can be done on a large scale.
• Due to the process of globalisation, all the countries have opened up their economic barriers. Almost all the countries have reduced custom duties. That’s why goods made in a particular country are easily available everywhere.
• The process of Liberalisation has also brought many changes in the functioning of economic institutions. After 1991, Indian Government adopted the liberalisation policy which expanded the Indian economy. Many multi-national companies opened up their factories in India which reduced unemployment over here.
• Many computer based industries have opened up in India. B.P.O. Industry, Call centres, Software services etc. have played a very important role in earning foreign exchange for the country. It has connected Indian economy with the other economies. The use of machines in all the industries has been increased to a great extent.

Question 9.
Define education. Differentiate between formal and informal education with examples.
Answer:
Education is the most important mean of socialisation. It is the best method to transmit cultural values to the next generation. Education is of great help in maintaining balance with industrialisation, urbanisation and other processes. Education is not limited only to the bookish knowledge. It gives every type of knowledge to an individual regarding ways of living life.

It also develops many traits among individuals such as love, friendship, discipline etc. According to Durkheim, “Education is the influence exercised by the adult generation upon those who are not yet ready for adult life.”
According to Philips, “Education is the institution whose central point is collection of knowledge.” ‘

So we can say that education is a process which is a mixture of empirical knowledge and conceptual and practical ideas whose major aim is to establish balance between. an individual’s social and natural environment. It plays a very important role in social control.
Mainly education is of two types:
(i) Formal Education
(ii) Informal Education.

(i) Formal Education :
Formal education is the education which we get formally in school, college, university etc. Such education has definite curriculum and teachers teach according to this curriculum. Such education has a clear motive and that is allround development of an individual and to make him a better citizen of society. Such education is given according to a particular objective. It is having three levels- primary, college and university. Each level has a definite organisation which includes teachers, students and other staff.

(ii) Informal Education :
Informal education is the education which one never gets in school, college or university but he gets it from his daily experiences, views of other persons, family, neighbourhood, friends etc. It means that an individual always learns something from his daily life. It does not have a fixed time, fixed curriculum or a definite place. One can get it at any place and from any one. No degree is given for this but one becomes mature with informal education.

Question 10.
Discuss the views of functionalist sociologists on the role of education in society.
Answer:
If we observe the modern society, we come to know that no other factor has greatly contributed in changing society as education has contributed. Education has played a very important role in bringing change in society. With the increase in education, the first changes came in the European society, and later on in the second half of twentieth century, changes came in the Asian society. These changes completely revolutionized whole of society. Modernization in India came due to education. People in the Indian society, started taking education which brought allround development over here.

Change in the status of women, change in the status of lower castes, all this has happened due to education. That’s why for sociologists, education is a very important subject to study so that they could find its impact on society. As a factor of social change, sociologists show great interest in the study of education.

According to them, education changes a human from an animal to a cultural and civilized person. According to the French Sociologist Emile Durkheim, “Education is the influence exercised by the adult generation upon those who are not yet ready for adult life.”

It means that education exerts its impact on the coming generation with which it can prepare itself to live in society. Durkheim says that society can survive when homogeneity exists among members, which is reinforced by education. Only through education, a child learns the basic rules, norms, values, and ways to live in society.

Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore also highlighted the functional aspect of education. According to them, social stratification is a process by which able persons are given suitable status in society. This aim is achieved only through education and it ensures that suitable person should get a suitable place.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 7 Marriage, Family and Kinship Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 7 Marriage, Family and Kinship

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Marriage, Family and Kinship Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
What do you mean by endogamy?
Answer:
Endogamy is a type of marriage in which one needs to marry within a particular group, caste, or sub-caste.

Question 2.
Name the important bases for the emergence of the institution of marriage.
Answer:
Physical need, emotional need, the perpetuation of society, to upbring the children, etc.

Question 3.
What is Monogamy ?
Answer:
Monogamy is a type of marriage in which one male marries with one female.

Question 4.
What is sororate marriage ?
Answer:
In this type of marriage, man, after the death of his wife, marries her sister.

Question 5.
Mention the types of polyandry.
Answer:
It is of two types : fraternal polyandry in which all the husbands are the brothers and non-fraternal polyandry in which all the husbands are not brothers.

Question 6.
State the types of polygyny.
Answer:
It is of two types : Bigamy in which a male has two wives and polygamy in which a male has many wives.

Question 7.
Give few examples of endogamy.
Answer:
Among Muslims, Shias and Sunnis are endogamous groups and among Christians, Roman Catholics and Protestants are also endogamous groups.

Question 8.
Define Marriage.
Answer:
According to Lundberg, “Marriage consists of the rules and regulations, which define the rights, duties and privileges of husband and wife with respect to each other.”

Question 9.
Mention two functions of family.
Answer:
(i) Family socialises its children.
(ii) Family gives property to its children.

Question 10.
Write the name of the forms of family on the basis of composition.
Answer:
On the basis of composition, family is of three types-Nuclear family, Joint family and Extended family.

Question 11.
Write the name of the forms of family on the basis of authority.
Answer:
On the basis of authority, there are two types of family-Patriarchal and Matriarchal family.

Question 12.
What is affinal relationship ?
Answer:
Affinal relationship is the relationship which is made after marriage. For example, father-in-law, mother-in-law, son-in-law, daughter-in-law etc.

Question 13.
What do you mean by Joint family ?
Answer:
Joint family is the family in which members of two or more generations live under one roof and eat in a common kitchen.

Question 14.
What do you mean by kinship ?
Answer:
In Kinship, all the relations are included which are based on real or imaginative ties and are influenced by society.

Question 15.
Name the degrees of kinship.
Answer:
There are three degrees of kinship-primary, secondary and tertiary.

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
What do you understand by the term institution ?
Answer:
An institution is not a group of people or an organisation. It is a system of norms to achieve few objectives. It is a collection of folkways centred around specific human activities. Institutions are transmitted process with which humans complete their functions.

Answer the following short answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
What do you mean by institution ? Discuss its characteristics.
Answer:
Meaning of Institution. We use the word ‘institution’ thousands of time in our life. According to a layman, the meaning of an institution is any building. But in sociology the meaning of an institution is not any building or collection of people. Sociologists use the meaning of institution in detail and according to society. According to them, an institution is a system of rules or norms which help people to fulfil their needs. In this way institution is the collection of folkways and mores to fulfil the needs or actions of society.

These are those processes with the help of which man does his work. Institution is that organized system of relations in which values of society are included and which fulfil the needs of society. Their function is to fulfil the needs of human and to fulfil functions and behaviour of an individual. In this web of status and roles, their an distribution is also there.

In this way we can say that an institution is an organisation of methods and rules for fulfilling the needs of individuals. Man has to take membership of many groups to fulfil his needs. In every group lots of efforts have been done to fulfil the needs of its members. After many successful and unsuccessful efforts members of the groups finds the ways of fulfilling their needs and all the members of the society accept these ways. In this Way most of the members of society start to obey those rules.

In this way for the specific conditions, specific ways will be decided and it will be wrong to go against those ways or rules. In this way socially accepted methods to fulfil specific needs of persons are known as an institution.

Definitions :
1. According to Merill and Eldridge, “Social institutions are the social patterns that establish the organized behaviour of human beings in the performance of basic social functions.”

2. According to El wood, “Institutions are habitual ways of living together which have been sanctioned, systematized and established by the authority of the communities.”

3. According to Sutherland, “In sociological parlance, an institution is a set of folkways and mores that centre in the achievement of some human end or purpose.” So from these given definitions it is clear that an institution is developed for the achievement of any specific aim. That’s why this is a group of customs, norms, rules, values etc. Sumner included social structure in institution in his book ‘Folk Ways’. An Institution expresses the ways of individual behaviour to man.

In short, we can say that an institution is the organization of actions which are accepted by society to fulfil its specific heeds. In society many types of different associations are there and every association has its own institution with which it fulfills its needs or achieve its aims.

Features or Characteristics of Institution :
1. It is made up of cultural elements. The organization of all the elements of culture of any society like folkways, mores, norms, values etc is called an institution. According to one sociologist it is the bunch of customs. When the customs, traditions, folkways, mores etc of a society integrate and take the form of a system then it is known as an institution. In this way it is the system of elements of the culture and it fulfills the different needs of humans.

2. They are Permanent. Any institution cannot be useful if it does not fulfil the needs of persons for a very long time. If it doesn’t fulfil the needs of people then it cannot be called as institution but can be called as the association. In this way institution fulfills the needs of the people for a long time.

But it doesn’t mean that an institution never comes to an end. Demand of any institution depends upon the time. Demand of any institution can be increased or decreased and it depends upon age. If any institution is of no use or any institution is unable to fulfil the needs of the persons then slowly and slowly it comes to an end.

3. It has some special motives or objectives. If any institution is formed then it is because it has some kind of specific motive. That institution knows that if it is formed then what is its function. Its function is to fulfil the specific needs of the people. In this way their main, aim is to fulfil the needs of the people but it is also possible that with the passage of time it will stop fulfiling the needs of the people. Then in that case that “institution can be replaced by any other institution.

4. Cultural Equipments. For the fulfilment of the aims of an institution material aspect of culture is used like furniture, building etc. Their form and behaviour is also fixed. In this way if an institution wants to achieve its objectives then it has to take help of material culture. Many aspects of non-material culture like folkways, mores etc already exist in an institution.

5. It is Abstract. An institution is developed with folkways, mores, customs etc. All these are the parts of non-material culture a©d we cannot see these aspects of non-material culture. We can just feel them.

In this,.the aspect of abstractness is included. It cannot be touched and can be felt only. Institution is not an organization of concrete things but is an organization of rules, methods, folkways etc. \yhich is being developed to fulfil human needs.

6. Tradition based. When an institution is formed then it is formed because of rules. Before the formation of an institution, rules are defined and then aims of that institution are clearly defined. The behaviour of the people who take part in this are also defined. If every thing will be defined earlier then no problem comes later on. If these are not defined then every one will try to change them in their own way which is dangerous for the existence of the institution.

Question 2.
Write a note on marriage as a social institution.
Answer:
Marriage is a socially approved relation of male and female which forms a new family. Marriage not only gives sanction to the relationship of male and female but it also gives approval to many other relations. Meaning of marriage is not sex alone. Marriage is the base of family. With the help of marriage, man enters into sexual relations, makes a house, produces children and upbrings them.

Institution of marriage is a universal social institution. It exists in every type of society whether it is modern or ancient. If we want to maintain human society then institution of marriage is necessary. Fulfilment of sexual needs is a biological need and if this need would be fulfilled outside the institution of marriage then the formation of family is almost impossible. Family is necessary to maintain social structure.

Marriage is an institution which gives permission to male and female to live a family life and legally accept the children produced by the relations of male and female. In this way it regulates the sexual relations of male and female.

Morgan has studied ancient societies and comes to know that life of people in ancient society was like of animals. No one was taking responsibility of upbringing of the children. Because of this problem need was aroused of the institution of marriage. That’s why for the maintenance of stability of modern society institution of marriage was accepted.

Definitions of Marriage:
(1) According to Wester Mark, “Marriage is a relation of one or more men to one or more women which is recognised by the institution of law, and involves certain rights and duties both in the case of parties entering the cyiion and in the case of children born out of it.”

(2) According to Majumdar, “Marriage is socially approved union of male and female, or as a secondary institution by society to sanction the union and mating of male and female, for purpose of (a) establishing a household (b) entering into sex relations (c) procreating and providing care for the offspring.”

(3) According to Lundberg, “Marriage consists of the rules and regulations, which define the rights, duties and privileges of husband and wife with respect to each other.”

(4) According to Anderson and Parker, “Marriage is the sanction by society of a double bond between one or more males and one,, or more females established to permit sexual intercourse for the implied purpose of’parenthood.”

On the basis of given definitions we can say that the institution of marriage is a type of institution on which the social structure of society depends. Only after the regulations of sexual relations between male and female, we can take care of upbringing of our children.

If these sexual relations will be without the approval of the society then they would be known as illegal or extra marital relations and the child produced by this relation would be known as illegal child. That’s why marriage not only fulfills the sexual needs but also does many functions for humans, as are necessary for the development of society.

Question 3.
Discuss in detail the different types or forms of marriage.
Answer:
Every society is different from another society in itself and is different from many aspects. Every society has some of its different rules, traditions, institutions etc. and every society has its different institutions for different purposes. These are different because every society has moulded them according to its facilities and needs. In this way the institution of marriage has different types according to the different needs of different societies.

All these types of marriage are given below :

1. Monogamy:
This type of marriage prevails and is very much popular in today’s modern age. In this type of marriage, one male can marry with one female at one time. Relations, in this type of marriage, are more stable, more loveable, deep and are full of sympathy. The upbringing of children can be done? in a proper way in this type of marriage and children get complete love from their parents.

Husband and wife have complete understanding in monogamy because of which there are very less chances of quarrels or creation of problems in them. But this type of marriage has some of its demerits. If wife or husband will fall ill then every work would be halted and they would not be able to give proper attention to their children.

2. Polyandry:
The custom of polyandry prevails in many societies of the world. The meaning of polyandry is the custom of that marriage in which one female marries to many males at a time and that’s why it is known as polyandry.

In this way when one female has more than one husband then it is known as Polyandry. It is of two types :
(i) Fraternal Polyandry
(ii) Non-Fraternal Polyandry.

(i) Fraternal Polyandry. In the custom of fraternal polyandry, all the husbands of a female are brothers among them. This type of marriage prevails in the Khas Tribe in India. Eldest brother is known as the father of the child and rest of the younger brothers are known as her husbands. They establish sexual relations with their wife without the permission of their elder brother. Elder brother is the head of the family and it is his duty to upbring the children in a proper way.

If even after the marriage, any brother of the husbands will be born then he will also become the husband of that wife. If except elder brother, any other younger brother will marry any where else then other brothers are also permitted to make relations with his wife. If that brother will not permit then he can be thrown out of his property right.

(ii) Non-Fraternal Polyandry. In this type of polyandry, all the husbands of a female are not the brothers. In fact, they live at different places. Time is determined for the female that for how much time she will live with any husband. After the expiry of time period she goes to the other husband and this process goes on. If in this type, female will die then all the males are forced to live the life of the widower.

If at the time of pregnancy any husband will gift her the arrow and the bow then he will be considered as the father of the child. All husbands get a chance for that and it is their right. In this way according to this custom, the rule is that if in a definite period, wife is living with any husband then other husbands are not permitted to establish sexual relations with her. .

3. Polygamy:
The custom of polygamy was prevailing in ancient times in India. Kings were keeping many wives and the status of any king was understandable by looking at the number of his wives. So the system of polygamy is that a person can keep many wives. Number of wives depends upon his ability to keep and economic capacity.

In middle ages this system was prevailing in Muslims and even today Muslims are permitted to keep four wives. The sexual need of males and the wish to have big family has encouraged this type of marriage. Many types of psychological problems are arising due to this system. Females are getting lower social status in society due to this type of marriage.

4. Sororate Marriage:
In this type of marriage male is marrying with the sister of his wife. Sororate marriage is of two types—Restricted Sororate marriage and Simultaneous Sororate marriage. In Restricted Sororate marriage man marries his sister-in-law after the death of his wife. In Simultaneous Sororate marriage man accepts or considers all the younger sisters of his wife as his wives. First type of this marriage is more prevailing as compared to second type. With this the problem of breaking up of families never arises and upbringing of children will be possible in an efficient way.

5. Levirate Marriage:
In this type of marriage, wife marries the younger brother of her husband after the death of her husband. With this type of marriage, property of the family can be secured and family is prevented from breaking. Upbringing of children can be done in an efficient way. Another reason of this type of marriage is that after marriage there is no need to give back the value of the bride.

6. Love Marriage:
We can see a number of love marriages in our day to day life and this type of marriage prevails in modern societies. Boy and girl both are studying in college or are working in any office and at first sight they start to love each other. They start to meet each other very frequently. They meet each other in cinema, parks etc.

They promise each other to live and die with each other and try to show their true love. Society tries to prevent them to be married and tries to obstruct their way but they remain fixed to their decision. Even if their parents are not permitting them to get married then they go to court and become married. In this way love marriage takes place.

7. Endogamy:
According to the rules of Endogamy, a man has to marry in his own caste. Castes are divided into sub-castes and he has to marry in his sub-caste. In the times of caste system this rule was strictly applied. If any one was trying to break this rule then he was thrown out of the caste. So every person had to marry in his sub-caste in endogamy.

It is so because it maintains the purity of blood, it protects the occupation of caste, it fosters the sense of unity within the group, it preserves the property of the caste, it keeps the women happier also because it is easy for them to maintain balance in their own culture. But on the other side it encourages casteism, it limits the sphere of mate selection, it is a danger to national unity and it hinders the social progress also.

8. Exogamy:
The meaning of exogamy is to establish marital relations out of its clan, village and totem. All the persons of one clan, village and totem are considered as the sisters and brothers of each other. According to Wester mark, the main reason behind this type of marriage was to prevent close relatives to establish sexual relations with each other. This marriage is a symbol of progressiveness. It increases the contacts between different groups. This type of marriage is considered as right from biological point of view.

One of the biggest disadvantages of this type of marriage is that the husband and wife have to face many problems in understanding each other’s view because they belong to different groups. Mutual love and co-operation also increase in different groups due to this marriage. It also helps in strengthening national unity.

