Prasanna

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Western Sociological Thinkers Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
The formal study of society as an academic discipline originated in which country and in which century?
Answer:
The formal study of society as an academic discipline originated in France (Europe) during the 19th century.

Question 2.
Name the three factors responsible for the development of Sociology as an independent discipline.
Answer:
The industrialist Revolution, the French Revolution, and the ideas of Enlightenment are responsible for the growth of sociology.

Question 3.
State the names of two thinkers associated with enlightenment.
Answer:
Charles Montesquieu and Jean Jacques Rousseau were the two thinkers associated with enlightenment.

Question 4.
French Revolution took place in which year?
Answer:
The French Revolution took place in 1789 A.D.

Question 5.
What does the term ‘positivism ’ stand for ?
Answer:
Positivism says that society works according to certain fixed laws which can be discovered.

Question 6.
Who named two branches of Sociology as social statics and social dynamics ?
Answer:
Auguste Comte gave the names of social statics and social dynamics as two

Question 7.
Make a chart of Auguste Comte’s law of three stages.
Answer:

Question 8.
Karl Marx’s theory of class is based on which determinism ?
Answer:
Karl Marx’s theory of class is based on the ownership of means of production. One group owns all the means of production and the other doesn’t have any.

Question 9.
Who wrote the book ‘Communist Manifesto’ ?
Answer:
Communist Manifesto was written by Karl Marx and Fredrich Engles.

Question 10.
What are the stages of social change given by Karl Marx ?
Answer:
Communism and then socialism are the stages of social change given by Karl Marx.

Question 11.
Who classified the society by the nature of solidarity existing in the society? .
Answer:
Emile Durkheim classified the society by the nature of solidarity existing in the society.

Question 12.
Name the two kinds of solidarities discussed by Emile Durkheim.
Answer:
Mechanical and organic solidarity are the two kinds of solidarities discussed by Emile Durkheim.

Question 13.
List the types of social action given by Max Weber.
Answer:
Max Weber gave four types of social action and these are-Zweckrational, Wertrational, affective action and traditional action.

Question 14.
Name the types of authority mentioned by Max Weber.
Answer:
Max Weber mentioned three types of authority-Traditional authority, Legal authority and Charismatic authority. „

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
What is enlightenment ?
Answer:
Enlightenment was the age when great intellectual development took place and many changes came in the philosophical ideas. This time was around 17th-18th centuries. Major thinkers of this age were Montesquieu and Rouseau. These thinkers stressed on the supremacy of science and reason over belief. Due to these thinkers, people started giving stress on using scientific method in social phenomenon.

Question 2.
Write a short note on theological and metaphysical stage.
Answer:
Comte says that in theological stage, human ideas were imaginative. He considered every thing as a form of God. Concept was that yet all the things are lifeless but ultimate power exists in them. Second stage continued from 14th to 16th century.During this age, the right of uninterrupted observation came forward which was having no limit. That’s why spirituality declined and it also affected the metaphysical aspect.

Question 3.
What do you mean by animism ?
Answer:
Animism is a theory which says that people believe that God exists only in living things. The meaning of word ‘Anima’ is ‘soul’ or ‘movement’. That’s why people started worshipping animals, birds, land and air as well.

Question 4.
Discuss class as defined by Karl Marx.
Answer:
According to Karl Marx, “Classes are large groups of people differing from each other by the place they occupy in a historically determined system of social production, by their relation to the means of production, by their role in the social organisation of labour and consequently by the dimensions of the share of social wealth of which they dispose and their mode of acquiring it.”

Question 5.
What do you mean by class consciousness ?
Answer:
Each class is aware about its members, their position and social status. Such awareness is called class consciousness. Members of all the classes are conscious about their groups and that’s why they generally like to keep relations with the members of their own class.

Question 6.
Define historical materialism.
Answer:
Historical materialism is understanding history in terms of the relations of the people to the means of production. In simple words historical materialism is the philosophical theory of social development.

Question 7.
Write a brief note on social facts.
Answer:
Durkheim gave the concept of social fact. According to him, social fact is the every permanent or temporary way of doing action which is capable of exerting external pressure on an individual or every way of repeating action which is available everywhere but keeps independent existence from individual ideas.

Question 8.
Discuss organic solidarity.
Answer:
Organic solidarity is available in modern societies and is based on the differences existing among its members. It prevails in the societies with more population and poeple have formal relations among them. Repressive laws prevail in such societies.

Question 9.
What do you mean by Zweckrational action ?
Answer:
It is a type of rational action which is performed while keeping in mind the final goal. In these actions, an actor clearly knows about the goals and select particular means to attain his goals. These are planned and taken after evaluating the goal. These are also known as instrumental action.

Question 10.
What is affective action ?
Answer:
This action is emotional. It is determind on most of the occassions, by the state of mind of the actor. In this case, the action is not aimed towards a goal but is determined by an emotional reaction of the actor in a given set of circumstances.