9. Anulom Marriage:
Anulom marriage is a type of Hindu marriage according to which the males of higher castes can marry the girls of lower castes. For example, one Brahmin boy can marry with the girl of Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra castes. The main reason behind this type of marriage is that the people of lower castes consider it respectful to marry their daughter in the higher castes. It is so because it gives higher position to them in society.

10. Pratilom Marriage:
In this type of marriage males of lower castes marry the females of higher castes. Manu was strictly opposed to this type of marriage. According to Manu, the children produced from this type of marriage should be considered as untouchables or ‘chandals’. Manu says that the children produced by Brahmin girl and Shudra boy are chandals. That’s why this type of marriage is seen with the hatredness. Children from this type of marriage cannot adopt the name of any family.

Question 4.
Define marriage. Write the rules of mate selection in detail.
Answer:
Definitions of Marriage:
(1) According to Wester Mark, “Marriage is a relation of one or more men to one or more women which is recognised by the institution of law, and involves certain rights and duties both in the case of parties entering the cyiion and in the case of children born out of it.”

(2) According to Majumdar, “Marriage is socially approved union of male and female, or as a secondary institution by society to sanction the union and mating of male and female, for purpose of (a) establishing a household (b) entering into sex relations (c) procreating and providing care for the offspring.”

(3) According to Lundberg, “Marriage consists of the rules and regulations, which define the rights, duties and privileges of husband and wife with respect to each other.”

(4) According to Anderson and Parker, “Marriage is the sanction by society of a double bond between one or more males and one,, or more females established to permit sexual intercourse for the implied purpose of’parenthood.”

On the basis of given definitions we can say that the institution of marriage is a type of institution on which the social structure of society depends. Only after the regulations of sexual relations between male and female, we can take care of upbringing of our children.

If these sexual relations will be without the approval of the society then they would be known as illegal or extra marital relations and the child produced by this relation would be known as illegal child. That’s why marriage not only fulfills the sexual needs but also does many functions for humans, as are necessary for the development of society.

Rules of Mate Selection:
In every society rules of selection of mate are there which tell the persons that with which boy or girl he/she can marry and with whom he/she cannot marry. These rules are given ahead :

1. Endogamy
2. Exogamy
3. Hypergamy
4. Hypogamy

1. Endogamy:
According to the rules of Endogamy man has to marry within his own caste. Caste was again divided into sub-castes. In this way man had to marry in sub-caste. In the times of caste system this rule was strictly applied. If any one was trying to break or was breaking this rule then the caste was throwing him out of caste and they were breaking or severing all types of relations with it.

According to religious books society was divided into four castes. These castes were again divided into sub-castes. Every person has to marry in his own sub-caste. In this form of marriage many changes have come due to the passage of time.

There are different forms of endogamy available in India and these are :

1. Tribal Endogamy
2. Caste Endogamy
3. Class Endogamy
4. Sub-caste Endogamy
5. Racial Endogamy.

According to the rule of tribal endogamy the man has the permission to marry only in his tribe. In the same way man should marry in his caste, class, sub-class, race etc.

2. Exogamy. Institution of marriage is one of the important social institutions. Any society cannot give permission to any couple to live as husband and wife-without marriage. That’s why every society has made some rules to establish marriage system in society. The most important function is the selection of the mate. Exogamy is also one of the rules of mate selection.

In many societies the marital relations are forbidden between the persons who are related with each other by blood. According to Sumner, “Endogamy is conservative while exogamy is progressive.” In this way in exogamy marriage is prohibited within the group. Children of same parents are also forbidden to marry.

Among Muslims, marriage between the relatives of parents is permitted. In the Roman Catholic Church of England marriage with the sister-in-law, after the death of the wife, or Sororate marriage was not allowed. In Australia, boy can marry with the wife of his father if she is not his mother.

According to the rule of Exogamy, man is not permitted to marry within his caste, clan, Spraver, Spinda etc. Some of its types are given below :

1. Gotra Exogamy.
2. Spraver Exogamy.
3. Spinda Exogamy.
4. Village Exogamy.
5. Totem Exogamy.

3. Hypergamy and Hypogamy. In ancient Indian Society two forms of inter caste marriages existed (1) Hypergamy and (2) Hypogamy. Hypergamy marriage is that law in which girl can marry either in the same or equal caste or with the boy of higher caste. In other words when a boy of higher caste marries a girl of lower caste then it is known as Hypergamy. In this type of marriage Brahmin girl, can only marry Brahmin boy. Kshatriya girl can marry either to Kshatriya boy or Brahmin boy.

Vaishya girl can marry with Vaishya boy or Kshatriya boy or Brahmin boy. Except this Brahmin boy can marry with the girl of any caste. Kshatriya boy can marry the girl of any caste except Brahmin girl. Vaishya boy can marry with the girl of any caste except Brahmin and Kshatriya girl. When t

he problems were started with the rule of endogamy then this rule of marriage of hypergamy was encouraged. According to Risley, “Aryan women were less in number. That’s why to remove this problem they were accepting the girls of Indian origin and when this problem was removed then this type of marriages came to an end.”

Second type of marriage in this category is Hypogamy. This rule is totally opposite to the rule of Hypergamy. According to this rule boy of a lower caste marries to the girl of higher caste. Like girl of the Brahmin caste would marry with the boy of Kshatriya caste or boy of Kshatriya caste marries the girl of Brahmin caste. According to Radha Krishnan, “In the rule of hypogamy boy of lower caste used to marry with the girl of higher caste. The children produced by this type of marriage were not kept in any caste and they were known as chandal.”

So this type of marriage was restricted in caste system. Only on some special condition this type of marriage was allowed. In the end we can say that now both types of inter-caste marriages are developing in Indian society. In today’s society people are free to do inter-caste marriage. Now people feel that the clutches of caste system have been finished but still we are living in the caste system.

Question 5.
What is family ? What are the basic features of family ?
Answer:
If we study human society we observe that the first group in human society was family. In ancient times division of labour was based on the family. We will not find any society in which the institution of family does not exist. This institution exists from ancient societies till modern societies and it will remain forever yet many other institutions came into being and came to an end. But the institution of family is standing there as it is.

Yet in present developed societies, the importance of family has been reduced because most of the functions have been taken by many other institutions but still even today most of the human actions are centred around family. Psychologists have proved that character of a child will be made in the way in which he gets the family and he functions according to that in his future life. The main reason behind the social disorganization and many other problems is the disintegration of the family.

Family is an important group for social structure. The word family has been taken from the word ‘Famulous’ which is a Roman word that means servant. According to Roman Law, the meaning of this word is by that group in which all those servants, slaves or owners are included which are based on blood relations or marital relations. It is that type of group in which the satisfaction of sexual needs of males and females

are sanctioned by the society. After the upbringing of the child, one becomes the citizen of the society. In simple words the meaning of family is the group of husband, wife and their children. But from sociological point of view its meaning is not only a collection of people but is by the system of their mutual relationship and its main objectives are to produce children, their up-bringing, their socialization and satisfaction of sexual instincts.

Different sociologists have given different views about the family and some of these definitions are given below –
(1) According to Maclver, “Family is a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children.”

(2) According to G.P. Murdock, “The family is a social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually co-habitating adults.”

(3) According to H.M. Johnson, “Family is a group of two or more individuals related by blood, marriage or adoption and residing together, all such persons are considered as members of one family.”

(4) According to Elliot and Merrill, “Family is the biological social unit which consists of husband, wife and children.” Many differences are there in the definitions given by different sociologists but on one thing their views are same that the family is a group in which the sexual relationships of male and female are accepted by society and it is a universal group.

About its meaning in the end we can say that family is a biological unit which is related as an institution for sexual relationships. Its members are personally related with each other with the process of reproduction. In short, we can say that mother, father and their children are included in the family and if is developed in every society.

Characteristics of Family:
1. Family is a universal group. Family is a social group. It is also known as the first institution in human history because it exists in every society and in all times. Every member of society is definitely a member of any family. It is so because wherever we take birth, we are related with those members of the group. Except this, man can fulfil his basic needs by living only in society.

2. Emotional base. Family is the base of the human society which is based on basic instincts of human like to produce children, relations of husband and wife, maintenance of descent, protection of property and emotions are also included in this. Feelings of cooperation, love, sympathy also are developed in this which is necessary for progress and development of the society.

3. Formative Influence. Family is an important unit in social structure. Family exerts a formative influence on the development of the personality of the child. Family is an institution in which child gets knowledge about social behaviour. All round development of the man is possible only in family. Whatever child observes in family, tries to learn and imitate that thing as quickly as possible.

4. Small in size. Size of family is limited because only those persons are included in family who either have taken birth in family or who have a marital relation. In ancient times when society was based on agriculture then joint families were there in which father-mother, grandfather-grandmother, uncle, aunt etc.

lived collectively. With the development of society, females started to move out of family for the job. Then nuclear family came into being in which only parents and their unmarried children are included. The meaning of small size is that membership of the person in the family is based on birth and blood relatives are also included in this.

5. Central position in the social structure. Our society is based on family and different associations are formed only from family. That’s why it has central position in society. In earlier societies social organization was based upon family. Social progress was also based upon this. Yet most of the functions of family have been taken by other institutions but still a number of functions are there which only family can do for society. No other institution can do that work. ’

6. Sexual relations. In family, male establishes sexual relations with female because society gives sanction to the formation of family only after marriage. In earlier societies there was no rule regarding sexual relation and there was no real form of family and society was moving towards disintegration.

Question 6.
Discuss in detail the different types of family.
Answer:
This world is too big and many types of societies exist in this world. Every society has some of‘its distinct geographical, social and cultural features. These features are different in different societies and that’s .why different types of families exist in different types of societies. It is so because every society has its different ideals, beliefs, culture etc.

For example in India we can see many types of societies like Patriarchal or Matriarchal. In this way family also has many forms. All these forms can be divided on the basis of numbers, on the basis of marriage, on the basis of authority, on the basis of nomenclature, on the basis of place of residence etc. Now we’ll see them one by one.

1. Types of Family on the basis of Marriage. It is of two types :
(i) Monogamous Family. In this type of family, one male marries one female and the family on this type of base is known as Monogamous family. In modern age, this type of family is known as correct type of family.
(ii) Polygamous Family. When one male marries more than one female or one female marries more than one male then this type of family is known as polygamous family.

It is further of two types:
(а) Polyandrous Family. When one female marries with more than one male then it is known as polyandrous marriage. The main feature of this type of family is that one female has many husbands. It is again of two types. First type is Fraternal polyandrous family in which all the husbands are brothers. Second type is non- fraternal polyandrous family in which all the husbands are not the brothers.

(b) Polygamous Family. When a male marries more than one female then it is known as polygamous family. In this type of family, one male has many wives. For example, a Muslim is permitted to keep four wives. Hindu kings, in ancient times, kept many wives. But according to Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, Hindus are not permitted to keep more than one wife. Many tribes in India are still there who have this type of family like Nagas, Gonds etc.

2. Family on the basis of Numbers. Family on the basis of numbers is of three types :
(i) Nuclear Family. Nuclear family is a very small family in which husband, wife and their unmarried children are living. Other relations are not included in nuclear family. This type of family exists in today’s modem societies because people are doing jobs in cities. Children make their own nuclear family after their marriage.

(ii) Joint Family. There are many members in this type of family. Grandfather- grandmother, elder uncle-aunt, younger uncle-aunt, brothers, sisters are included in this type of family. Generally this type of family exists in villages.

(iii) Extended Family. This type of family is generally made only after and with the help of joint family. The advanced stage of joint family is known as extended family. In this all the brothers, their married children and even their grand children are also living. This type of family is not possible in modem societies. This type of family was possible in earlier time when the whole family was engaged in same occupation but today it is not possible.

3. Family on the basis of Nomenclature.

It is further of four types :
(i) Patrilineal Family. In Patrilineal family descent is of the father which generally exists in today’s life. It means that the son gets nomenclature of the father and the nomenclature of the father is of great importance.

(ii) Matrilineal Family. This type of family runs on the name of the mother. It
means that the child gets nomenclature of the mother. This type of family exists in many tribes of India. «

(iii) Bilinear Family. In this type of family descents of both mother and father
are going side by side. It means that the child gets the nomenclature of both the mother and the father. . ”

(iv) Non-Unilinear Family. In this type of family, nomenclature is determined on the basis of nearest relative. It is known as non-unilinear family.

4. Family on the basis of types of relatives. This type of family is of two types :
(i) Consanguine Family. In this type of family, blood relations are at highest place and there are no sexual relations in it. Husband and wife are also there in this type of family but they are not the base of this family. Membership of this type of family can be attained only on the basis of birth. This type of family never comes to an end even after divorce and it is permanent.

(ii) Conjugal Family. Husband-wife and their unmarried children are here in this type of family. In this husband-wife and their relatives are included. This type of family can be broken after the death of either husband or wife or both.

5. Family on the basis of Residence. This type of family is of three types :
(i) Patrilocal Family. In this type of family, bride leaves her father’s house and
goes to the house of her husband to live and establish the family. We can see this type of family very often. – ”

(ii) Matrilocal Family. This type of family is definitely opposite to Patrilocal family in which girl never leaves her father’s house after marriage but lives there only. In this, her husband leaves his father’s house and goes to the house of his wife to live. It is known as Matrilocal family. We can find this type of family in Garo and Khasi tribes.

(iii) Neolocal Family. This type of family is different from other two types. Husband and wife are not living at their father’s house but are making a new house after their marriage and that is why it is known as Neolocal family. We can find this type of family in today’s modern age.

6. Family on the basis of Authority. This type of family is of two types :
(i) Patriarchal Family. In this type of family whole power is in the hands of males. Head of the family is male. Descent also depends upon the father. After marriage wife goes to the husband’s house and property is distributed among the boys of the family. Eldest son of the family gets most respect. His respect in the home is equal to the respect of the father.

In every type of necessary family matters, male’s interference is necessary. It we look at the ancient Hindu society then according to the Vedic descriptions male was just like a God for the female. Eldest son gets all the rights of the family after the death of his father.

(ii) Matriarchal Family. In this type of family, female is dominant in the family, whole ownership of the property of family is in the hands of the female. Females of the family have the right over the property. After marriage husband goes to the house of wife to live. Function of the Brahmin was being done by females. Property was divided among the females of the family. Descent was also moved from females.

Question 7.
Highlight the changes that have taken place in the institution of family in contemporary period.
Answer:
1. Changes brought by the Government. When marriage got sanction of society in the form of an institution then many changes were brought in it. Many laws were passed related to marriage out of which Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 was the most important. According to this law, Polygamy was now restricted and Monogamy was accepted by the society and was ’accepted as an ideal marriage. Problem of child marriage also came to an end and it was written that if any one will try to break the law then he will be punished severely.

A law related to divorce was also passed so that the life of male and female should last without any problems. In earlier times if the wife was manhandled by the husband even then she had to live with her husband because she was dependent on him. But now male and female both are free to use their legal right to get divorce so that they can live a happy life.

2. Marriage is related to social contract. According to ancient ideology of marriage, it was related and limited to religion and couple had to live with each other even if they didn’t like each other. But according to modem ideology if the relations between husband and wife are not good then this contract can be severed. In some cases when the marriage is done forcefully then they both can decide to break this marriage. Now it is equated with a contract that marriage is a social contract and it ean be broken at will.

According to T.B. Bothomore,” Marriage is no longer an economic partnership, and is no longer sustained by wider kinship groups. Finally, the desire for a Hemerous progeny is replaced by the aim of deliberate aim of limiting size. Thus the marriage bond is reduced to simple relations of mutual attraction.” In modern times marriage is related with personal happiness so that the family could take care of their children properly.

3. Change in the status of women. The way in which females started to take part in other sectors of society, in that same way the form of marriage was changed.

Marriage, Family And Kinship:
In earlier societies females were economically dependent upon others. That’s why they loved to suffer a lot of hardships. But slowly and slowly, with the education of females, she became economially independent. She started to take her decisions herself. She got a lot of help from the law. Now she can take divorce from her husband and can live a happy life.

In this way when a female has made her place in the society then the institution of the marriage also changed. Divorce rate is increased. Now females have a better status as compared to earlier times. Now she is economically viable. She can take her decision. She takes part in the economic activities of the family and stand jointly with the husband to face the problems of life.

4. Changes because of development in education. In earlier times, no one was bothering about importance of education. That’s why the institution of marriage was developed to fulfil religious situation. But after the spread of education, compulsion of marriage comes to an end. Child marriage comes to an end. Now educated children marry according to their wish.

5. Changes because of development in industries. In ancient societies rules related to marriage were so strict that one had to marry in his own caste. If he was breaking this rule then he was punished by caste. But with the increased importance of money, marital relations are also changed. Now purity of earliest times does not exist.

Relations of male and female are generally related to money because of which sometimes they hardly believe each other and start to live separately. Except this, many problems have emerged from both sides because of which the importance of marriage is reduced.

6. Changes in the outlook regarding arranged marriages. In ancient societies the institution of marriage was dependent upon elders because a child had to do what his elders wanted. But in modern times the importance of arranged marriage has been reduced because both boy and girl want to marry according to their ideas, ideals and views.

They do not accept the preferences regarding marriage given by their parents because the point of view of new generation has been changed regarding marriage. Sometimes even their decisions are proved wrong but still they want to give importance to their independent thoughts.

7. Change due to scientific outlook. People have changed their views regarding the institution of marriage because of the new inventions which came in the society. Now point of view of the people regarding religious sacrament has been changed. Now people are doing court marriage. The religious feelings of humans are now related to the scientific outlook.

In ancient times husband was like a god for wife and some religious rules were there even for males for marriage. But now all these things have changed and because of which the stability of the family has been decreased. Families have started to disintegrate.

Question 8.
Define Kinship and discuss its types in detail.
Answer:
Meaning of Kinship. ‘Kin’ word is an English word which has been taken from the word ‘Cynn’ meaning relative. Sociologists and Anthropologists have kept this word ‘relatives’ while studying Kinship. In word Kinship all the relatives are included like blood relatives, relatives made by marriage etc.

In simple words, according to Sociology and Anthropology. Kinship System is that collection of rules which regulates the nomenclature, heirness, heritage, marriage, extra marital relations, place of living etc. and determines the status of person in any specific Society or in group from the point of view of blood relation and marital relations.

It means that the system of social relations developed and made by blood relations or affinal relations is known as Kinship system. Its clear meaning is that all those relations which have been made by blood or by marriage are the part of Kinship system. In this all those relations are included which have been made by blood or by marriage. For example, mother-father, uncle-aunt, maternal uncle-aunt, brother-sister, father-in-law-mother-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law etc. All these are relatives and are the part of Kinship System.

1. According to Levi Strauss, “Kinship is an arbitrary system of ideas.”
2. According to Charles Winick, “Kinship system may include socially recognized relationship based on supposed as well as actual geneolocal ties.”
3. According to Redcliffe Brown, “All those relations which came as a result or made because of family and marriage are the part of Kinship System.”

Brown further says that it is that web of relationship which forms due to marriage and family and these relations are the part of our social structure. Relatives keep duties and rights towards each other and obey the social customs in Social meetings because with their help Kinship can be explained.

4. According to Dr. Majumdar, “An individual is tied with many types of relations of group in all societies. The most basic and usual relation among these relations is that which is based upon reproduction which is the internal human motivation. It is ‘ known as Kinship.”

On the basis of given definitions we can say that two persons are relatives. If their ancestor is one then they are the offsprings of one person. Kinship system is the system of relatives which is based on blood relations or affipal relations. Kinship system is cultural and its structure is different in the whole world. In Kinship system all those real or imaginative blood relations are included which are sanctioned by the society.

One illegal child can never get high place in society but one adopted child can get highest place in Kinship system. It is a system of specific relation group in which all the relatives are included which understand the responsibilities towards each other. In this way system of social relations established by socially sanctioned real or imaginative blood and affinal relatives is known as Kinship system.

On the basis of the closeness and distance from a person, Kinship has been divided in different categories. In Kinship we don’t have the same type of relations with all the relatives. The type of relations which we have with our parents, husband-wife and children, we cannot have that type of relations with our uncle, aunt, nephew etc. We don’t have very close relations with them. On the basis of this closeness and distance, Kinship has been divided in three categories

which are given below :
1. Primary Relatives. In the first category of Kinship primary relatives like husband-wife, father-son, mother-son, mother-daughter, father-daughter, sister-sister, brother-sister, brother-brother are coming. According to Murdock, they are of 8 types. They are primary because relations among them are direct and very close.

2. Secondary Relatives. Some of our relatives are primary like mother-father, brother-sister etc. and have direct relations with them. But some relatives are there who are not directly related with us. In fact we are connected with them through the medium of our primary relatives like brother of mother, brother of father, sister of mother, sister of father, husband of sister, wife of brother etc. We don’t have very close relation with them. In fact they are our secondary relatives. According to Murdock, these are of 33 types.

3. Tertiary Kins. First relatives are primary. Then comes secondary relatives which are related with us with the medium of primary relatives. Third type are of those relatives which are primary relatives of secondary relatives. Like son of brother of father, wife of brother of mother, wife of brother of mother etc. According to Murdock these are of 151 types. So in this way there are three types of categories of Kinship but if we want then we can make fourth and fifth categories of Kinship also.

Question 9.
Discuss the importance of Kinship in social life.
Answer:
Kinship system has an important place in the social structure. With this structure, the society .can be formed. If the Kinship system would not be there, society cannot be made like an organization and would not be able to function in a proper way. That’s why it’s importance has been increased

1. With the help of Kinship system rights, marriage, family, production and method of consumption, rights of political power are fixed in tribal and agricultural societies. Even in urban societies we can see the importance of Kinship relations at the time of marriage and family festivals.

2. Kinship, family and marriage are deeply related to each other. With the help of
Kinship system we can determine that who willmarry whom and which name would be given to which relation.’ From Kinship only we can come to know about the nomenclature, clan, and the family of the person and of the concept of exogamy exists in family or linage or clan. , „

3. Family life, relations of family, nomenclature, clan and rituals related to birth and death are fixed by the Kinship and who will perform all the rituals is also fixed by Kinship.

For example, in the rituals related to marriage big brother, mother and sister of the father are of great importance. Who will give fire to the dead body is also related with Kinship. Who will be the heir of the person is also determined by the Kinship. At the time of Social functions, festivals, relatives are of great importance because at these moments it is necessary to call them. It will strengthen the relationship.

4. Kinship system gives strength to the society. Kinship system plays an important role in making social organization. If Kinship system would not be there then the social system will break down and there will be chaos all over the society. ,,

5. Kinship system determines the sexual relations. Sexual relations in;3E^jship system are restricted in our society. If Kinship system would not be there then there will be a lot of illegal relations and children in the society and social disorders will prevail.

6. Kinship System plays an important role in the determination of marriage. You are not supposed to marry in your clan, how many relatives would be left from mother’s side and father’s side all depend upon Kinship system. If this system would not be there then no one will obey the rules related to marriage and social disorder will prevail in society.

7. Kinship system gives mental peace to an individual. Yet in modern industrial Society our views have been changed from emotional to practical but still man is tied with the Kinship ties. He hangs the pictures of his ancestors in his house, he collects their pictures, he even does ‘Shradha’ after their death. Humans are based on the group and Kinship.

Without Kinship man is just like a dead man. Our relatives know us very well. They accept themselves as the part of the family. If we are in any tension then our relatives give us mental peace. Only by lining with our relatives we become happy and feel pleasure in their company.

In this way we can say that Kinship is of great importance in our Society. Nothing will be left in our society if we will take out Kinship system from it. So that’s why Kinship system is very important for our society.

Question 10.
Differentiate between affinal and consanguinal relations.
Answer:
Consanguinity. Consanguinity are the relations based on basic family and the relations based on real or imaginative traditional blood relations. In simple words, all those relatives or persons which are tied with blood relations are known as Consanguinity. Blood relations whether real or imaginary keep a higher place in the Kinship system if these relations are sanctioned by the society.

For example, an illegal child never gets sanction from the society even if he is related by blood. But the adopted child is sanctioned by the Society even if he is not blood relative and is a part of consanguinity system. Blood relations have the Social Sanctions in every type of Society.

In this way it is clear that all those relatives which come out of traditional relatives of blood relations of early family are included in consanguinity system, for example, brother, sister, uncle, grand parents etc. Here one thing should be kept in mind that blood relations are not only from father’s side but are also from the mother’s side. In this way blood relatives of father’s side are known as Patrilineal relatives and blood relatives from mother’s side are know as matrilineal relatives.’

Classification. On the basis of blood relations, relatives can be called by different names. Children of the same parents, which are real brothers and sisters are known as siblings. Step brothers and sisters are known as half siblings. From the side of father blood relatives of only males, which are also only males, are known as agnates.

In the same way from the side of mother blood relatives of only females, which are also only females, are known as utrive. In the same way those persons who are blood relatives are known as consanguined kin.

These blood relatives can be divided in two parts :
1. Unilineal Kin. In this type of Kinship those persons are coming which are related to the single line or unilineal of a descent. For example Father, Father’s father, Son and son’s son.

2. Collateral Kin. These types of relatives are those relatives which are indirectly related through every relative. For example’ Brother of father uncle, Sister of Mother – aunt, Brother of mother – uncle etc. Affinity. It is also known as Social Kinship. In this type of Kinship all those persons are included which are produced because of the marriage of a male and female.

When a boy marries a girl then he not only establishes relation with the girl but with the medium of girl he establishes relations with many members with the family of the girl.

In the same way, when a girl marries a boy then girl also establishes relations with all the members of the family of the boy. In this way just with marriage many new relationships come into being. So in this way the Kinship based on marriage is known as Affinal Kinship.

For example, brother-in-law, son-in-law, father-in-law, mother-in-law, sister- in-law etc. from both sides. This type of Kinship is not only important from biological point of view but it also has social importance. Biological importance is only for husband and wife but mother-in-law, father-in-law, brother- in-law, sister-in-law, son-in-law, daughter-in-law etc. are the social relationships.

Morgan studied Kinship of many parts of the world and gave them the names of descriptive and objective categories. In descriptive system generally one name is given to marital relatives. These names tell more about a relationship as compared to Kinship. Objective words tell more about real relationship. For example, ‘uncle’ word is used for Mama, Chacha, Fuffa, Mausa etc.

This is example of first type.
But no word can be used for father. In the same way ‘Nephew’ word is used for (Bhatija and Bhanja,) ‘Cousin’ word is used for the children of Mama, Chacha, Taya, Maasi, Bua etc. In the same way the word sister-in-law is used for Sali and Ninaan and brother-in-law is used for Deor and Sala. In this way new words are used in modern society.

Actually all these words are the symbols of kinship and are based on affinal kinship or Affinity. Like the status of son-in-law and husband to man and the status of daughter-in-law and wife to female can be given only after marriage. In this way we can count a number of affinal relationships.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 6 Socialization Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 6 Socialization

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Socialization Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
What do you mean by socialisation?
Answer:
The process with which an individual learns the ways to live in society.

Question 2.
Name the stages of socialisation.
Answer:
Infant stage, childhood stage, adolescent stage, adulthood stage, and old age.

Question 3.
What is the adolescent stage?
Answer:
The stage starts at the age of 12-13 years and goes till 18-19 years. In this stage, physical changes come in an individual.

Question 4.
What is the infancy stage?
Answer:
This is the stage which starts with the birth and goes till one and half years and child depends upon others to fulfill his basic needs.

Question 5.
Which are the primary agencies of socialisation?
Answer:
Family, school, and play groups are the primary agencies of socialisation.

Question 6.
Give two examples of formal agencies of socialisation.
Answer:
Government, Laws, Courts, Political System etc.

Question 7.
Mention two informal agencies of socialisation.
Answer:
Family, institutions, religion, play group etc.

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
Define socialisation.
Answer:
According to Bogardus, “Socialisation is the -process of working together of developing group responsibility of being guided by the welfare needs of others.”

Question 2.
Write down the stages of socialisation.
Answer:

1. Infant stage
2. Childhood stage
3. Adolescent stage
4. Adulthood’ stage
5. Old age.

Question 3.
Discuss the role of family in the process of socialisation.
Answer:
Family plays a very important role in an individual’s socialisation. Child’s unconscious mind is greatly affected by family. In family, child learns many feelings such as love, sympathy etc. Family tells him about values, cutoms, ways of living etc. which helps in his socialisation.

Question 4.
Describe three formal agencies of socialisation.
Answer:
Police, laws and political system are three formal agencies of socialisation.
If any one commits a crime, he is caught by the police. With the help of laws, he is punished. Our political system prepares strict laws which helps in the reduction of crimes. An individual is having fear of all these and it helps in his socialisation.

Question 5.
Write a short note on primary socialisation.
Answer:
Family and play group are the means of primary socialisation. While living . in family, child learns ways of living in society and becomes a good citizen. In play group, he comes to know that other children also have same aspirations like him and he cares about them. It helps in his socialisation.

Question 6.
Discuss mass media as an agency of socialisation.
Answer:
In present age, the importance of mass media has greatly increased. Different news channels telecast their news all around and inform us about the whole world. We come to know about the events happening everywhere which helps in our socialisation.

Answer the following short answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
Discuss the characteristics of socialisation.
Answer:

1. The process of socialisation is universal which exists in all the societies.
2. This process is a iearning process and an individual learns a lot during whole of his life.
3. There are different stages of socialisation and process of learning in different stages is different.
4. The intensity of learning in adulthood stages reduces but it is continued till death.
5. There are many means of socialisation but family is the most important agency which plays the most important role in this process.

Question 2.
What is the importance of peer groups in socialisation ?
Answer:
After family and neighbourhood, the agency which socialises an individual is peer group or play group. Child starts to play with his friends and forms a peer group. His social education starts in the peer group. Here he learns all the things which he cannot learn in family.

He is required to sacrifice his wish in peer group and he comes to know that others also have the same aspirations like him. In peer group, relations are based on equality. That’s why when he takes part in its activities, he learns discipline and co-operation. All these greatly affect his future. While playing children often fight with each other and learn to .protect their rights. So peer group keeps a very important place in one’s socialisation. .

Question 3.
Describe in brief the process of socialisation in youth and old age.
Answer:
(i) Adulthood stage or young age :
This stage keeps a very important place in the process of socialisation. In this stage, one learns to accomodate with others. The major question in this stage is to find employment. While doing so, many a time he gets rejected but he never loses his heart and continues with his efforts. It makes him learn a lot. After marriage and having kids, his role changes which helps him to learn a lot.

(ii) Old age :
In this stage, an individual learns many new things. He starts to realise that he is now dependent upon his family, he gets afflicted with many diseases and needs to learn new ways of accommodation. He is required to work according to his children which further creates many problems. He tries to maintain balance with all these situations.

Answer the following short answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
Discuss the development of an individual through the process of socialisation.
Answer:
How man becomes able to live in society ? It is because of his contact with people and materialistic things. When anyone is a child then he doesn’t have the ability to do any of the social work and he is unaware of the things belonging to his surroundings.

But slowly and slowly he starts to see all of them. Child becomes social man because of those persons who surround him all the times because these people tell him the ways of living in society. He adjusts with others and compares his and other’s work.

Slowly and slowly he learns from his experience that other persons are also like him and he expresses his feelings to others. He does this at that time when he thinks that others have also feelings like him. He wanders here and there and he tries to know about every thing which comes in front of him. In this way parents try to explain him with the help of symbols that what is right and what is wrong for him.

Slowly and slowly he is told about going to temple, school, education etc. He is sent to school where he learns to adapt according to the other situations and learns every type of the way of life which is necessary to live a happy life. In this way slowly and slowly he grows up and learns the rules of society.

First relation of child is with his family. After birth his first need is of physical need that is of hunger and thirst. He is more interested in mother because she fulfills his basic needs. After mother other members of the family like father, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother, brother, sister etc. come. All these members tell him about the world in which he has to spend his whole life. In family he experiences things like love, power, force, rights etc. because all these things he gets in the family.

In the beginning child wants everything whatever he likes because he thinks that he has a right over them. If he is unable to get that then he starts crying. When he becomes 2-3 years of age he starts to understand that he cannot get everything what he wants. He feels sad if he is unable to get that thing but slowly and slowly he starts to control himself.

Child is dependent ugon his family for his needs and for this it is necessary for him to get cooperation of the family. He gets their cooperation with self control and he learns norms, values of society which are necessary for him to live and behave in society.

When a person develops then he learns ways of talking, sitting, walking and mannerism. With this his self also develops. When man beqomes conscious about his functions then this consciousness is known as self. In the beginning he cannot differentiate between others and members of the family because he doesn’t know about the relationship of the world. But slowly and slowly he interacts with members of the family and with this he comes to know about socialization also.

After his family members, he goes to his friends. These are his friends who grew in different circumstances. His friends have different ideals which a child learns very slowly and he learns to adjust with difficult circumstances. In play ground he learns to govern and to be governed and learns to make balance with others which is a part of process of socialization.

Another very big change comes in the life of a child and that is when he enters the school. In school he comes under the influence of other students and by the character of teacher. In this way in college he learns a lot of things from his teachers and other students like ways of sitting, walking, talking, behaving etc. which is necessary for his future’s life. After college, business or job, marriage also helps in his socialization.

Personality of husband and wife puts a great effect on each other and on their future. After marriage he has to fulfil a number of duties like of husband, father etc. With these new duties he learns a lot. In this way the process of socialization starts with the birth and ends at the death. Man can finish but this process cannot finish.

Question 2.
Write down about the various stages of socialisation.
Answer:
The process of socialisation is quite wide and starts with the birth of a child. When a child is ban then he is not more than an animal because he does’t know about the ways of living in society and there is lack of social life in him. But with the passage of time when child grows then the process of socialization also goes on with his age and he moulds himself according to the social life. He learns the ideals, values, norms, rules, beliefs, motivations etc. When a child takes birth then he has natural instincts but when he comes in contact with society, his natural instincts change into social habits.

All this happens at different times whose description is given below –

1. Infant Stage
2. Childhood Stage
3. Adolescent Stage
4. Adulthood Stage
5. Old Age.

1. Infant Stage. While explaining the first stage Johnson wrote that this stage starts at the birth of the child and goes up to the age of one and a half years. In this stage child neither can speak nor he can walk. Except this he cannot fulfil his basic needs. He has to depend upon his mother. This is a type of stage in which he is unable to differentiate in things. For the fulfilment of his basic needs like hunger, thrust etc, he depends upon the members of the family.

He tries to take that thing which he likes. According to Talcot Parsons, “Child is a mean of recreation for others in this stage. Generally he can recognise his mother and becomes happy when he comes in contact with his mother. According to him there is no difference in imaginative and real situations.”