Question 11.
Define Authority.
Answer:
Authority is a particular form of power supported by the rules of a social system. It is generally accepted as legitimate by those who participate in it.

Answer the following short answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
Explain the law of three stages as propounded by Auguste Comte.
Answer:
Auguste Comte gave the law of three stages and said that there are three stages of social evolution-theological stage, metaphysical stage and positive stage. In theological stage, all the human ideas were imaginative and he considered all the things as a reaction to the actions of a supernatural power.

Thought was that yet all the things are lifeless but that supernatural power exists among them. Second stage was metaphysical stage which continued from 14th to 19th century.

In this stage, revolutionary movement started and protestent religion originated. In 16th century, negative concept emerged whose main aim was social change. In this, people had the right of unlimited observation. In positive stage, industrial society emerged and science came forward. In this stage there is no conflict in social system and progress.

Question 2.
Discuss the features of mechanical solidarity.
Answer:

1. Members in such societies have homogeneity of behaviour and they behave in a similar way.
2. Common beliefs and feelings are the symbols of mechanical solidarity. Collective consciousness exists among the members of society.
3. Repressive laws prevail in mechanical societies where there is a system of punishment for criminals.
4. Morality is the base of mechanical societies and consequently solidarity prevails in society.
5. Religion, as well, is one of the important bases of such societies and individuals
   behave according to religion.

Question 3.
Discuss the features of organic solidarity.
Answer:

1. Societies with organic solidarity have differentiation and specialisation amongst them. Many classes prevail in such societies.
2. Division of labour is of great importance over here and people depend upon each other to fulfil their basic needs.
3. Many organisations and groups prevail over here and that’s why restitutive laws are of great importance.
4. In organic societies, contractual relations are the source of social solidarity and individuals are hired on contract.
5. In such societies religion is of very less importance.
6. Such societies are modern societies.

Question 4.
Differentiate between theological and metaphysical stage.
Answer:
(i) Theological Stage : This stage started with the beginning of humanity when humans were afraid of natural forces. He considered all the things as a result of action of any supernatural power. He believed that yet all the things are lifeless but god prevails among all.

(ii) Metaphysical Stage : Comte calls this stage as a revolutionary stage of modern society. This state started in 14th century and continued till 19th century. It is divided into two parts. In first part, revolutionary movement started and revolutionary philosophy came after the advent of Protestent religion. Second stage started in 16th century and negative theories started in it whose main objective was social change.

Question 5.
Do you think capitalism will be replaced by communist societies in near future ?
Answer:
No, we don’t think that capitalism will be replaced by communist societies in near future. Actually capitalist system is based on open market but communist economy is under government’s control and presently no one likes such control. In 1917 A.D, Russian monarchy was replaced by communism but after few decades, economy reached its worst ever condition. That’s why in 1990 A.D., U.S.S.R. was disintegrated and divided into many countries. So we can say that communist societies cannot replace capitalist economies.

Answer the following short answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
Has Sociology developed as a full fledged science as envisioned by Auguste Comte ?
Answer:
Auguste Comte was the one who coined the term sociology in 1839 A.D. He wrote a book ‘The Course of Positive Philosophy’ which got published in six parts. In this book, he wrote that different parts of society are studied by different social sciences. For example, Political Science studies the political aspect of society, economic aspect is studied by economics. So, there must be a science which could study society.

He imagined a science which could study society, social relation etc. and according to his imagination, a new science emerged which is known as Sociology. After Comte, Herbert Spencer gave many a- concept with which the scope of Sociology started expanding. Emile Durkheim was the first Sociologist who tried to establish Sociology as a Science. During his studied, he used scientific method and said that society can be studied with these methods such as observation etc.

Tie gave many concepts to sociology such as social fact, suicide, division of labour, religion etc. and the use of scientific method is clearly visible in his concepts. He was the first professor of Sociology. Karl Marx and Max Weber also gave great contribution in establishing sociology as a science. Karl Marx gave conflict theory and most of the other theories are centered around this theory. Marx studied society from economic point of view and that the history of society is the history of class struggle.

He gave a detailed description of two classes and the continuing conflict between them. He gave many concepts to sociology such as historical materialism, dialectical materialism, class and class struggle, theory of alienation etc. Max Weber also tried to do the same and gave the theory of social action.

He gave scientific explanation of sociology and gave other theories such as social action, authority, domination, religion, bureaucracy etc. After these founding fathers of Sociology, many other philosophers came forward and we cannot neglect their contribution in establishing Sociology as a science.

Among them, Talcott Parsons, J.S. Mill, Malinowaski, Robert Merton, Gillin and Gillin, G.S. Ghurye are quite important.
Since the last few decades scientific methods are used in sociology so that the study could remain objective. With this, it will be possible to implement the findings of one region into another.