After the birth of the child this is the first stage when child doesn’t know’to walk or talk. He has some basic needs and he depends upon his mother for the fulfilment of his basic needs. He cannot differentiate in real and artificial elements. He thinks that others are also like him. Child wants that thing which he likes. This stage goes up to the age of one and half years. In this he tries to establish uniformity with his mother because of which he learns to control his hunger, thirst etc.

2. Childhood Stage. This stage starts at one and half years and goes up to 12 years and in this stage child learns to talk and walk properly. Child starts to fulfil most of his needs himself. Till the age of 2 years he comes to know that except him, other children also have same rights and he cannot get all the things which he needs. He feels sad when all of his demands are not fulfilled but gradually he learns to control himself.

During this time family members try to impart good habits in him by giving reward or punishment. During this time he gets love from others and starts to love others. He starts to learn values of the family and to imitate family members. marriage he has to fulfil a number of duties like of husband, father etc. With these new duties he learns a lot. In this way the process of socialization starts with the birth and ends at the death. Man can finish but this process cannot finish.

Question 2.
Write down about the various stages of socialisation.
Answer:
The process of socialisation is quite wide and starts with the birth of a child. When a child is ban then he is not more than an animal because he does’t know about the ways of living in society and there is lack of social life in him. But with the passage of time when child grows then the process of socialization also goes on with his age and he moulds himself according to the social life. He learns the ideals, values, norms, rules, beliefs, motivations etc. When a child takes birth then he has natural instincts but when he comes in contact with society, his natural instincts change into social habits.

All this happens at different times whose description is given below-

1. Infant Stage
2. Childhood Stage
3. Adolescent Stage
4. Adulthood Stage
5. Old Age.

1. Infant Stage:
While explaining the first stage Johnson wrote that this stage starts at the birth of the child and goes up to the age of one and a half years. In this stage child neither can speak nor he can walk. Except this he cannot fulfil his basic needs. He has to depend upon his mother.

This is a type of stage in which he is unable to differentiate in things. For the fulfilment of his basic needs like hunger, thrust etc, he depends upon the members of the family.

He tries to take that thing which he likes. According to Talcot Parsons, “Child is a mean of recreation for others in this stage. Generally he can recognise his mother and becomes happy when he comes in contact with his mother. According to him there is no difference in imaginative and real situations.”

After the birth of the child this is the first stage when child doesn’t know’to walk or talk. He has some basic needs and he depends upon his mother for the fulfilment of his basic needs. He cannot differentiate in real and artificial elements. He thinks that others are also like him.

Child wants that thing which he likes. This stage goes up to the age of one and half years. In this he tries to establish uniformity with his mother because of which he learns to control his hunger, thirst etc.

2. Childhood Stage. This stage starts at one and half years and goes up to 12 years and in this stage child learns to talk and walk properly. Child starts to fulfil most of his needs himself. Till the age of 2 years he comes to know that except him, other children also have same rights and he cannot get all the things which he needs.

He feels sad when all of his demands are not fulfilled but gradually he learns to control himself. During this time family members try to impart good habits in him by giving-reward or punishment. During this time he gets love from others and starts to love others. He starts to learn values of the family and to imitate family members.

Sometimes he starts crying for that. During this stage he starts talking and walking properly. He also starts to control his wishes. During this age he is motivated to grasp good habits with the help of reward and punishment. For example if he obeys his parents, they love him or give him something to eat or play and if he disobeys them then they either shout on him or slap him. In this stage he starts to grasp the nature of society. He is also influenced by the members of the family. Some things he learns automatically.

Some things he learns by imitation and imitation is a means of entertainment for him. For example he reads newspaper like his father or acts as his grandfather or grandmother. In this stage he starts to adopt that behaviour which he observes in the family. During this stage the internal qualities of a child start to develop. In this way, in this stage, he starts to reeongnise about good or bad works.

In this stage child becomes a member of the group and starts to know about status of others. Even mental consciousness starts up to certain extent. He is hardly conscious about the sexual instincts. Gradually he starts to control his anger and natural instincts. He learns to differentiate between himself and other children. He starts to be influenced by members of the society. This stage gives mental security to him and he stays away from mental tensions.

3. Adolescent Stage. This stage starts at the age of 14-15 years and goes up to 20-21 years. In this age it is not possible for parents to control their children because children think that they are mature enough and need more freedom. That’s why they demand for more freedom! Now his different parts start to develop and with their development new feelings come in him and he starts .to learn new ways of behaviour. It is necessary for girls to stay away from boys. They need readjustments towards other sex or gender.

During this stage many rules related to sex, business, values, beliefs are kept in front of them. They want freedom from these bondages because they thinks that their parents are binding him. Because of this a sense of rebelliousness comes in them. Fast mental conflict starts in them and they learn self-control by tussling with conflict.

4. Adulthood Stage. At this stage, the social circle of an individual becomes quite wide as compared to the third stage. He gets employment and becomes a member of a political group, political party, club, trade union etc. He gets married in this stage and makes new relations in his life, in-laws and new friends.

He is required to maintain balance with his wife and in-laws family. Now he is not dependent upon others instead he becomes a responsible person. He needs to perform many roles such as husband-wife, mother-father, head of family, citizen of country etc. It is expected from him to perform certain roles and continue with the process of socialisation.

5. Old Age. Life of an old age person is greatly influenced by his surroundings, occupations, friends and membership of many groups. He internalises many new values and needs to learn to maintain balance with the new situations. Maintaining balance is quite important in this stage as he faces many adverse circumstances. He gets new roles in this stage such as father-in-law, grandfather, retired person etc. So even in this stage his process of socialisation continues although pace of this process is quite slow.

Question 3.
Write a note on the agencies of socialisation.
Answer:
1. Family:
Family plays the most important role in the socialization of man. According to some prominent Sociologists, the mind of a child is in unconscious state and the effect which family can put on that unconscious mind no one else can put. In childhood we can mould the mind of child in any desired direction. On his unconscious mind every thing puts its effect.

If the behaviour of parents towards child is rude then the child will try to go out of their control when he grows up and if the child will get lots of love and affection then there is no possibility for a child to go to a wrong way. If the child will not be able to get the love of his parents then imbalance can come in his personality. The base of basic education of a child is family. In family many feelings like love and affection always influence the mind of the child from which he learns many qualities.

Family tells the child about the traditions, customs, norms, ways of behaviour of the family and society. Child gets education about ways of behaviour, rules only in the family. In family child learns to obey and respect the elders. If the child is under the control of the parents then it means that child is under the control of society because at the time of the socialization of the child, parents are the representatives of the society. In family child learns many types of qualities and with which he becomes a responsible citizen of society or country. In the family only child gets the chance to express his views and development of his personality.

In its early age whatever a child observes, he starts imitating it. That’s why he depends upon the family so that the family could take him in right direction. According to some psychologists the family puts a great effect not only on the unconscious mind of the child but also affects his future. For example if parents are fighting in the family then the child will definitely live without the love of the parents and this will affect his personality. –

2. Play group:
Play group comes after family as an important means of socialization. Child comes out of the scope of the family, plays with his friends and forms a play group. In play group child starts to get social training. Child can learn a lot of things in play group which he cannot learn in the fatnily.

He has to sacrifice many of his washes while living in play group and he comes to know that others also have wishes like him. Except this relationships in play group are based on equality. That’s why when child plays in play group then he learns discipline, cooperation etc.

which affects his future life. Except this leadership qualities also come in him only by living in play group. While playing children fight with each other and learn to protect the rights of others. Here child comes to know about his role, capabilities, non-capabilities. In play group child grasps many feelings and capabilities. In short, play group plays an important role in shaping the future of the child. If play group is good then child becomes a good human being and if not then he can grasp many bad habits which can affect his future.

3. Neighbourhood:
Neighbourhood of the person is also an important means of socialization. When child comes out of the family and goes in the hands of neighbours then he comes to know that how he has to behave with others. It is so because if the child’s behaviour is not good then the family can ignore it but if his behaviour out of the family is wrong then they can feel.

He has to adapt continuously with his neighbours because neighbours will not tolerate his wrong behaviour and this adjustment will help him for his whole life that how he has to adjust in different circumstances. When he interacts with his neighbours then he comes to know that how he has to behave according to the rules of the society.

4. School:
After all these the next turn is of school whose function is to change an uncivilised child into a civilised child or you can say that school gives shape to raw material into a finished product. In school lots of qualities are developed. In school child studies with other students and many teachers are there in school who exert a great influence on him. Teacher’s ways of talking, walking, sitting, behaving, teaching puts a great influence on the mind of the child.

Here one thing should be kept in mind that different students are influenced by different teachers and they make their teachers as their ideals. They always try to imitate the behaviour of the teachers which puts a great impact on the personality of the child. Except teachers, other students also play an important role in socialization.

While living with them, he gets many roles and status which helps him in future life. Ways of sitting and playing with other children also helps in the development of the personality.In school the scope of play group and interaction of a child becomes so wide because he meets many children in the school. In school child learns many rules, discipline, traditions, subjects etc. which are very helpful in the future life of a child.

5. Social Institutions:
In the process of socialization, not only family or school, but many types of institutions play an important role. In society many types of institutions are there like religious, political, economic, marriage etc. and they play an important role in his socialization. Political institutions tell him the ways of behaving with state or country. Economic institutions tell him about the ways of business. Religious institutions create many types of qualities in him like cooperation, love, sympathy etc.

Every person accepts ways of behaviour given in religion, ways and rules of living, beliefs, with unconscious mind. In this way every society.or caste also tells him about the rules of living in society. Except these many types of recreational activities and behaviour also motivate the mian to become an active member of the society. Social institutions like religious, economic, political also influence the personality of man. For example, man spends most of his time under the influence of economic institutions because he has to earn to live ami earning depends upon his occupation.

A person gets an occupation according to his ability. He has to obey certain rules while accepting any occupation. It means that he changes himself according to the situation. In the area of occupation, he makes relations with many types of individuals. He comes in contact with many persons. That’s why his character and personality is also influenced by all these things.

Except this if we see then we can see that there is no area or part of society which is not under the influence of political institutions. Every type of group like business, language, art, music, education, family etc. are under the control of law. Man has to take the help of law to improve or to do progress in life. That’s why he changes himself according to them.

6. Needs. Man has many types of social and physical needs because of which he has to coordinate with other members of society. Man uses accepted ways of society to fulfil his needs so that he should not be condemned. In this way man does his work which is according to the norms of society with which a sense of accommodation comes in him.

7. Language. Just language can develop every aspect of a child. If child doesn’t know any language then how will he express his views, ideas and feelings towards others. With the help of language, child comes in contact with others because of which he gets many chances to express his ideas. The way in which he learns language, in the same way he gets more chances to express his views. With help of language he makes his social point of view.

With language only he expresses his needs and problems. With language he exchanges his ideas and relations with other people and he learns those rules which can run his life. With this, morality also develops in him. Language prepares him for different types of roles.

With language he comes to know about ideas of others and he also comes to know that what is his position in society. In this way language helps a lot in the process of socialization. Language also helps in the development of the personality. With the help of language, child comes in contact with others and learns social rules, ideals, norms, relations etc.

Question 4.
Discuss the relationship between the various stages of the individual’s development and the agents of socialisation.
Answer:
various stages of socialisation:
The process of socialisation is quite wide and starts with the birth of a child. When a child is ban then he is not more than an animal because he does’t know about the ways of living in society and there is lack of social life in him. But with the passage of time when child grows then the process of socialization also goes on with his age and he moulds himself according to the social life. He learns the ideals, values, norms, rules, beliefs, motivations etc. When a child takes birth then he has natural instincts but when he comes in contact with society, his natural instincts change into social habits.

All this happens at different times whose description is given below:

1. Infant Stage
2. Childhood Stage
3. Adolescent Stage
4. Adulthood Stage
5. Old Age.

1. Infant Stage:
While explaining the first stage Johnson wrote that this stage starts at the birth of the child and goes up to the age of one and a half years. In this stage child neither can speak nor he can walk. Except this he cannot fulfil his basic needs. He has to depend upon his mother. This is a type of stage in which he is unable to differentiate in things. For the fulfilment of his basic needs like hunger, thrust etc, he depends upon the members of the family.

He tries to take that thing which he likes. According to Talcot Parsons, “Child is a mean of recreation for others in this stage. Generally he can recognise his mother and becomes happy when he comes in contact with his mother. According to him there is no difference in imaginative and real situations.”

After the birth of the child this is the first stage when child doesn’t know’to walk or talk. He has some basic needs and he depends upon his mother for the fulfilment of his basic needs. He cannot differentiate in real and artificial elements. He thinks that others are also like him. Child wants that thing which he likes. This stage goes up to the age of one and half years. In this he tries to establish uniformity with his mother because of which he learns to control his hunger, thirst etc.

2. Childhood Stage. This stage starts at one and half years and goes up to 12 years and in this stage child learns to talk and walk properly. Child starts to fulfil most of his needs himself. Till the age of 2 years he comes to know that except him, other children also have same rights and he cannot get all the things which he needs.

He feels sad when all of his demands are not fulfilled but gradually he learns to control himself. During this time family members try to impart good habits in him by giving-reward or punishment. During this time he gets love from others and starts to love others. He starts to learn values of the family and to imitate family members.

Sometimes he starts crying for that. During this stage he starts talking and walking properly. He also starts to control his wishes. During this age he is motivated to grasp good habits with the help of reward and punishment. For example if he obeys his parents, they love him or give him something to eat or play and if he disobeys them then they either shout on him or slap him. In this stage he starts to grasp the nature of society. He is also influenced by the members of the family. Some things he learns automatically.

Some things he learns by imitation and imitation is a means of entertainment for him. For example he reads newspaper like his father or acts as his grandfather or grandmother. In this stage he starts to adopt that behaviour which he observes in the family. During this stage the internal qualities of a child start to develop. In this way, in this stage, he starts to reeongnise about good or bad works.

In this stage child becomes a member of the group and starts to know about status of others. Even mental consciousness starts up to certain extent. He is hardly conscious about the sexual instincts. Gradually he starts to control his anger and natural instincts. He learns to differentiate between himself and other children. He starts to be influenced by members of the society. This stage gives mental security to him and he stays away from mental tensions.

3. Adolescent Stage. This stage starts at the age of 14-15 years and goes up to 20-21 years. In this age it is not possible for parents to control their children because children think that they are mature enough and need more freedom. That’s why they demand for more freedom! Now his different parts start to develop and with their development new feelings come in him and he starts .to learn new ways of behaviour. It is necessary for girls to stay away from boys. They need readjustments towards other sex or gender.

During this stage many rules related to sex, business, values, beliefs are kept in front of them. They want freedom from these bondages because they thinks that their parents are binding him. Because of this a sense of rebelliousness comes in them. Fast mental conflict starts in them and they learn self-control by tussling with conflict.

4. Adulthood Stage. At this stage, the social circle of an individual becomes quite wide as compared to the third stage. He gets employment and becomes a member of a political group, political party, club, trade union etc. He gets married in this stage and makes new relations in his life, in-laws and new friends.

He is required to maintain balance with his wife and in-laws family. Now he is not dependent upon others instead he becomes a responsible person. He needs to perform many roles such as husband-wife, mother-father, head of family, citizen of country etc. It is expected from him to perform certain roles and continue with the process of socialisation.

5. Old Age. Life of an old age person is greatly influenced by his surroundings, occupations, friends and membership of many groups. He internalises many new values and needs to learn to maintain balance with the new situations. Maintaining balance is quite important in this stage as he faces many adverse circumstances. He gets new roles in this stage such as father-in-law, grandfather, retired person etc. So even in this stage his process of socialisation continues although pace of this process is quite slow.

agencies of socialisation:
1. Family:
Family plays the most important role in the socialization of man. According to some prominent Sociologists, the mind of a child is in unconscious state and the effect which family can put on that unconscious mind no one else can put. In childhood we can mould the mind of child in any desired direction. On his unconscious mind every thing puts its effect.

If the behaviour of parents towards child is rude then the child will try to go out of their control when he grows up and if the child will get lots of love and affection then there is no possibility for a child to go to a wrong way. If the child will not be able to get the love of his parents then imbalance can come in his personality. The base of basic education of a child is family. In family many feelings like love and affection always influence the mind of the child from which he learns many qualities.

Family tells the child about the traditions, customs, norms, ways of behaviour of the family and society. Child gets education about ways of behaviour, rules only in the family. In family child learns to obey and respect the elders. If the child is under the control of the parents then it means that child is under the control of society because at the time of the socialization of the child, parents are the representatives of the society. In family child learns many types of qualities and with which he becomes a responsible citizen of society or country. In the family only child gets the chance to express his views and development of his personality.

In its early age whatever a child observes, he starts imitating it. That’s why he depends upon the family so that the family could take him in right direction. According to some psychologists the family puts a great effect not only on the unconscious mind of the child but also affects his future. For example if parents are fighting in the family then the child will definitely live without the love of the parents and this will affect his personality. –

2. Play group:
Play group comes after family as an important means of socialization. Child comes out of the scope of the family, plays with his friends and forms a play group. In play group child starts to get social training. Child can learn a lot of things in play group which he cannot learn in the fatnily. He has to sacrifice many of his washes while living in play group and he comes to know that others also have wishes like him. Except this relationships in play group are based on equality. That’s why when child plays in play group then he learns discipline, cooperation etc.

which affects his future life. Except this leadership qualities also come in him only by living in play group. While playing children fight with each other and learn to protect the rights of others. Here child comes to know about his role, capabilities, non-capabilities. In play group child grasps many feelings and capabilities. In short, play group plays an important role in shaping the future of the child. If play group is good then child becomes a good human being and if not then he can grasp many bad habits which can affect his future.