After using hypothesis, observation, sampling, interview, schedule, questionnaire, classification, tabulation, use of statistics etc. Sociology has definitely established itself as a science.

Question 2.
What is Marx’s theory of class struggle ?
Answer:
In Marx’s developed scientific theories, one thing is included and that is he has explained the existence of class before different social classes. Most important thing is that Marx gave a very good explanation of classes. The main aim of Marx was to know about that society, in which we are living and the face which we can see today, why it is so and with which forces changes came in it ? Not only this he has also explained that in future which type of changes will come in this society.

Marx and Angles both concluded after their research that there is a lot of exploitation in the society. So the another aim of their research was to find a conceptual way to establish exploitationless society. On the basis of his study Marx was of the view that the changes which are coming in nature and in human society they are not coming at once. An internal struggle is always going on in nature and society. With this struggle, phenomena are developing and the cycle of natural and social evolution is going on.

The main philosophical concept of Marx is Dialectic materialism. With Dialectic system the explanation of society is known as Historical Materialism. According to him, the development and change in society is not coming because of any king, leader, divine’s mind and courage but it comes due to some specific socio-economic reasons. The ways of thinking, doing work and systerhs are coming from the development level of production system and by the ways of exchange.

Man always tries to produce more with less labour. Internal struggle is always there in the human society and in opposite things of nature. Because of this process man always changes old system of production with new system of production with new natural and®social knowledge. With this the social structure also changes which was based on economic structure. So to understand and to solve the problems of society of any age we have to study the oppositions of socio-economic structure of that age.

What is Class ? Before understanding the concept of class struggle of Marx, first of all we should understand what class is. After analysing history, Marx has strongly advocated that we should study from the point of view that we should find those laws which govern human history and for this we should observe the work and behaviour of common people instead of few specific people.

Every type of society was divided in different groups. In this way different classes form a special socio-economic unit. This unit is known as class. Marx was of the view that in every type of society we can see a number of classes which are divided in different units. According to Marx’s explanation of class, Lenin gave definition of class.

Lenin wrote, “Class is a big group of those people which in any method of social production of history, from their own point of view, from the point of view of their relations with means of production, from the point of view of their role in social structure of labour and because of result of which of how much they are owner of social property, and from the point of view of getting that property they are different from each other.”

According to Marx in any of the ages because of division of labour and because of getting different means of livelihood humans are divided in different classes and every class has its different and special class consciousness. By class, Marx doesn’t mean concept of Indian caste system. By class, he means that group of people which can be defined from their role in production process.

In simple words, “Class is a group of those people which earn their livelihood in the same manner.” The birth of class is based on the ways of production. The way in which production system changes, old classes are also replaced by the new classes.

Class Struggle:
Marx has explained that there are two classes in every type of society. After understanding the detailed concept of class, now we are in a position to understand the concept of ‘class struggle’. Marx wrote that in every society there are two opposite classes, one who exploits and second which is exploited and the struggle is always there in these two classes.

To this struggle Marx gave the name of ‘class struggle’. In the Communist Manifesto, Marx wrote that with the existence of society, class struggle was also started side by side. According to Marx in the processes of production different classes have different roles to play. So for the interests of the needs of these classes the condition of struggle is must and this struggle gives a base for different and opposite ideologies.

A conflict started in developing powers of production and in functionalist and in relations of static property and with this the speed of struggle increased. Speed of history is determined by the role of classes and we can find social economic classes in all those societies where general principle of division of labour is applied.

According to Marx, class struggle is starting from that production system which divides the society into different classes. In this one class produces after a lot of hard work like slaves, half slaves, farmers, labourers etc. and other class without doing any hard work and any work, uses quite large part .of production like masters of slaves, feudal lords, owners of land, capitalists etc.

This helps in reaching class struggle at its highest stage. Marx believes that when any revolution becomes successful then with this a new socio-economic system emerges. We should keep in mind that according to Marx there is a difference in ‘Class Opposition’ and ‘Class Struggle’. Generally people mix these with each other.

In struggle there is a definite consciousness but in all ‘Class Oppositions’ theTe is no class consciousness. For example, in America before civil war, black slaves had limited opposition against their white masters and in India the social opposition against caste system cannot be called as class struggle.

Class opposition will be mixed in class struggle when in the process of production exploited class will start to feel that now it is impossible for them to live in that condition. In this the role of political parties is quite significant. So for this according to Marx it is the duty of revolutionary political parties that they should speed up class struggle for the development of class consciousness.

In this way in his concept of Historical Materialism, Marx clarified that the history of evolution of society, history of evolution of production system means is the history of production forces and evolution of production relations of man. While studying history we should keep in mind that history is not only about some events, phenomenon, life sketches of kings and queens, greatness or braveness of military generals and it is not only the collection of all these things.

History cannot be a science after analysing all these things. History can be a science when it should have analysis of production system and inter-related social and political institutions of art, religion, behaviour, philosophy, literature and with them the analysis of those producers of material things – common people.

So on this base Marx has divided the whole human history in these parts :
1. Primitive Communal Society: Primitive communal society was the first stage of social history. In this the means of production were underdeveloped like tools of stones, arrow, bow etc. To produce essential commodities joint labour was used. So for this every one had the right over production and there was no economic exploitation and there was no class difference.

2. Slave Society: Second stage of social history was slave society. With the development of agriculture, cattle rearing and tools of metal the production system and relations started to change and slave system was started. With developed means of production the concept of private property came into being and different classes of slaves and slave masters also came into being. In this way class struggle came into being. According to Marx class-struggle was started in this society because in this society masters started to exploit slaves.

3. Feudal Society: This was Feudal Society. In this stage means of production i.e., land came under occupation of some land owners and some feudal lords. Large number of landless half slaves became farmers. The concept of private property also strengthened in this age. We can see the remains of this stage even today in the developing country like India and in underdeveloped countries. In this stage two classes of farmers and feudal lords were made. Class struggle also increased in this stage.

4. Capitalist Society: This age was of the capitalist society. Actually at the end of 15th century when science started to develop then an opposition was started between new means of production and between relations of production system. With the invention of new machines and with the establishment of large industries this age of capitalism was started which prevails even today. In this age two classes were made.

One was capitalist class which was exploiting other class and other was class of labourers which were forced to sell their labour at no cost or very less pay to the owner of means of production i.e. capitalist. In this age with the development of science education increased and because labourers were working with each other in large industries they got organized and gradually class consciousness was developed. Today exploited class is not ready to be exploited by other class. Class struggle is at its best.

This is the last system based on exploitation. Today the destruction of capitalism has started. Human society is going towards socialism in a rapid speed. Example of this is the governments of Russia, China and other countries. According to Marx, the root cause behind exploitation is private property and because of this thing only there are two main classes in every sphere of production in society.

Out of these two classes, one class has all the means of economic production because of which this class is exploiting poor people and other class is that which doesn’t have any means of production. In every age of society we can find struggle (except primitive communism) between these two. It was the assumption of Marx that with the help of its money and means of production capitalist class always tries to force the people to adopt its thinking and life style and system.

According to Marx, “That class which has the material force, all means of production and intellectual power always controls means of mental production also.” For this type of control it uses every type of force. The religion, philosophy, politics, economy, morality etc. which it has forced the people to adopt become slaves of capitalists. To maintain this condition of exploitation it is must to suppress the everything of classes with force.

Social evolution is given by different stages. The evolution of any society, system or historical age depends upon circumstances of that country. No social system lives forever. All processes are dialectic. There is always an internal struggle between new processes of production (Thesis) and old processes of production (Anti Thesis).

It is must to adopt new processes instead of old processes. The qualitative changes happen slowly and slowly, but quantitative changes happen at once. So according to law of evolution revolutionary changes are automatic and compulsory. These changes are based on force. In the process of evolution there is a conflict between opposite forces. In the end class struggle will speed up and it is must for exploited class or labour class to win this struggle.

According to Marx because of this opposition capitalism will automatically come to an end. In capitalist system, poverty, striveness and unemployment will increase very quickly. When it will be beyond the range of labourer class then they will break all the chains and revolutionary age will start. According to Marx capitalism will be the last Social system based on exploitation.

Capitalists will not leave their rights. With peaceful methods exploitation cannot be stopped. So for this revolution is must. A part of society will change into labour class and this revolutionary change will be good for every one. Under the leadership of labour class and after‘the class struggle when the machinery of the state will be under their control then the age of Socialism will start. According to Marx, state is the biggest weapon in the hands of capitalist class to exploit.

Even after revolution the mediocres of feudalism and capitalism will try and go for anti-revolution. So after going to socialism from capitalism it will be the temporary stage of dictatorship of labour class. After the establishment of sqcialism and after the end of exploitation, all the classes will come to an end and every one will get according to his labour but in the developed stage of communism every one will get according to its needs.

Slowly and slowly the state, which was the weapon of exploitation in the hands of capitalist class, will also come to an end and instead of state those institutions will come into being which will be based on cooperation. Classes and class struggle will come to an end. The end of class struggle between labourers and capitalists will come with the end of capitalism. When the means of production will come in the hands of society then the ban on production will go and destruction of production forces will also come to an end.

The idea of end of classes through class struggle is not a dream in present age. World is going very fast towards the establishment of classless socialist society. With the revolution of labourers all the opposition will be solved. It is the historical duty of modern labour class to fulfil this wish of labour class. After this with conscious mind, man will make his history himself. In this way beginning of Marxism is the new step towards development of class struggle of movement of labour class.