3. Neighbourhood:
Neighbourhood of the person is also an important means of socialization. When child comes out of the family and goes in the hands of neighbours then he comes to know that how he has to behave with others. It is so because if the child’s behaviour is not good then the family can ignore it but if his behaviour out of the family is wrong then they can feel.

He has to adapt continuously with his neighbours because neighbours will not tolerate his wrong behaviour and this adjustment will help him for his whole life that how he has to adjust in different circumstances. When he interacts with his neighbours then he comes to know that how he has to behave according to the rules of the society.

4. School:
After all these the next turn is of school whose function is to change an uncivilised child into a civilised child or you can say that school gives shape to raw material into a finished product. In school lots of qualities are developed. In school child studies with other students and many teachers are there in school who exert a great influence on him. Teacher’s ways of talking, walking, sitting, behaving, teaching puts a great influence on the mind of the child.

Here one thing should be kept in mind that different students are influenced by different teachers and they make their teachers as their ideals. They always try to imitate the behaviour of the teachers which puts a great impact on the personality of the child. Except teachers, other students also play an important role in socialization.

While living with them, he gets many roles and status which helps him in future life. Ways of sitting and playing with other children also helps in the development of the personality.In school the scope of play group and interaction of a child becomes so wide because he meets many children in the school. In school child learns many rules, discipline, traditions, subjects etc. which are very helpful in the future life of a child.

5. Social Institutions:
In the process of socialization, not only family or school, but many types of institutions play an important role. In society many types of institutions are there like religious, political, economic, marriage etc. and they play an important role in his socialization. Political institutions tell him the ways of behaving with state or country. Economic institutions tell him about the ways of business. Religious institutions create many types of qualities in him like cooperation, love, sympathy etc.

Every person accepts ways of behaviour given in religion, ways and rules of living, beliefs, with unconscious mind. In this way every society.or caste also tells him about the rules of living in society. Except these many types of recreational activities and behaviour also motivate the nian to become an active member of the society.

Social institutions like religious, economic, political also influence the personality of man. For example, a man spends most of his time under the influence of economic institutions because he has to earn to live ami earning depends upon his occupation.

A person gets an occupation according to his ability. He has to obey certain rules while accepting any occupation. It means that he changes himself according to the situation. In the area of occupation, he makes relations with many types of individuals. He comes in contact with many persons. That’s why his character and personality is also influenced by all these things.

Except this, if we see then we can see that there is no area or part of society that is not under the influence of political institutions. Every type of group like business, language, art, music, education, family, etc. is under the control of law. Man has to take the help of the law to improve or to do progress in life. That’s why he changes himself according to them.

6. Needs. Man has many types of social and physical needs because of which he has to coordinate with other members of society. Man uses accepted ways of society to fulfill his needs so that he should not be condemned. In this way, man does his work which is according to the norms of society with which a sense of accommodation comes in him.

7. Language. Just language can develop every aspect of a child. If a child doesn’t know any language then how will he express his views, ideas, and feelings towards others. With the help of language, the child comes in contact with others because of which he gets many chances to express his ideas. The way in which he learns language, in the same way, he gets more chances to express his views. With help of language, he makes his social point of view.

With language only, he expresses his needs and problems. With language, he exchanges his ideas and relations with other people and he learns those rules which can run his life. With this, morality also develops in him. Language prepares him for different types of roles.

With language, he comes to know about the ideas of others and he also comes to know that what is his position in society. In this way, language helps a lot in the process of socialization. Language also helps in the development of personality. With the help of language, the child comes in contact with others and learns social rules, ideals, norms, relations, etc.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Western Sociological Thinkers Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
The formal study of society as an academic discipline originated in which country and in which century?
Answer:
The formal study of society as an academic discipline originated in France (Europe) during the 19th century.

Question 2.
Name the three factors responsible for the development of Sociology as an independent discipline.
Answer:
The industrialist Revolution, the French Revolution, and the ideas of Enlightenment are responsible for the growth of sociology.

Question 3.
State the names of two thinkers associated with enlightenment.
Answer:
Charles Montesquieu and Jean Jacques Rousseau were the two thinkers associated with enlightenment.

Question 4.
French Revolution took place in which year?
Answer:
The French Revolution took place in 1789 A.D.

Question 5.
What does the term ‘positivism ’ stand for ?
Answer:
Positivism says that society works according to certain fixed laws which can be discovered.

Question 6.
Who named two branches of Sociology as social statics and social dynamics ?
Answer:
Auguste Comte gave the names of social statics and social dynamics as two

Question 7.
Make a chart of Auguste Comte’s law of three stages.
Answer:

Question 8.
Karl Marx’s theory of class is based on which determinism ?
Answer:
Karl Marx’s theory of class is based on the ownership of means of production. One group owns all the means of production and the other doesn’t have any.

Question 9.
Who wrote the book ‘Communist Manifesto’ ?
Answer:
Communist Manifesto was written by Karl Marx and Fredrich Engles.

Question 10.
What are the stages of social change given by Karl Marx ?
Answer:
Communism and then socialism are the stages of social change given by Karl Marx.

Question 11.
Who classified the society by the nature of solidarity existing in the society? .
Answer:
Emile Durkheim classified the society by the nature of solidarity existing in the society.

Question 12.
Name the two kinds of solidarities discussed by Emile Durkheim.
Answer:
Mechanical and organic solidarity are the two kinds of solidarities discussed by Emile Durkheim.

Question 13.
List the types of social action given by Max Weber.
Answer:
Max Weber gave four types of social action and these are-Zweckrational, Wertrational, affective action and traditional action.

Question 14.
Name the types of authority mentioned by Max Weber.
Answer:
Max Weber mentioned three types of authority-Traditional authority, Legal authority and Charismatic authority. „

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
What is enlightenment ?
Answer:
Enlightenment was the age when great intellectual development took place and many changes came in the philosophical ideas. This time was around 17th-18th centuries. Major thinkers of this age were Montesquieu and Rouseau. These thinkers stressed on the supremacy of science and reason over belief. Due to these thinkers, people started giving stress on using scientific method in social phenomenon.

Question 2.
Write a short note on theological and metaphysical stage.
Answer:
Comte says that in theological stage, human ideas were imaginative. He considered every thing as a form of God. Concept was that yet all the things are lifeless but ultimate power exists in them. Second stage continued from 14th to 16th century.During this age, the right of uninterrupted observation came forward which was having no limit. That’s why spirituality declined and it also affected the metaphysical aspect.

Question 3.
What do you mean by animism ?
Answer:
Animism is a theory which says that people believe that God exists only in living things. The meaning of word ‘Anima’ is ‘soul’ or ‘movement’. That’s why people started worshipping animals, birds, land and air as well.

Question 4.
Discuss class as defined by Karl Marx.
Answer:
According to Karl Marx, “Classes are large groups of people differing from each other by the place they occupy in a historically determined system of social production, by their relation to the means of production, by their role in the social organisation of labour and consequently by the dimensions of the share of social wealth of which they dispose and their mode of acquiring it.”

Question 5.
What do you mean by class consciousness ?
Answer:
Each class is aware about its members, their position and social status. Such awareness is called class consciousness. Members of all the classes are conscious about their groups and that’s why they generally like to keep relations with the members of their own class.

Question 6.
Define historical materialism.
Answer:
Historical materialism is understanding history in terms of the relations of the people to the means of production. In simple words historical materialism is the philosophical theory of social development.

Question 7.
Write a brief note on social facts.
Answer:
Durkheim gave the concept of social fact. According to him, social fact is the every permanent or temporary way of doing action which is capable of exerting external pressure on an individual or every way of repeating action which is available everywhere but keeps independent existence from individual ideas.

Question 8.
Discuss organic solidarity.
Answer:
Organic solidarity is available in modern societies and is based on the differences existing among its members. It prevails in the societies with more population and poeple have formal relations among them. Repressive laws prevail in such societies.

Question 9.
What do you mean by Zweckrational action ?
Answer:
It is a type of rational action which is performed while keeping in mind the final goal. In these actions, an actor clearly knows about the goals and select particular means to attain his goals. These are planned and taken after evaluating the goal. These are also known as instrumental action.

Question 10.
What is affective action ?
Answer:
This action is emotional. It is determind on most of the occassions, by the state of mind of the actor. In this case, the action is not aimed towards a goal but is determined by an emotional reaction of the actor in a given set of circumstances.

Question 11.
Define Authority.
Answer:
Authority is a particular form of power supported by the rules of a social system. It is generally accepted as legitimate by those who participate in it.

Answer the following short answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
Explain the law of three stages as propounded by Auguste Comte.
Answer:
Auguste Comte gave the law of three stages and said that there are three stages of social evolution-theological stage, metaphysical stage and positive stage. In theological stage, all the human ideas were imaginative and he considered all the things as a reaction to the actions of a supernatural power.

Thought was that yet all the things are lifeless but that supernatural power exists among them. Second stage was metaphysical stage which continued from 14th to 19th century.

In this stage, revolutionary movement started and protestent religion originated. In 16th century, negative concept emerged whose main aim was social change. In this, people had the right of unlimited observation. In positive stage, industrial society emerged and science came forward. In this stage there is no conflict in social system and progress.

Question 2.
Discuss the features of mechanical solidarity.
Answer:

1. Members in such societies have homogeneity of behaviour and they behave in a similar way.
2. Common beliefs and feelings are the symbols of mechanical solidarity. Collective consciousness exists among the members of society.
3. Repressive laws prevail in mechanical societies where there is a system of punishment for criminals.
4. Morality is the base of mechanical societies and consequently solidarity prevails in society.
5. Religion, as well, is one of the important bases of such societies and individuals
   behave according to religion.

Question 3.
Discuss the features of organic solidarity.
Answer:

1. Societies with organic solidarity have differentiation and specialisation amongst them. Many classes prevail in such societies.
2. Division of labour is of great importance over here and people depend upon each other to fulfil their basic needs.
3. Many organisations and groups prevail over here and that’s why restitutive laws are of great importance.
4. In organic societies, contractual relations are the source of social solidarity and individuals are hired on contract.
5. In such societies religion is of very less importance.
6. Such societies are modern societies.

Question 4.
Differentiate between theological and metaphysical stage.
Answer:
(i) Theological Stage : This stage started with the beginning of humanity when humans were afraid of natural forces. He considered all the things as a result of action of any supernatural power. He believed that yet all the things are lifeless but god prevails among all.

(ii) Metaphysical Stage : Comte calls this stage as a revolutionary stage of modern society. This state started in 14th century and continued till 19th century. It is divided into two parts. In first part, revolutionary movement started and revolutionary philosophy came after the advent of Protestent religion. Second stage started in 16th century and negative theories started in it whose main objective was social change.

Question 5.
Do you think capitalism will be replaced by communist societies in near future ?
Answer:
No, we don’t think that capitalism will be replaced by communist societies in near future. Actually capitalist system is based on open market but communist economy is under government’s control and presently no one likes such control. In 1917 A.D, Russian monarchy was replaced by communism but after few decades, economy reached its worst ever condition. That’s why in 1990 A.D., U.S.S.R. was disintegrated and divided into many countries. So we can say that communist societies cannot replace capitalist economies.

Answer the following short answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
Has Sociology developed as a full fledged science as envisioned by Auguste Comte ?
Answer:
Auguste Comte was the one who coined the term sociology in 1839 A.D. He wrote a book ‘The Course of Positive Philosophy’ which got published in six parts. In this book, he wrote that different parts of society are studied by different social sciences. For example, Political Science studies the political aspect of society, economic aspect is studied by economics. So, there must be a science which could study society.

He imagined a science which could study society, social relation etc. and according to his imagination, a new science emerged which is known as Sociology. After Comte, Herbert Spencer gave many a- concept with which the scope of Sociology started expanding. Emile Durkheim was the first Sociologist who tried to establish Sociology as a Science. During his studied, he used scientific method and said that society can be studied with these methods such as observation etc.

Tie gave many concepts to sociology such as social fact, suicide, division of labour, religion etc. and the use of scientific method is clearly visible in his concepts. He was the first professor of Sociology. Karl Marx and Max Weber also gave great contribution in establishing sociology as a science. Karl Marx gave conflict theory and most of the other theories are centered around this theory. Marx studied society from economic point of view and that the history of society is the history of class struggle.

He gave a detailed description of two classes and the continuing conflict between them. He gave many concepts to sociology such as historical materialism, dialectical materialism, class and class struggle, theory of alienation etc. Max Weber also tried to do the same and gave the theory of social action.

He gave scientific explanation of sociology and gave other theories such as social action, authority, domination, religion, bureaucracy etc. After these founding fathers of Sociology, many other philosophers came forward and we cannot neglect their contribution in establishing Sociology as a science.

Among them, Talcott Parsons, J.S. Mill, Malinowaski, Robert Merton, Gillin and Gillin, G.S. Ghurye are quite important.
Since the last few decades scientific methods are used in sociology so that the study could remain objective. With this, it will be possible to implement the findings of one region into another.

After using hypothesis, observation, sampling, interview, schedule, questionnaire, classification, tabulation, use of statistics etc. Sociology has definitely established itself as a science.

Question 2.
What is Marx’s theory of class struggle ?
Answer:
In Marx’s developed scientific theories, one thing is included and that is he has explained the existence of class before different social classes. Most important thing is that Marx gave a very good explanation of classes. The main aim of Marx was to know about that society, in which we are living and the face which we can see today, why it is so and with which forces changes came in it ? Not only this he has also explained that in future which type of changes will come in this society.

Marx and Angles both concluded after their research that there is a lot of exploitation in the society. So the another aim of their research was to find a conceptual way to establish exploitationless society. On the basis of his study Marx was of the view that the changes which are coming in nature and in human society they are not coming at once. An internal struggle is always going on in nature and society. With this struggle, phenomena are developing and the cycle of natural and social evolution is going on.

The main philosophical concept of Marx is Dialectic materialism. With Dialectic system the explanation of society is known as Historical Materialism. According to him, the development and change in society is not coming because of any king, leader, divine’s mind and courage but it comes due to some specific socio-economic reasons. The ways of thinking, doing work and systerhs are coming from the development level of production system and by the ways of exchange.

Man always tries to produce more with less labour. Internal struggle is always there in the human society and in opposite things of nature. Because of this process man always changes old system of production with new system of production with new natural and®social knowledge. With this the social structure also changes which was based on economic structure. So to understand and to solve the problems of society of any age we have to study the oppositions of socio-economic structure of that age.

What is Class ? Before understanding the concept of class struggle of Marx, first of all we should understand what class is. After analysing history, Marx has strongly advocated that we should study from the point of view that we should find those laws which govern human history and for this we should observe the work and behaviour of common people instead of few specific people.

Every type of society was divided in different groups. In this way different classes form a special socio-economic unit. This unit is known as class. Marx was of the view that in every type of society we can see a number of classes which are divided in different units. According to Marx’s explanation of class, Lenin gave definition of class.

Lenin wrote, “Class is a big group of those people which in any method of social production of history, from their own point of view, from the point of view of their relations with means of production, from the point of view of their role in social structure of labour and because of result of which of how much they are owner of social property, and from the point of view of getting that property they are different from each other.”

According to Marx in any of the ages because of division of labour and because of getting different means of livelihood humans are divided in different classes and every class has its different and special class consciousness. By class, Marx doesn’t mean concept of Indian caste system. By class, he means that group of people which can be defined from their role in production process.

In simple words, “Class is a group of those people which earn their livelihood in the same manner.” The birth of class is based on the ways of production. The way in which production system changes, old classes are also replaced by the new classes.

Class Struggle:
Marx has explained that there are two classes in every type of society. After understanding the detailed concept of class, now we are in a position to understand the concept of ‘class struggle’. Marx wrote that in every society there are two opposite classes, one who exploits and second which is exploited and the struggle is always there in these two classes.

To this struggle Marx gave the name of ‘class struggle’. In the Communist Manifesto, Marx wrote that with the existence of society, class struggle was also started side by side. According to Marx in the processes of production different classes have different roles to play. So for the interests of the needs of these classes the condition of struggle is must and this struggle gives a base for different and opposite ideologies.

A conflict started in developing powers of production and in functionalist and in relations of static property and with this the speed of struggle increased. Speed of history is determined by the role of classes and we can find social economic classes in all those societies where general principle of division of labour is applied.

According to Marx, class struggle is starting from that production system which divides the society into different classes. In this one class produces after a lot of hard work like slaves, half slaves, farmers, labourers etc. and other class without doing any hard work and any work, uses quite large part .of production like masters of slaves, feudal lords, owners of land, capitalists etc.

This helps in reaching class struggle at its highest stage. Marx believes that when any revolution becomes successful then with this a new socio-economic system emerges. We should keep in mind that according to Marx there is a difference in ‘Class Opposition’ and ‘Class Struggle’. Generally people mix these with each other.

In struggle there is a definite consciousness but in all ‘Class Oppositions’ theTe is no class consciousness. For example, in America before civil war, black slaves had limited opposition against their white masters and in India the social opposition against caste system cannot be called as class struggle.