Not only Marx and Engles have given a scientific ideology of labourers but also they have given a new conceptual tool in the hands of labour class and they have established a new type of class system of labourers. Firstly they had established a communist league and then they collected all the organizations of labourers in the world and made ‘International Association’ of working class. In this way Marx and Engles have given the concept of class and class struggle.

Question 3.
Write a note on communist revolution in Russia and China.
Answer:
(i) Russian Revolution: Before 1917, Russia was controlled by the Romanov dynasty. At the beginning of First World War (1914), Tzar Nicholas II had his empire on Russia. Except the area around Moscow, many other areas were included in the Russian empire such as present day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, part of Poland, Ukraine and Belaroos. Georgia, Agminia and Azerbaijan were also included in this.

Before 1914, political parties were not allowed in Russia. In 1898, socialists started Russian Democratic Workers Party and they supported the ideas of Karl Marx. But according to official policies, it had to illegally start its activities. It published its own newspaper, collected labourers and started doing strikes.

Russia was under a monarch who acted as a dictator. Unlike other European nations, Tzar was not responsible to the Parliament. Liberals started a movement to remove such practice. Liberals along with socialists, democrats and social revolutionaries, collected farmers and labourers and during the 1905 revolution, demanded the constitution. Russian workers were influenced by this and they also started demanding less hours of work and more pay.

When they were getting ready for the revolution, police attacked them. More than 100 workers died and more than 300 wounded. As this event happened on Sunday, it-is known as ‘Bloody Sunday’ in the Russian history. In 1914 A.D., the First World War started and the Tzar forced Russia into the war. Russian economy was already not in a good shape.

It started showing the signs of decline. Russia involved a great deal in the war. On one side, the Tzar was trying to dissolve the Parliament (Duma) and on the other side, the members of Parliament were trying to save the country from such situation. Under’ these circumstances, on 22 February, 1917, One factory was shut down in Petrograd and all the workers became unemployed. Other workers of 50 more factories, showed them their sympathy and started their strike.

Till then, there was no political party leading the movement. Workers surrounded the government buildings and the government imposed curfew. Workers got scattered till evening but they again came forward on 24th and 25th February. Government called the military and police was asked to observe them.

On 25th February, Sunday, Government dismissed the Parliamant (Duma). Leaders started opposing it and strikers came out on roads, with full force on 26th February. On 27th February, Police Headquarters was destroyed. People came out of their houses and they started raising slogans for bread, pay, less hours of work and democracy. Government again called the military but military refused to shoot the common people. Army men also joined the strikers and they collected in the building in which last time Duma was sitting.

Next day, a workers group met the Tzar. Army Generals also advised the Tzar to accept the demands of strikers. Finally on 2nd March, 1917, he accepted the demands of strikers and his rule in Russia came to an end. In October, Lenin controlled Russia and Russian Revolution come to an end.

(ii) Chinese Revolution : On 1st October 1949, Chinese Communist leader Mao- Tse-Tung declared to establish people’s Republic of China (PRC). With this declaration, the war between the Chinese Communist Party and Nationaliste Party come to an end which started after the second world war. With the establishment of PRC, the official chaos started in 1911 with the Chinese Revolution coming to an end. With the defeat of Nationalist Party, U.S.A severed all its political ties with China.

Chinese Communist Party was established in 1921 at Shanghai. Chinese communists supported the Nationalist Party in 1926-27 at the time of northern attack. This support contiuned till White Terror of 1927 when the Nationalists started killing the communists. In 1931 A.D. Japan captured Manchuria. At this time, govt, of Republic of China had fear of three sided attack-Japanese attack, Communist revolt and attack of the northern people.

Few Generals of Chinese army were fedup with the behaviour of Nationalist leader Chiang-Kai-Shek that he was more interested in internal dangers instead of caring about the Japanese attack. They captured Shek and asked him to cooperate with the communist army. This was the first attempt of having cooperation between the Nationalist Govt, and the Chinese Communist Party (C.C.P.). But this effort remained for a very small period of time. Nationalists started thinking about the Japanese and Communists started spreading their influence in the rural areas.

During the Second World Was, support for the communists increased to a great extent. American officers in China tried to suppress this support in the Nationalist region. Due to these undemocratic policies and the prevailing corruption during the war, Chinese govt, become weak against the communists. In 1945, Japan lost the war and the danger of civil war increased in China. American govt, continued its support to Chiang-Kai- Shek’s govt, as it was only Shek who could reduce the communist influence in China.

In 1945, Chiang-Kai-Shek and Mao-Tse-Tung met to discuss about the formation of govt, post war. Both agreed to restore democracy, collective army and freedom for political parties. Treaty was on the cards but due to the American intervention, it failed and in 1946, civil war started in China.

During the civil war from 1947-1949, the victory of communists was on the cards as they had public support, better army and the weapons captured from the Japanese army in Manchuria. In October, 1949, after winning many areas, Mao-Tse-Tung declared to establish People’s Republic of China. So in 1949, Chinese Revolution came to an end.

Question 4.
What is the contribution of Durkheim to Sociology ?
Answer:
Famous sociologist and philosopher Emile Durkheim was born on 15 April, 1858 at Lorraine region of north eastern France at a place called Epinel. Durkheim’s initial education was completed in an educational institution at Epinel. Right from his childhood, Durkheim was an intelligent child.

His family was quite famous in their field and that is why he received brilliance from his family. He received education till graduation at Epinel and then he migrated to Paris for getting higher education.

At Paris, his journey of getting higher education started. Here he tried to get admission in the world famous institution ‘Ecole Normale Superieure’. Here only brilliant students were able to get admission. After two unsuccessful attempts, Durkheim was able to get admission over here in 1879 A.D. This institution provided education on the French, Latin and Greek philosophy and these subjects were included in whole of its curriculum.

But Durkheim did not take interest in all these because he was more interested in studying actual political, intellectual and social conditions of society. Durkheim believed that positivism is must in knowledge. He believed that until present political, intellectual and social problems are not studied, while studying any subject or philosophy, that knowledge is not useful.

Due to such ideas of his, Durkheim was so dissatisfied with the atmosphere of this world famous institution that most of the times, he went against his teachers. Even then, he got his son Andre admitted in this institution. In 1880, famous positivist and historian Prof. Fustel de Coulanges became director of this institution. He was one of the teachers of Durkheim who had special feelings for him. Prof. Coulanges changed curriculum over here and Durkheim became very happy.

Durkheim greatly respected Prof. Coulanges. He wrote a book ‘Montesquieu’ in Latin language and dedicated this book to Prof. Coulanges. Here Durkheim met Emile Boutroux. Durkheim was very much influenced by him and he wrote his research paper of Doctrate under his guidance. Here, Durkheim met few more world famous scholars.

He also got many students over there who later on became famous Sociologists. His intellectual and mental thinking increased a lot when he came in contact with these famous scholars. In 1882 A.D., he left Ecole Normale Superieure and for next five years, he taught in different High Schools near Paris. With his influence, he started a new curriculum of Sociology in these schools. Durkheim became famous as a very good teacher.

In 1885-86, he took leave of one year and left for Gerfnany for higher studies. In Germany, Durkheim deeply studied Psychology, Economics, Cultural Anthropology. Here he studied the essays of Comte and came under his influence. Later on he gave birth to Sociological Positivism. .
In 1887, Bordeavux University opened up a new department of Sociology and Durkheim was invited to come over here to study. After studying for next 9 years, in 1896, he became Professor at the same department.

In 1893, Paris University gave him his Doctrate for writing his research paper ‘De la Division du Travail Social’ (Division of Labour in Society). This book got published and he became quite famous ater this. In 1895, Durkheim created his second important book ‘Les Regies da ea Methode Sociologique’ (The Rules of Sociological Method).

In 1897, Durkheim wrote his third famous book ‘Le Suicide : Etude de Sociologie’ (Suicide : A Study of Sociology). After publishing these world famous books, Durkheim’s name was started to consider as a major philosopher, Sociologist and a great writer.

In 1898, Durkheim started a sociology related magazine ‘L Annee Sociologique’ and remained at the post of its editor till 1910 A.D. This magazine of Durkheim became quite famous in the intellectual environment of France. In this magazine, many of the great philosophers such as Georges Devy, Simond, Levi Strauss etc. got their essays published.

In 1902, Durkheim was called in Paris University at the post of Professor and he took charge over here. After Durkheim’s efforts in 1913, Education department’s name was changed to Education and Sociology department. Here Durkheim taught moral education, origin of religion, beginning of family, social philosophy of Comte and Saint Simon.

In 1912, Durkheim, wrote another book ‘Les Formes Elementairs Delavie Religieuse’ (Elementary Forms of Religious Life).
Durkheim got married when he was appointed at Bordeaux University. His wife’s name was Lauise Drefus. He had two children, daughter Marie and son Andre.

His wife helped him a lot. There were many functions such as editing, checking, communication etc. which she did with great labour. First World War started in 1914. Durkheim sent his son Andre in the war and himself started writing essays in newspaper to uplift the morale of people. But war made him mentally weak. During the war, he received the news of his son’s death. He completely broke down after his son’s death. In 1916, Durkheim became sick and on 15th November, 1917, he died at the age of 59 years.

Writings Of Durkheim:
During his lifetime, Durkheim wrote many books which are given below:

1. The Division of Labour in Society – 1893
2. The Rules of Sociological Method – 1895
3. Suicide – 1897
4. Elementary Forms of Religious Life – 1912
5. Education and Philosophy (After death) – 1922
6. Sociology and Philosophy (After death) – 1924
7. Moral Education (After death) – 1925
8. Sociology and Saint Simon (After death) – 1925
9. Pragmatism and Sociology (After death) – 1955

After Durkheim’s death, his wife and friends got published his essays and speeches which increased sociological literature.