Class opposition will be mixed in class struggle when in the process of production exploited class will start to feel that now it is impossible for them to live in that condition. In this the role of political parties is quite significant. So for this according to Marx it is the duty of revolutionary political parties that they should speed up class struggle for the development of class consciousness.

In this way in his concept of Historical Materialism, Marx clarified that the history of evolution of society, history of evolution of production system means is the history of production forces and evolution of production relations of man. While studying history we should keep in mind that history is not only about some events, phenomenon, life sketches of kings and queens, greatness or braveness of military generals and it is not only the collection of all these things.

History cannot be a science after analysing all these things. History can be a science when it should have analysis of production system and inter-related social and political institutions of art, religion, behaviour, philosophy, literature and with them the analysis of those producers of material things – common people.

So on this base Marx has divided the whole human history in these parts :
1. Primitive Communal Society: Primitive communal society was the first stage of social history. In this the means of production were underdeveloped like tools of stones, arrow, bow etc. To produce essential commodities joint labour was used. So for this every one had the right over production and there was no economic exploitation and there was no class difference.

2. Slave Society: Second stage of social history was slave society. With the development of agriculture, cattle rearing and tools of metal the production system and relations started to change and slave system was started. With developed means of production the concept of private property came into being and different classes of slaves and slave masters also came into being. In this way class struggle came into being. According to Marx class-struggle was started in this society because in this society masters started to exploit slaves.

3. Feudal Society: This was Feudal Society. In this stage means of production i.e., land came under occupation of some land owners and some feudal lords. Large number of landless half slaves became farmers. The concept of private property also strengthened in this age. We can see the remains of this stage even today in the developing country like India and in underdeveloped countries. In this stage two classes of farmers and feudal lords were made. Class struggle also increased in this stage.

4. Capitalist Society: This age was of the capitalist society. Actually at the end of 15th century when science started to develop then an opposition was started between new means of production and between relations of production system. With the invention of new machines and with the establishment of large industries this age of capitalism was started which prevails even today. In this age two classes were made.

One was capitalist class which was exploiting other class and other was class of labourers which were forced to sell their labour at no cost or very less pay to the owner of means of production i.e. capitalist. In this age with the development of science education increased and because labourers were working with each other in large industries they got organized and gradually class consciousness was developed. Today exploited class is not ready to be exploited by other class. Class struggle is at its best.

This is the last system based on exploitation. Today the destruction of capitalism has started. Human society is going towards socialism in a rapid speed. Example of this is the governments of Russia, China and other countries. According to Marx, the root cause behind exploitation is private property and because of this thing only there are two main classes in every sphere of production in society.

Out of these two classes, one class has all the means of economic production because of which this class is exploiting poor people and other class is that which doesn’t have any means of production. In every age of society we can find struggle (except primitive communism) between these two. It was the assumption of Marx that with the help of its money and means of production capitalist class always tries to force the people to adopt its thinking and life style and system.

According to Marx, “That class which has the material force, all means of production and intellectual power always controls means of mental production also.” For this type of control it uses every type of force. The religion, philosophy, politics, economy, morality etc. which it has forced the people to adopt become slaves of capitalists. To maintain this condition of exploitation it is must to suppress the everything of classes with force.

Social evolution is given by different stages. The evolution of any society, system or historical age depends upon circumstances of that country. No social system lives forever. All processes are dialectic. There is always an internal struggle between new processes of production (Thesis) and old processes of production (Anti Thesis).

It is must to adopt new processes instead of old processes. The qualitative changes happen slowly and slowly, but quantitative changes happen at once. So according to law of evolution revolutionary changes are automatic and compulsory. These changes are based on force. In the process of evolution there is a conflict between opposite forces. In the end class struggle will speed up and it is must for exploited class or labour class to win this struggle.

According to Marx because of this opposition capitalism will automatically come to an end. In capitalist system, poverty, striveness and unemployment will increase very quickly. When it will be beyond the range of labourer class then they will break all the chains and revolutionary age will start. According to Marx capitalism will be the last Social system based on exploitation.

Capitalists will not leave their rights. With peaceful methods exploitation cannot be stopped. So for this revolution is must. A part of society will change into labour class and this revolutionary change will be good for every one. Under the leadership of labour class and after‘the class struggle when the machinery of the state will be under their control then the age of Socialism will start. According to Marx, state is the biggest weapon in the hands of capitalist class to exploit.

Even after revolution the mediocres of feudalism and capitalism will try and go for anti-revolution. So after going to socialism from capitalism it will be the temporary stage of dictatorship of labour class. After the establishment of sqcialism and after the end of exploitation, all the classes will come to an end and every one will get according to his labour but in the developed stage of communism every one will get according to its needs.

Slowly and slowly the state, which was the weapon of exploitation in the hands of capitalist class, will also come to an end and instead of state those institutions will come into being which will be based on cooperation. Classes and class struggle will come to an end. The end of class struggle between labourers and capitalists will come with the end of capitalism. When the means of production will come in the hands of society then the ban on production will go and destruction of production forces will also come to an end.

The idea of end of classes through class struggle is not a dream in present age. World is going very fast towards the establishment of classless socialist society. With the revolution of labourers all the opposition will be solved. It is the historical duty of modern labour class to fulfil this wish of labour class. After this with conscious mind, man will make his history himself. In this way beginning of Marxism is the new step towards development of class struggle of movement of labour class.

Not only Marx and Engles have given a scientific ideology of labourers but also they have given a new conceptual tool in the hands of labour class and they have established a new type of class system of labourers. Firstly they had established a communist league and then they collected all the organizations of labourers in the world and made ‘International Association’ of working class. In this way Marx and Engles have given the concept of class and class struggle.

Question 3.
Write a note on communist revolution in Russia and China.
Answer:
(i) Russian Revolution: Before 1917, Russia was controlled by the Romanov dynasty. At the beginning of First World War (1914), Tzar Nicholas II had his empire on Russia. Except the area around Moscow, many other areas were included in the Russian empire such as present day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, part of Poland, Ukraine and Belaroos. Georgia, Agminia and Azerbaijan were also included in this.

Before 1914, political parties were not allowed in Russia. In 1898, socialists started Russian Democratic Workers Party and they supported the ideas of Karl Marx. But according to official policies, it had to illegally start its activities. It published its own newspaper, collected labourers and started doing strikes.

Russia was under a monarch who acted as a dictator. Unlike other European nations, Tzar was not responsible to the Parliament. Liberals started a movement to remove such practice. Liberals along with socialists, democrats and social revolutionaries, collected farmers and labourers and during the 1905 revolution, demanded the constitution. Russian workers were influenced by this and they also started demanding less hours of work and more pay.

When they were getting ready for the revolution, police attacked them. More than 100 workers died and more than 300 wounded. As this event happened on Sunday, it-is known as ‘Bloody Sunday’ in the Russian history. In 1914 A.D., the First World War started and the Tzar forced Russia into the war. Russian economy was already not in a good shape.

It started showing the signs of decline. Russia involved a great deal in the war. On one side, the Tzar was trying to dissolve the Parliament (Duma) and on the other side, the members of Parliament were trying to save the country from such situation. Under’ these circumstances, on 22 February, 1917, One factory was shut down in Petrograd and all the workers became unemployed. Other workers of 50 more factories, showed them their sympathy and started their strike.

Till then, there was no political party leading the movement. Workers surrounded the government buildings and the government imposed curfew. Workers got scattered till evening but they again came forward on 24th and 25th February. Government called the military and police was asked to observe them.

On 25th February, Sunday, Government dismissed the Parliamant (Duma). Leaders started opposing it and strikers came out on roads, with full force on 26th February. On 27th February, Police Headquarters was destroyed. People came out of their houses and they started raising slogans for bread, pay, less hours of work and democracy. Government again called the military but military refused to shoot the common people. Army men also joined the strikers and they collected in the building in which last time Duma was sitting.

Next day, a workers group met the Tzar. Army Generals also advised the Tzar to accept the demands of strikers. Finally on 2nd March, 1917, he accepted the demands of strikers and his rule in Russia came to an end. In October, Lenin controlled Russia and Russian Revolution come to an end.

(ii) Chinese Revolution : On 1st October 1949, Chinese Communist leader Mao- Tse-Tung declared to establish people’s Republic of China (PRC). With this declaration, the war between the Chinese Communist Party and Nationaliste Party come to an end which started after the second world war. With the establishment of PRC, the official chaos started in 1911 with the Chinese Revolution coming to an end. With the defeat of Nationalist Party, U.S.A severed all its political ties with China.

Chinese Communist Party was established in 1921 at Shanghai. Chinese communists supported the Nationalist Party in 1926-27 at the time of northern attack. This support contiuned till White Terror of 1927 when the Nationalists started killing the communists. In 1931 A.D. Japan captured Manchuria. At this time, govt, of Republic of China had fear of three sided attack-Japanese attack, Communist revolt and attack of the northern people.

Few Generals of Chinese army were fedup with the behaviour of Nationalist leader Chiang-Kai-Shek that he was more interested in internal dangers instead of caring about the Japanese attack. They captured Shek and asked him to cooperate with the communist army. This was the first attempt of having cooperation between the Nationalist Govt, and the Chinese Communist Party (C.C.P.). But this effort remained for a very small period of time. Nationalists started thinking about the Japanese and Communists started spreading their influence in the rural areas.

During the Second World Was, support for the communists increased to a great extent. American officers in China tried to suppress this support in the Nationalist region. Due to these undemocratic policies and the prevailing corruption during the war, Chinese govt, become weak against the communists. In 1945, Japan lost the war and the danger of civil war increased in China. American govt, continued its support to Chiang-Kai- Shek’s govt, as it was only Shek who could reduce the communist influence in China.

In 1945, Chiang-Kai-Shek and Mao-Tse-Tung met to discuss about the formation of govt, post war. Both agreed to restore democracy, collective army and freedom for political parties. Treaty was on the cards but due to the American intervention, it failed and in 1946, civil war started in China.

During the civil war from 1947-1949, the victory of communists was on the cards as they had public support, better army and the weapons captured from the Japanese army in Manchuria. In October, 1949, after winning many areas, Mao-Tse-Tung declared to establish People’s Republic of China. So in 1949, Chinese Revolution came to an end.

Question 4.
What is the contribution of Durkheim to Sociology ?
Answer:
Famous sociologist and philosopher Emile Durkheim was born on 15 April, 1858 at Lorraine region of north eastern France at a place called Epinel. Durkheim’s initial education was completed in an educational institution at Epinel. Right from his childhood, Durkheim was an intelligent child.

His family was quite famous in their field and that is why he received brilliance from his family. He received education till graduation at Epinel and then he migrated to Paris for getting higher education.

At Paris, his journey of getting higher education started. Here he tried to get admission in the world famous institution ‘Ecole Normale Superieure’. Here only brilliant students were able to get admission. After two unsuccessful attempts, Durkheim was able to get admission over here in 1879 A.D. This institution provided education on the French, Latin and Greek philosophy and these subjects were included in whole of its curriculum.

But Durkheim did not take interest in all these because he was more interested in studying actual political, intellectual and social conditions of society. Durkheim believed that positivism is must in knowledge. He believed that until present political, intellectual and social problems are not studied, while studying any subject or philosophy, that knowledge is not useful.

Due to such ideas of his, Durkheim was so dissatisfied with the atmosphere of this world famous institution that most of the times, he went against his teachers. Even then, he got his son Andre admitted in this institution. In 1880, famous positivist and historian Prof. Fustel de Coulanges became director of this institution. He was one of the teachers of Durkheim who had special feelings for him. Prof. Coulanges changed curriculum over here and Durkheim became very happy.

Durkheim greatly respected Prof. Coulanges. He wrote a book ‘Montesquieu’ in Latin language and dedicated this book to Prof. Coulanges. Here Durkheim met Emile Boutroux. Durkheim was very much influenced by him and he wrote his research paper of Doctrate under his guidance. Here, Durkheim met few more world famous scholars.

He also got many students over there who later on became famous Sociologists. His intellectual and mental thinking increased a lot when he came in contact with these famous scholars. In 1882 A.D., he left Ecole Normale Superieure and for next five years, he taught in different High Schools near Paris. With his influence, he started a new curriculum of Sociology in these schools. Durkheim became famous as a very good teacher.

In 1885-86, he took leave of one year and left for Gerfnany for higher studies. In Germany, Durkheim deeply studied Psychology, Economics, Cultural Anthropology. Here he studied the essays of Comte and came under his influence. Later on he gave birth to Sociological Positivism. .
In 1887, Bordeavux University opened up a new department of Sociology and Durkheim was invited to come over here to study. After studying for next 9 years, in 1896, he became Professor at the same department.

In 1893, Paris University gave him his Doctrate for writing his research paper ‘De la Division du Travail Social’ (Division of Labour in Society). This book got published and he became quite famous ater this. In 1895, Durkheim created his second important book ‘Les Regies da ea Methode Sociologique’ (The Rules of Sociological Method).

In 1897, Durkheim wrote his third famous book ‘Le Suicide : Etude de Sociologie’ (Suicide : A Study of Sociology). After publishing these world famous books, Durkheim’s name was started to consider as a major philosopher, Sociologist and a great writer.

In 1898, Durkheim started a sociology related magazine ‘L Annee Sociologique’ and remained at the post of its editor till 1910 A.D. This magazine of Durkheim became quite famous in the intellectual environment of France. In this magazine, many of the great philosophers such as Georges Devy, Simond, Levi Strauss etc. got their essays published.

In 1902, Durkheim was called in Paris University at the post of Professor and he took charge over here. After Durkheim’s efforts in 1913, Education department’s name was changed to Education and Sociology department. Here Durkheim taught moral education, origin of religion, beginning of family, social philosophy of Comte and Saint Simon.

In 1912, Durkheim, wrote another book ‘Les Formes Elementairs Delavie Religieuse’ (Elementary Forms of Religious Life).
Durkheim got married when he was appointed at Bordeaux University. His wife’s name was Lauise Drefus. He had two children, daughter Marie and son Andre.

His wife helped him a lot. There were many functions such as editing, checking, communication etc. which she did with great labour. First World War started in 1914. Durkheim sent his son Andre in the war and himself started writing essays in newspaper to uplift the morale of people. But war made him mentally weak. During the war, he received the news of his son’s death. He completely broke down after his son’s death. In 1916, Durkheim became sick and on 15th November, 1917, he died at the age of 59 years.

Writings Of Durkheim:
During his lifetime, Durkheim wrote many books which are given below:

1. The Division of Labour in Society – 1893
2. The Rules of Sociological Method – 1895
3. Suicide – 1897
4. Elementary Forms of Religious Life – 1912
5. Education and Philosophy (After death) – 1922
6. Sociology and Philosophy (After death) – 1924
7. Moral Education (After death) – 1925
8. Sociology and Saint Simon (After death) – 1925
9. Pragmatism and Sociology (After death) – 1955

After Durkheim’s death, his wife and friends got published his essays and speeches which increased sociological literature.

Question 5.
Discuss the types of social actions given by Weber. .
Answer:
Weber gave four types of social action and these are :
1. Zweckrational behaviour : Weber says that by Zweckrational social behaviour we mean by that social behaviour which are directed by for the fulfilment of many objectives rationally while keeping in mind its usage. In this we not only keep in mind the selection of means but here values are also kept in mind. Means are checked fully and the action is edited and directed on that base.

2. Wertrational behaviour : In Wertrational behaviour a good available place is given to any clear and special value. We do not take care of other values. In this rational base is not possible but on moral, religious or beautiful basis it can be accepted. To maintain moral and religious assumption wertrational behaviour can be done. To accept these actions there is no need of any reason or rational base. Just they are accepted as it is because while doing a thing social status increases and personal peace also comes.

3. Affectual behaviour : These types of action can happen due to human sentiments and behaviour. While living in society we have to go through a number of feelings like love, hatred, anger etc. Because of these feelings the state of peace and violence comes in society. While doing these types of behaviour we do not take help of tradition and reason.

4. Traditional behaviour. Traditional actions can be done on the basis of already existing definite traditions. To make social life easy and peaceful traditional actions are quite important. It is quite possible that any situation of conflict can come in society but generally in this type of action there is no need of taking help of rationals or any other influence. These actions are directed and controlled by customs of society.

Question 6.
How does Weber relate economic activity to religion?
Answer:
Essence of Capitalism:
The early study of Weber was centred on that habit which can be seen particularly in modern society. To explain the religious influence on economic behaviour Weber has written many essays from 1904 to 1905 and on the basis of those essays his most famous book ‘The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’ was published.

In this book Weber explained that how the development of capitalism was influenced by the thoughts and policies of Protestant Religion. These thoughts were a challenge to Marx’s concept that the social and religious conciousness of man is determined by its social class.

According to Weber’s view the clear cut thing for modern industrial world’s man. is that he should work hard. According to Weber, “Hard work is a duty and its result is inherent in it.” This thought is an extraordinary quality of modern industrial world’s man. Man does not do his work efficiently, because he has to do this work he does so because he wants to do this work.

This is the base of his personal satisfaction. It is expected from a man to do his duty for his livelihood and he does so. It doesn’t matter in which field he is. There is one quotation of America, “If any one is able to do any work then he should do his work in the most efficient manner.” This quotation is the essence of capitalism According to Weber, this concept does not belong to any supernatural aim, in fact it is related with the success of the man which he gets in economic life.

It doesn’t matter that in a particular time this concept was related with religious morality. To clarify the essence of capitalism Weber compared it to other economic process called Traditionalism. In economic processes, traditionalism is that stage in which man wants to earn more and more profit and wants to do less work.

He wants to take more rest during his time of work and he doesn’t want to accomodate with the new methods of work. They can be satisfied with the simple ways of living life and wants to earn profit at once. The accumulation of money is an another part of economic traditionalism. All these characteristics are totally opposite to the essence of capitalism.

Actually modern capitalism is a big complex of interrelated institutions whose base are economic efforts not the efforts of book makers (betting). Capitalism is the complex of lawful forms of business corporations, centre of organizational exchange, the system of giving public loan in the form of government debt letters and the organization of industries whose aim is to produce things on rational basis.

According to Weber, the quality of essence of capitalism is not only the quality of western societies. In many societies many people came into being who had organised their business in quite an efficient way, who were the hard workers than their servants, whose life was simple and who were using their saving to increase their business.

But even after this the effect of the capitalist characteristics was there in western societies. It’s reason was that in west this quality was not developed as a personal quality but was developed as a simple way of living life. In this way the hard working life of people, business behaviour, public loan system, the investment of capital in business continuously and the wish towards hard work is the essence of capitalism.

In contrary to that effort get profit at once, to see hard work as a curse, accumulation of money and to be satisfied with the simple way of living are general economic habits.

Protestant Ethics:
After clarifying that the aim of his study was essence of capitalism, Weber has given a number of reasons on the basis of which he wants to find its origin into the religious thoughts of reform movement. Weber asked his one student ‘Badan’ to study religious relations in state and selection of education.

After studying this he concluded that in comparison to catholic students, protestant students are taking more admissions in those educational institutions which are related to industrial life. One another reason also was there that in European time to time less populated groups have completed their social and political losses by their economic hardwok but Catholics were unable to do this.

With the influence of these circumstances Weber’s thought got strength that there must have been a relation between religious policy and economic activities. After this he also had seen in 16th century so many rich states and cities had accepted Protestant religion. Because of so many reasons Protestant religion was increasing its efforts of economic profit.

On this base Weber tried to know that whether Protestant religion was spread in economic backward countries and whether after developed capitalist economy Catholic religion became influencial or not. The main aim of Weber in writing ‘The Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism’ was to explain these contradictions and to clarify the influence of religious- policies on economic life.

Wiber here wants to clarify that how the policies of Protestant religion became source of motivation for those people who were in favour of getting economic profit from rational point of view. So according to Weber concepts related to any religion should be analysed from that point to view that how any concept motivates the behaviour of its followers.

While keeping in mind this question Weber analysed the essays written by priests of Protestant religion and clarifies the influence of Kalvinism’s concepts on the daily behaviour of group. As a policy of the Protestant religion the order of Saint Paul was accepted widely: “Whoever will not work will not eat food and like poor, rich also do any work or business to increase the prestige of god.”

In this way hardworking life is according to the religious belief of Protestant religion. Richard Baxter has written, “Just for work god protects us and our actions. Hard work is the moral and natural aim of power. Just with hard work only any one can serve god.” Another Saint John Banian has written, “It will not be said that what you believe but it will be said that whether one was working hard or just talking with other.”

In this way in the Protestant religion working life was accepted as service to god. The praise of hard work has given birth to new laws and rules in Protestant religion. According to it, the wastage of time is a sin. Life is short and valuable, so man should use its surplus time to increase the prestige of god by using it in useful works.

Useless talking, to meet people a lot, sleeping a lot and to keep oneself busy in religious functions by giving loss to daily functions is a sin. It is so because god has given us a work to earn livelihood and we are not doing this. From this point of view the policies of Protestant religion are against ideal of personal policy that ‘the rich should not do any work or religious functions are more valuable that wordly functions.’ This is Protestant Ethic.

Relationship of Capitalism and Protestant Ethics:
After analysing Protestant Ethics and the spirit of capitalism Weber found many equalities in its different basis. These equalities have motivated Weber to clarify that which conditions were the reasons in economic behaviours and religious politics and which conditions were results. First of all Weber studied the religious guilds in 16th and 17th centuries and the influence on human behaviour of changes which came in its assumptions.

First of all many religious guilds stressed on the getting and accumulation of materialistic things and after some time accumulation of money was kept in the category of non religiousness in which to finish all wishes in front of hard work was good enough. These religious guilds had clarified it was an obstacle in the way of hard work.

When this concept of finishing of wish came out of limit of religious centres and started to influence worldly morality then it also started to contribute in the creation of modern economy i.e. capitalism. This change has given direction to Weber’s study that the religious policies are basic reasons which influence person’s economic and secular behaviours.

In this way with the help of many historical proofs Weber tries to clarify that how the policies or Ethics of Protestant religion were helpful in the development of early capitalism. The reform movement of Protestant religion gives right to those people to enter in religions festivals who have full faith in the policies of this religion.

The members of religious councils had to prove that they have the full capabilities to give practical form to the ethics of religions. This tradition to give importance to earn means of livelihood becomes very helpful in the development of capitalism. Slowly and slowly these moral beliefs of Protestant religion were changed as the system of life in the life of its followers.

Weber has accepted this condition as that phenomena with the help of which rationalization increased in the different aspects of western life. This rationalization came in western civilization as different forms and it has direct relation with the development of capitalism. In this Weber has explained the Protestant Ethics and spirit of capitalism and he clarified and understood religion on this base.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 11 Social Change Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 11 Social Change

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Social Change Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
Define social change.
Answer:
Many changes often come in social relations and this is social change.

Question 2.
Name the basic sources of social change.
Answer:
There are three basic sources of social change-innovation, Discovery and Diffusion.

Question 3.
Give two features of social change.
Answer:

1. Social change is a universal process which comes in everxf society.
2. Comparison is must in social change.

Question 4.
What is endogenous change ?
Answer:
The changes which develop within a society are known as endogenous change.

Question 5.
Name some factors responsible for social change.
Answer:
Natural factors, beliefs and values, social reforms, demographic factors, tech-nological factors, educational factors etc.

Question 6.
What is progress ?
Answer:
When we proceed in a desired direction to achieve our goal s then the change is known as progress.

Question 7.
Give examples of planned change.
Answer:
To give education and training to the people ig planned cha nge.

Question 8.
Give two examples of unplanned change.
Answer:
Natural calamities such as flood, earthquakes with which complete change comes in society.

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of social change.
Answer:
When change comes in different parts of society and this ch; mge affects lives of most of the people living in society, it is known as social changi. It means that structural change comes in the living style of the people.

Question 2.
What is diffusion ?
Answer:
The meaning of diffusion is spreading of something more wid< sly. For example when cultural ideas spread from one group to the second group it is known as diffu¬sion. Social change in most of the society often comes due to diffusion.

Question 3.
State a brief note on evolution and revolution.
Answer:
(i) Evolution. When change comes in a definite direction ar id change comes in traits and composition of an element, it is evolution.
(ii) Revolution. The sudden and spontaneous change is revolution. Existing sys¬tem comes to an end and is replaced by a new system.

Question 4.
List out the three basic ways in which change takes place.
Answer:
Change in three basic things brings change in society and these are :

1. Behaviour of the group
2. Social structure
3. Cultural attributes.

Question 5.
What are t he three sources from which change can originate ?
Answer:
(i) Innovation:
The meaning of innovation is creating something new by using an already known elememt. In this, new technique is innovated by using an already existing technology.

(ii) Discovery:
‘In means the ,act of finding for the first time or to invent something new about which we don’t know anything.

(iii) Diffusion:
It means to spread something widely. If cultural ideas of one group spread into the other, it is known as diffusion.

Question 6.
Briefly outline the difference between social and cultural change.
Answer:
(i) Social change can come consciously or unconsciously but cultural change alsways comes with conscious efforts.
(ii) Social change is the change which comes only in social relations but in cultural change, a major change comes in religion, ideas, values etc.

Answer the following short answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
What are t he main types of social change ? Briefly discuss them.
Answer:
Evolution, progress, development and revolution are the main types of social change. When internal, gradual and sequal change comes and social institutions start to become complex., it is known as evolution. When change comes in any thing in a desired direction, it is known as development. When people proceed towards a desired direction to achieve something and goal is achieved, it is known as progress. When sudden and quick change comes and the existing system is replaced by the new one, it is known as revolution.

Question 2.
Disc uss briefly the demographic factor of social change.
Answer:
Demogra phic factor also exerts a great influence on social change. Social organisation, traditions, institutions, customs etc. are also influenced by the demo graphic factor. Increase or decrease in population, change in sex ratio affect social relations. Change: in population becomes an obstacle in the way of society’s economic progress and a reason of many social problems. Increase in population often creates the situation of n alemployment and poverty which leads to the increase in corruption and disturbance in society.

Question 3.
Describ e any four factors responsible for social change.
Answer:

• Natural Factor: Due to natural factor such as flood, earthquake etc. soci¬ety completely cl langes and social change takes place.
• Demogrs iphic Factor: Increase or decrease in population, change in sex ratio also becomes a r eason of social change.
• TechnoHogical Factor: If change takes place in most of the existing tech¬niques in society, social change takes place.
• Educational Factor: When most of the society’s population starts to take education, it becomes one of the factors of social change.

Question 4.
Highlight the few points of differences between educational factor and technological factor.
Answer:

1. Educational factor can become a reason of tecnological factor but techno-logical factor cannot become a reason of educational change.
2. With the increase in literacy rate, every one in society gets affected but techno-logical factors have a very slow impact on the people.
3. With education planned change can take place but with technological factors, both planned and unplanned change takes place.

Answer the following short answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
Define Social Change. Discuss its features in detail.
Answer:
Word ‘Change’ is value free word. It never tells us about good or bad or about any rule. In general sense change is that difference which is there in the present state and earlier state of any thing. Like any one has money today but was poor yesterday. His position has been changed due to money.

Comparison is necessary in change be-cause if we want to clarify any change then it can be clarified only by comparison. In this way, social change is related with society. When change comes in society or social relationships then it is known as social change.

Every type of change in the human society cannot be called as social change. Social change is related with the change which comes in social relationships. We can include mutual actions and relations in different parts of society in social relationships. Meaning of change is the difference in existing conditions and earlier condition of any thing.

That’s why when we compare the existing condition and earlier condition of anything then we observe some difference. This difference is social change. In this way we can say that social change is related with the difference in social structure, actions, relations,organizations etc. Man is dynamic by nature and no society can live without change.

Definitions:
1. According to Gillin and Gillin, “Social change as variations.from the modes of life, whether due to alteration in geographical conditions in cultural equipment, composition of the population or ideologies, and whether brought by diffusion or invention within the group.”

2. According to Kingsley Davis, “By social change, I meant only such alterations as occur in social organization that is structure and function of society.”

3. According to Jones, “Social change is a term used to describe variations or modifications of any aspect of social process, social patterns, social interactions or social organization.”

4. According to Eldridge and Marril, “In its concrete sense, social change in activities that differ from those which they (or their immediate forefathers) engaged in some time before, society is compared of vast and complex network of patterned human relationships in which all men participate. When human behaviour is in the process of modification, this is only another way of indicating that social change is occurring.”

On the basis of given definitions, we can conclude that according to all sociologists, when any change or difference comes in any aspect of social interactions, social organization, social relationships, social process etc. then it is called a social change. In this way, we can say that every change is not a social change. Social change exists in the social relationships of society or organizations or actions.

Features of Social Change:
1. Social change is universal : Social change is that change which comes in every society. No society is completely static because change is the law of nature. It doesn’t matter which society it is, whether it is ancient or modern, it exists in every culture and society. Demographic change in society, change because of inventions, change in values and ideals etc. always exists in society. It is right that the speed of social change is different in different societies but change is always universal.

Social change is a universal phenomenon which occurs in all societies and in all ages. The time from which human society has started, changes have come in it and will remain forever. Every stage of human society has gone through changes, yet the speed of change in them might be different. Change is law of nature and no one can be prevented from this.

2. Definite prediction is not possible in social change : Any type of definite prediction is impossible in social change. It is so because social relationships are not definite. They keep on changing. For example, if we predict that caste system, untouch ability or dowry system etc. will come to an end in the coming ages and may be we’ll not be able to find complete end of these evils in society. That’s why if we will predict definitely-then it can be proved wrong.

We cannot imagine definitely about behaviour of a person. That’s why prediction is impossible in social change. Social change is a community change. It doesn’t mean that there is no rule of social change or we cannot imagine about it. It’s meaning is only that sometimes because of any reason change comes at once about which we have never thought of.

3. Speed of social change is not uniform: Yet social change is universal but its speed is different in different societies. It comes very quickly in some societies and in some societies its speed is very slow. For example, if we compare ancient and modern societies then we can see that speed of change is very fast in modern societies as compared to ancient societies.

Even this speed is very fast in metropolitan cities and very slow in smaller cities . The reason of difference of speed is that the factors, which bring social change, are different in different societies. We can imagine about change by comparing two societies.

4. Social change is community change : If any change comes in the life of one person or some people then it cannot be called as social change. It is so because social change is not personal. It is that change which comes in the life style of majority of persons living in a large community. So if change will affect only few persons, then it can be called as individual change.

But when majority of the people of a group are affected by the change then it can be called as social change. In this way, the nature of social change is social. It is not related with the change in any specific group, institution or caste but it is related with the changes which comes in whole community.

5. Social change is the result of interaction of number of factors : Social change is not the result of only one factor. Our society is complex in nature. Change comes in every sector of society because of many factors. Generally we can see that change comes because of economic progress, development in technology, change in atmosphere or change in demography. Yet it is right that change comes because of any factor but other factors are also reasons of change.

6. Change is law of nature : Existence of social change is law of nature. Change comes even against our wish. We cannot control natural forces which often brings change. Man is dynamic by nature. Change in society either comes because of natural forces or because of planned ways of humans to fulfil their needs. We always want new things and try to achieve them. So the dynamic nature of person is also responsible for social change.

Question 2.
Explain in detail the sources of social change.
Answer:
W. G. Ogburn has given a detailed description about the sources of social change. Accordings to Ogburn, out of three factors, one or more sources are the reasons of social change and these three sources are :

1. Innovation
2. Discovery
3. Diffusion

(i) Innovation:
The meaning of innovation is to prepare a new thing by using the existing elements. It means to prepare a new system of knowledge by using existing knowledge. For example by using the technology of an old car, innovating a new tech¬nology, finding technology for increasing its speed and to increase its mileage. Innova¬tion can be technological as well as social. In this, change can come in form, function, meaning or principle and consequently whole of society can change.

(ii) Discovery:
Discovery is the act of finding something for the first time. It means that when any thing is found for the first time, it is known as discovery. For example, some one made car or scooter for the first time or any scientist finds a news species of plant. It can be called as discovery. It means that elements are already existing in this world but we are not aware about it.1 With discovery, a new thing is added to the culture.

In reality, elements may have existed in the world but after its discovery, it becomes a part of our culture. However, it becomes a factor of social change at the time when it is put to use when it is merely known. Social and cultural circumstances either encourage or discourage the capacity of culture.

(iii) Diffusion:
The meaning of diffusion is the spreading of something. For example when cultural ideas of one group spread to another it is called .diffusion. Social change in almost all the societies come due to diffusion. It operates both within and between societies. Diffusion takes place at the time* when relations are made between societies. It is a two way process.

Due to diffusion elements of one culture are spread into the other, it changes and adopts the elements of other. For example the English used in England is very much different from the English used in India. When India was under the British occupation, many of their cultural elements were adopted by the Indian people. In this way during diffusion, change comes in the ele-ments.

Question 3.
Write down the factors influencing social change.
Answer:
1. Physical Environment. Change in physical environment comes through those processes which are out of control of humans. New directions open for humans due to these changes which indirectly affect the culture of humans. All these inani-mate phenomena are included in physical environment which affects social life in one way or the other. Change in climate like rain, heat, cold, change of season, earth-quakes, thundering, changes related to topography availability of minerals, rivers, stones etc.

affects greatly the social life. Physical changes affect the human ability to do work. Behaviour of humans is different in winter and summer. Human way of working changes with the change in climate. Humans work very quickly in winter and people get angry in summer. People like to live in those physical conditions where they should be able to spend their life very easily. People don’t like to live at those places where natural calamities like earthquake, flood etc. frequently come.

People live at those places where all the facilities of living life are easily available. Balance of population disturbs due to changes in physical environment because of which many problems occur. Physical environment affects the culture also. Where land is fertile, people do agricultural work and people living near coastal areas catch the fish.

2. Biological Factor. Some sociologists are of the view that biological factor is the important factor of social change. Meaning of biological factor is that quantitative aspect of population which occurs due to heredity. Like human sex is determined at the time of birth and on this base different physical differences exist in males and females.

Their social behaviour is also different due to this change. Females take care of house and children but males go out for work to earn money. If the proportion of males and females is not the same in any society then many social problems occur due to this.

Physical features are determined by heredity and these features create the similarities and disimilarities like being white or black. In U.S.A. jealousy is there due to colour. White female is known as beautiful and black female never gets that respect which any white female can get. Behaviour of the person is also related with the features of heredity.

Behaviour of the child is according to the behaviour of parents. Humans have more or less anger. Heredity and mental level both are inter related. Human behaviour and mental level are veiy important in social life. In short, we can say that individual traits of a person are determined by his hereditary traits. These traits affect the interactions of humans.

Human relations occur due to interactions on the basis of which social system and structure are determined. If any change comes in it then that is social change. In this way we can say that biological factors become the reason of social change. Great people help in bringing social change due to qualitative aspect of population.