Question 5.
Discuss the types of social actions given by Weber. .
Answer:
Weber gave four types of social action and these are :
1. Zweckrational behaviour : Weber says that by Zweckrational social behaviour we mean by that social behaviour which are directed by for the fulfilment of many objectives rationally while keeping in mind its usage. In this we not only keep in mind the selection of means but here values are also kept in mind. Means are checked fully and the action is edited and directed on that base.

2. Wertrational behaviour : In Wertrational behaviour a good available place is given to any clear and special value. We do not take care of other values. In this rational base is not possible but on moral, religious or beautiful basis it can be accepted. To maintain moral and religious assumption wertrational behaviour can be done. To accept these actions there is no need of any reason or rational base. Just they are accepted as it is because while doing a thing social status increases and personal peace also comes.

3. Affectual behaviour : These types of action can happen due to human sentiments and behaviour. While living in society we have to go through a number of feelings like love, hatred, anger etc. Because of these feelings the state of peace and violence comes in society. While doing these types of behaviour we do not take help of tradition and reason.

4. Traditional behaviour. Traditional actions can be done on the basis of already existing definite traditions. To make social life easy and peaceful traditional actions are quite important. It is quite possible that any situation of conflict can come in society but generally in this type of action there is no need of taking help of rationals or any other influence. These actions are directed and controlled by customs of society.

Question 6.
How does Weber relate economic activity to religion?
Answer:
Essence of Capitalism:
The early study of Weber was centred on that habit which can be seen particularly in modern society. To explain the religious influence on economic behaviour Weber has written many essays from 1904 to 1905 and on the basis of those essays his most famous book ‘The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’ was published.

In this book Weber explained that how the development of capitalism was influenced by the thoughts and policies of Protestant Religion. These thoughts were a challenge to Marx’s concept that the social and religious conciousness of man is determined by its social class.

According to Weber’s view the clear cut thing for modern industrial world’s man. is that he should work hard. According to Weber, “Hard work is a duty and its result is inherent in it.” This thought is an extraordinary quality of modern industrial world’s man. Man does not do his work efficiently, because he has to do this work he does so because he wants to do this work.

This is the base of his personal satisfaction. It is expected from a man to do his duty for his livelihood and he does so. It doesn’t matter in which field he is. There is one quotation of America, “If any one is able to do any work then he should do his work in the most efficient manner.” This quotation is the essence of capitalism According to Weber, this concept does not belong to any supernatural aim, in fact it is related with the success of the man which he gets in economic life.

It doesn’t matter that in a particular time this concept was related with religious morality. To clarify the essence of capitalism Weber compared it to other economic process called Traditionalism. In economic processes, traditionalism is that stage in which man wants to earn more and more profit and wants to do less work.

He wants to take more rest during his time of work and he doesn’t want to accomodate with the new methods of work. They can be satisfied with the simple ways of living life and wants to earn profit at once. The accumulation of money is an another part of economic traditionalism. All these characteristics are totally opposite to the essence of capitalism.

Actually modern capitalism is a big complex of interrelated institutions whose base are economic efforts not the efforts of book makers (betting). Capitalism is the complex of lawful forms of business corporations, centre of organizational exchange, the system of giving public loan in the form of government debt letters and the organization of industries whose aim is to produce things on rational basis.

According to Weber, the quality of essence of capitalism is not only the quality of western societies. In many societies many people came into being who had organised their business in quite an efficient way, who were the hard workers than their servants, whose life was simple and who were using their saving to increase their business.

But even after this the effect of the capitalist characteristics was there in western societies. It’s reason was that in west this quality was not developed as a personal quality but was developed as a simple way of living life. In this way the hard working life of people, business behaviour, public loan system, the investment of capital in business continuously and the wish towards hard work is the essence of capitalism.

In contrary to that effort get profit at once, to see hard work as a curse, accumulation of money and to be satisfied with the simple way of living are general economic habits.

Protestant Ethics:
After clarifying that the aim of his study was essence of capitalism, Weber has given a number of reasons on the basis of which he wants to find its origin into the religious thoughts of reform movement. Weber asked his one student ‘Badan’ to study religious relations in state and selection of education.

After studying this he concluded that in comparison to catholic students, protestant students are taking more admissions in those educational institutions which are related to industrial life. One another reason also was there that in European time to time less populated groups have completed their social and political losses by their economic hardwok but Catholics were unable to do this.

With the influence of these circumstances Weber’s thought got strength that there must have been a relation between religious policy and economic activities. After this he also had seen in 16th century so many rich states and cities had accepted Protestant religion. Because of so many reasons Protestant religion was increasing its efforts of economic profit.

On this base Weber tried to know that whether Protestant religion was spread in economic backward countries and whether after developed capitalist economy Catholic religion became influencial or not. The main aim of Weber in writing ‘The Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism’ was to explain these contradictions and to clarify the influence of religious- policies on economic life.