3. Demographic Factors. Structure, size, distribution etc. of population affect the social structure. Countries with more population have to face many problems like poverty, unemployment, lower standard of life etc. Like India and China have to face many types of problmes. Countries with less population like U.K., Canada etc. have less problems and higher standard of life.

Countries with more population have many types of customs to reduce birth rate. For example, family planning prevails in India. Small families came into being due to family planning and social relations change due to smaller families. Those countries, where population is less, have different types of relations. Status of females is higher in them and there is no concept of family planning. In short, changes come in the patterns of interactions of people due to size of population.

In this way change also comes due to structure of population. In structure of population change comes due to age division, regional division of population, sex ratio, social structure, rural-urban ratio, ratio of population on technical level, immigration, emigration etc. These traits of population put a great effect on social structure and no problem can be solved without taking care of it.

4. Cultural Factors. Change in the material and non-material culture affects the social relations. Concept of family planning has put a great effect on the institution of family. Because of less number of children, they can upbring their children in a proper way. Direction of social change is also determined due to cultural factors. This not only determines the direction of social change but it also determines its limits by giving it speed.

5. Technological Factors. Yet the technical factors are the part of material aspect of cultural but it has its own important. These technological factors give a great contribution in social change. Technology changes our society. This change yet comes in our material environment, but change also comes in customs, traditions, institutions of the society with this factor. Means of transport and communication, machines of daily use etc. have completely changed our life and society.

Production on the large scale was started due to invention of machines, division of labour and specialization was increased. Cities were developed very quickly, standard of life became higher, industries were developed but quarrels, accidents were also increased, villages were changed into towns and cities.

Effect of religion was decreased, conflict was increased. In this way some aspects of social life are there which are greatly affected by technology. So in modern times technological factor is a very big factor of social change.

6. Ideological Factor. Except these factors different types of ideologies also bring a lot of change in society. For example, social change has come due to change in the institution of marriage, dowry system, increasing education among women, decreasing effect of caste system, change in gender relations etc. So many changes have come in social relations and individual relations due to new .ideologies. In short, new ideas and theories affect the inventions and economic conditions. Actually new ideology comes due to revolution.

Question 4.
What do you mean by social change ?’Highlight the demographic factor of social change.
Answer:
Demogarphic Factor : If we look at the society carefully then we will’see that population in our society is increasing or decreasing. Many problems of society are related only with more or less population. If we look at the 19th century then we can see that demographic factor was responsible to bring social change to a certain extent.

The effect of demographic factor is not related only with India but the whole world is affected by this. It is right that the increasing population in our country is producing many problems like to weaken the country from economic side, to produce social evils etc. but its effect is different in different countries.

In this way, we can see that demographic factors bring many changes in structure, organizations, functions, actions, ideals etc. of society. Social change is also related with this. Now we will look at the meaning of demographic factor. Meaning of Demographic Factor : Demographic factor is related to population. It means that we include size, density and distribution of population in this.

Demographic factor is that factor of social change which directly affects our society. Richness or poorness of society depends upon demographic factor. It means that the country with more population will have lower standard of living and countries with less population will have higher standard of living.

For example the countries like India and China have more population and that’s why their problems of poverty, unemployment etc. are increasing. But the countries like Canada, Australia, Britain etc.

have less population because of which their standard of living of people is higher than others. So from this example we can imagine that population plays an important role in bringing social change in society. In demographic factor, the increasing-decreasing birth rate and death rate affect our society.

From this description we come to conclusion that many changes in our society are because of more or less population. Increasing population of a country can create many problems for it. Now we will see that how demographic factor affects our social life.

1. Poverty : With increasing population people are unable to meet their daily needs. According to the theory of Malthus, the increase in population is like Geometry means 8 x 8 = 64 but increase in production is Arithmetically means 8 + 8 = 16. It means that 64 people are there to eat when production will meet the demand of only 16.

That’s why problems like poverty and starvation are increasing. It means that development in economic means is generally very slow but birth rate increases very quickly. Thus it affects the economy of the country adversely.

(а) Hereditary occupation or agriculture : India is basically an agriculturist country because of which most of the population is engaged in agriculture. Agriculture is that occupation in which more number of people are required. One person alone cannot control every work of agriculture. That’s why children in more number are required because if the family will be big then agriculture will be possible.

(b) Illiteracy : In a country like India, illiteracy is also a reason of increasing population. Most of the people in India are illiterate. Illiterate people are surrounded by many types of superstitions like son is necessary because of which they are without any conciousness about small family. They hardly see any benefit of small family because of which their standard of living is generally low. They are not conscious about getting education, raising their standard of living, health of children etc. It is all because of illiteracy.

(c) Cultural restrictions : People in India are very much influenced by culture that they cannot free themselves from the restrictions of culture. For example, according to Vedas, son will give fire to the body of the father. That’s why son is necessary. Even person gets more respects after the birth of son. In this way these cultural restrictions pressurise the person and he hardly thinks about progress.

(d) Protection : Actually every person is thinking that when he gets old then his children will take care of him. More numbers of children give more satisfaction to person that they will take care of him in his old age.

The traditional outlook, importance of having a son or lack of education are some of the reasons which are responsible for more population. For the development of country control over population is necessary. For this person should be educated so that he should be aware about the problems of increasing population.

2. Unemployment: With the development of industrialization and urbanization, unemployment has also been increased. People had to come out of their houses to get education. People of villages started to live in cities, because of which population of cities was increased and the number of houses were decreased.

Inflation started to go up. Function of domestic production was gone in the hands of factories. Machines started to do more work in minimum time. That’s why humans were replaced by machines and unemployment was increased.

3. Low Standard of Living : With the increase in population, poverty and unemployment also started to increase with which the standard of living of people became low. Earning members are decreasing and consumers are increasing. With increasing inflation it is difficult for people to give all the facilities to their children. Value of things has also increased which has resulted in low standard of living.

After looking at the growing problems related to population Indian Government took many steps. It was seen that the growing population is the main reason behind poverty. That’s why programmes of family planning were started.

With this help of films and T.V. steps were taken to change the attitude of people regarding having son or daughter. Government has given sanctions to small family as compared to bigger families. So the solution of problem of increasing population can be found in the programmes of family planning.

4. Immigration : Immigration and emigration also affect the population. For example, people from Bangladesh, Tibbet, Nepal, Sri Lanka are coming to India and start to live in India. With this immigration population increases very quickly. Poverty, starvation, inflation and many other problems are coming due to this.

5. Emigration : If .people are coming to India through immigration then people are also going out of India through emigration. Emigration means when people are leaving their country and started to live in another country. Specially the people with better education like Doctors, Engineers, Scientists etc.

are going to another country to live for better future. Country spends a lot of money to train and educate them but other countries are taking the benefit of their intelligence.

One reason of emigration is that our country is not giving them money according to their ability and even some don’t have any employment. Whichever country gives them employment and better facilities, they are going to that country. Even they break their family to go abroad. No one takes care of their parents. It affects the whole social structure of our society.

Question 5.
Discuss the role of educational factor in the process of social change in detail.
Answer:
Education is also one of the important factors of bringing social change. Actually education is the main base of progress. Knowledge of person increases after getting education. That’s why person finds solution of problems, which exist in society, after getting education. Countries with more educated people develop more as compared to other countries.

It is so because literate person gives his cooperation in removing problems of society. The percentage of illiterate people is more in Indian society. That’s why people are still related with superstitions. To remove these superstitions it is necessary that the person should be educated. To know about the effects of educational factor on society, first of all it is necessary that we should know about the meaning of education.

Word Education has come out of Latin word ‘Educere’ whose meaning is ‘to bring up’. Meaning of education is not only to give bookish knowledge to person but also to prepare him for future by putting good habits in him. According to Anderson, “Education is the social process by which an individual learns the things necessary to fit him for the life of his society.”

In this way on the basis of given description we can say that mores, customs, traditions, culture etc. of society are transmitted to other generation by education. This is given in informal and formal both ways. Formal education is given in educational institutions like school, college and universities.

Educational Factor and Social Change:
1. Educational factor and family:
Educational factor has put a great effect on the institution of family. Man has to arrange for bread and butter in ancient society just to live. All the members of the family were engaged in same occupation. Standard of living was very low because people were unconscious about the progress.

People started to live according to the changed values with the advent of formal education. Earlier all the members of the family were engaged in same occupation but now they started to adopt new occupations according to their wish and ability.

With this the new system of nuclear family came into being instead of traditional joint family. If person does hard work in modern societies then he can raise his standard of living. Now he achieves his position with his ability. Now his status is not ascribed but is achieved.

In this way educational factor has changed the structure and functions of family. In modern families where both husband and wife are doing work, children are generally taken care in cretches. That’s why the control of family on its members has been reduced.

Family is also very much affected by western education. Individualistic senses were developed in the person. Members of joint family started to go towards city for job after coming out of villages. People started to adopt new ideas instead of ancient ideas. Today it is right that some people are doing agricultural work jointly or with each other but their family life is certainly different.

A Conflicting situation has come in the views of old generation and younger generation. People became materialistic due to changes in the ways of living of the people. That’s why joint families have started to disintegrate. Number of literate persons in the family now has been increased.

2. Effect of educational factor on caste system: Caste system in’Indian society is that social evil which has produced obstacles in its progress. Education in the caste system was restricted only to the members of higher caste and the type of education was religious. Caste system started to weaken with the advent of British empire because all the people were Indians for Britishers.

They treated all the Indians in similar way. They gave emphasis to western education in the field of education. That’s why education became secular. Modern educational system gave emphasis on values like liberty, equality and fraternity. School, colleges of formal education were started. Person of every caste started to get education in these institutions. All members of higher and lower castes started to get education in same school with which the sense of untouchability was reduced.

3. Effect of educational factor on marriage: Institution of marriage has also been changed under the effect of educational factor. Outlook of educated persons towards marriage has been changed. In earlier times family was arranging the marriage and the bride or bridegroom was determined by the elder members of the family. They were of the view that marriage should be done in the family with equal status. They hardly considered the qualities of boy or girl instead they were considering the status of family.

But now the individual qualities of boy or girl are considered. Now marriage is not considered as religious sacrament but is considered as a contract which can be broken at any time. Now number of love marriages and court marriages are increased. Child marriages were popular in ancient times which have many demerits. But now the age of marriage is fixed by law that marriage is possible at a specific age.

Now the element of adjustment is there in the relations of husband and wife instead of religious sacrament. Now educated female is not the slave of male. If husband misbehaves with wife then she can give divorce to husband and can five separately. Educated youth never do haste in doing marriage. In fact they give preference to their career. Except this, love marriage and court marriages are increasing day by day.

4. Effect of education on social stratification : Education is one of the- important factors of social stratification. It has divided the whole society in two parts (i) literate and (ii) illiterate. A person gets position in society by education. Person gets higher education to achieve higher status. Educational qualification leads to the achievement of position in society. In this way the population of modern society is divided on the basis of education. Literate person gets respect in society.

Status of a person,was ascribed in ancient society. In means that the person was getting status from his family in which he is bom. But with the development in educational sector, status of a person is achieved. It means that person gets social position in modern societies according to his qualities and ability. Person can achieve higher status with “his will, hard work and ability.

5. Effect of education on position of women; Educational factors have played an important role in changing status of woman. Educated woman in modern society is taking part in every sector of society. Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister of India and ruled over it for many years. With the spread of education, the age of marriage of a girl has been increased.

Now she is free to choose her partner of life. Love marriage is given importance and number of divorces has been increased. Position of women has been improved due to education. Family of small size is preferred. When a female starts to do job after getting education then she prefers to produce less number of children.

Upbringing of children is out of family these days and the wish of higher standard of living has put economic pressure on them. It is easy to give education to one or two children. Now female in Indian society is standing equally with males in every sector of society. Now she does not spend her life as a slave of male but spends her life as his friend.

6. Effect of education on social values : Education not only produces personal values but also develops the values like equality, democracy. It is education because of which all humans are equal in front of law. Under the effect of education many social evils like Sati System, child marriage, caste system, No to widow remarriage etc.

either are finished or are on the verge of finishing. Many good customs like widow remarriage, Inter caste marriage etc. are coming forward due to education. Now discrimination has been finished, position of women has been improved considerably due to education. Modern society and all the values of modem society are the contribution of education.

7. Effect of education on occupations : The basis of occupation in ancient societies was not education but was caste system. Person had to adopt the occupation of his caste in which he is born. There was no effect of education. But under the effect of modern education the importance is given to individual’s abilities instead of caste system. Now the occupation of a person is not dependent upon his caste but is dependent upon what he is and what is his educational qualification.

In modern times if a person wants to increase his ability then he should be educated. If any person wants to achieve higher status then it is necessary for him to be educated. Education has decreased the importance of caste system. Equality related to caste has been reduced to a great extent. Now any one can achieve any status after getting education.

Question 6.
Write a detailed note on technological factors of social change.
Answer:
Technological factors are very important in bringing social change in Indian society. Many new things are invented in society daily which greatly affects the whole society. In modern society the speed of these inventions has been increased because of which change often comes in society. Progress of any society is related with the technology of that society. Lot of progress has come in means of transport, communication, post etc. from technological point of view.

Today’s age is known as Machine Age because of which we can see the effect of machines in every sector,of society. Even according to many sociologists technological factor is the main factor in bringing social change in society. Actually all those machines, tools and things are included in technological factor in which human force is used.

Technology and Social change : Now we will see that how technology has played an important role in bringing social change.

1. Changes in the area of production :
Technology has greatly influenced the sector of production. Domestic production was affected by the opening of industries Biggest change was that the domestic production has been changed in the factories production. Thousands of persons are working in big industries, females came out of houses due to end of domestic production. Social life of females is changed with this.

Now more production is there at less cost and the quality is much better than the domestic quality. Females have got employment in big industries. People were making cloth and sugar in their houses. But now this production has come in the hands of factories. Now many textiles and sugar industries are there where thousands of people are working.

2. Development in means of communication : With the development of factories, machines and more production, development in the communication system was also necessary.

With the development of means of communication relations were established with other countries. With the help of modern techniques like Telephone, Radio, T.V., Magazines, Printing Press etc. dependence in interrelations was produced. Because of development of means of communication exchange of cultures was started with which proximity was produced in different countries.

In earlier societies communication was there only with talking and symbols, but when the writing was started with talking then different groups started to understand each other. With this speed came in daily life of the people. It was very helpful in establishing relations with the people of other countries. Now person is doing work according to his ability and his standard of living has been changed.

Development of communication has not only done progress in our society, but our social life has also been greatly affected by this. Instead of primary relations, secondary relations among humans has been established. It became easy for the person to come out of houses because person can talk from anywhere with his family members. But privacy has come to an end and family control has been reduced. .

3. New techniques of agriculture : Now new techniques are used in the field of agriculture, like new tools, use of chemical manure, new machines etc. are used by different people with which the standard of living of the people has been changed. With the use of chemical manures production in agriculture has been increased.

Now people are using new types of seeds. In ancient times, whole family was doing agricultural work. With machines people have been able to do more work with less human force. India’s business is also increased due to more production of agriculture. Number of people from villages started to work in industries.

4. Development of means of transportation : With the development of means of communication, means of transport also developed. They developed because people came in contact with each other. Planes, Buses, Cars, Cycles, Raliways, Ships were invented with which it became easy to go from one country to another. People started to go to work to far off places because they got a number of facilities at far off places. Because of this the mobility in humans has also increased.

The discrimination in Indian society was also decreased with the development of means of transport. People started to go in same means of transport with which the equal relations were established in the people of different castes.

5. Changes in Family : Under the effect of technological factors the institution of family has completely changed. Modern family has been changed completely. All the members of the family have to come out of house to earn bread and butter. That’s why all the functions of the family are taken away by other institutions. Small children are taken care of by cretches.

Functions related to health are taken away by Hospitals. Recreational functions of the family are taken away by cinema, T.V., pictures etc. Now the attitude of person is personal. Structure of the family has been changed. Now small families are developed. Now small and nuclear families are developed in place of joint families.

6. Changes in Marriage System : Marriage was a religious sacrament in the ancient society. Marriage of the person was generally fixed by his elders. But because of technical factors the outlook of people towards marriage has been changed. Now marriage is not a religious sacrament but is accepted as a social contract. Base of marriage is contract which can be broken at any time.

First of all now marriage is not considered as a religious sacrament but now it is considered as a social contract. Now base of the marriage is contract which can be broken at any time. The institution of marriage has been completely changed. Area of selection of mate has been increased. Person can marry out of caste with his wish.

If husband and wife are having opposite views then they can separate from each other. Now woman does not consider herself inferior to man. Now they are economically not dependent upon males. That’s why their status is considered as equal to man.

7. Changes in Caste System : In ancient times, caste system was so effective that person could neither adopt occupation of his choice nor he was allowed to establish contacts with other castes. Society was divided in four parts. Humans were getting social status according to their caste. But with the progress in technological sector, caste system has weakened to a great extent.

Now society has been divided on the basis of classes not on castes. Now the household production has gone in the hands of factories instead of houses. Person had to come out of house to earn money. People of all the castes have to work with each other in factories with which untouchability is reduced to a great extent.

Now humans get job on the basis of their ability. Even at some places people of lower castes are at higher positions and people of higher castes are at lower position and they have to work under them. Now relations between all the castes are on equal terms.