Wiber here wants to clarify that how the policies of Protestant religion became source of motivation for those people who were in favour of getting economic profit from rational point of view. So according to Weber concepts related to any religion should be analysed from that point to view that how any concept motivates the behaviour of its followers.

While keeping in mind this question Weber analysed the essays written by priests of Protestant religion and clarifies the influence of Kalvinism’s concepts on the daily behaviour of group. As a policy of the Protestant religion the order of Saint Paul was accepted widely: “Whoever will not work will not eat food and like poor, rich also do any work or business to increase the prestige of god.”

In this way hardworking life is according to the religious belief of Protestant religion. Richard Baxter has written, “Just for work god protects us and our actions. Hard work is the moral and natural aim of power. Just with hard work only any one can serve god.” Another Saint John Banian has written, “It will not be said that what you believe but it will be said that whether one was working hard or just talking with other.”

In this way in the Protestant religion working life was accepted as service to god. The praise of hard work has given birth to new laws and rules in Protestant religion. According to it, the wastage of time is a sin. Life is short and valuable, so man should use its surplus time to increase the prestige of god by using it in useful works.

Useless talking, to meet people a lot, sleeping a lot and to keep oneself busy in religious functions by giving loss to daily functions is a sin. It is so because god has given us a work to earn livelihood and we are not doing this. From this point of view the policies of Protestant religion are against ideal of personal policy that ‘the rich should not do any work or religious functions are more valuable that wordly functions.’ This is Protestant Ethic.

Relationship of Capitalism and Protestant Ethics:
After analysing Protestant Ethics and the spirit of capitalism Weber found many equalities in its different basis. These equalities have motivated Weber to clarify that which conditions were the reasons in economic behaviours and religious politics and which conditions were results. First of all Weber studied the religious guilds in 16th and 17th centuries and the influence on human behaviour of changes which came in its assumptions.

First of all many religious guilds stressed on the getting and accumulation of materialistic things and after some time accumulation of money was kept in the category of non religiousness in which to finish all wishes in front of hard work was good enough. These religious guilds had clarified it was an obstacle in the way of hard work.

When this concept of finishing of wish came out of limit of religious centres and started to influence worldly morality then it also started to contribute in the creation of modern economy i.e. capitalism. This change has given direction to Weber’s study that the religious policies are basic reasons which influence person’s economic and secular behaviours.

In this way with the help of many historical proofs Weber tries to clarify that how the policies or Ethics of Protestant religion were helpful in the development of early capitalism. The reform movement of Protestant religion gives right to those people to enter in religions festivals who have full faith in the policies of this religion.

The members of religious councils had to prove that they have the full capabilities to give practical form to the ethics of religions. This tradition to give importance to earn means of livelihood becomes very helpful in the development of capitalism. Slowly and slowly these moral beliefs of Protestant religion were changed as the system of life in the life of its followers.

Weber has accepted this condition as that phenomena with the help of which rationalization increased in the different aspects of western life. This rationalization came in western civilization as different forms and it has direct relation with the development of capitalism. In this Weber has explained the Protestant Ethics and spirit of capitalism and he clarified and understood religion on this base.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 11 Social Change Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 11 Social Change

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Social Change Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
Define social change.
Answer:
Many changes often come in social relations and this is social change.

Question 2.
Name the basic sources of social change.
Answer:
There are three basic sources of social change-innovation, Discovery and Diffusion.

Question 3.
Give two features of social change.
Answer:

1. Social change is a universal process which comes in everxf society.
2. Comparison is must in social change.

Question 4.
What is endogenous change ?
Answer:
The changes which develop within a society are known as endogenous change.

Question 5.
Name some factors responsible for social change.
Answer:
Natural factors, beliefs and values, social reforms, demographic factors, tech-nological factors, educational factors etc.

Question 6.
What is progress ?
Answer:
When we proceed in a desired direction to achieve our goal s then the change is known as progress.

Question 7.
Give examples of planned change.
Answer:
To give education and training to the people ig planned cha nge.

Question 8.
Give two examples of unplanned change.
Answer:
Natural calamities such as flood, earthquakes with which complete change comes in society.

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of social change.
Answer:
When change comes in different parts of society and this ch; mge affects lives of most of the people living in society, it is known as social changi. It means that structural change comes in the living style of the people.

Question 2.
What is diffusion ?
Answer:
The meaning of diffusion is spreading of something more wid< sly. For example when cultural ideas spread from one group to the second group it is known as diffu¬sion. Social change in most of the society often comes due to diffusion.

Question 3.
State a brief note on evolution and revolution.
Answer:
(i) Evolution. When change comes in a definite direction ar id change comes in traits and composition of an element, it is evolution.
(ii) Revolution. The sudden and spontaneous change is revolution. Existing sys¬tem comes to an end and is replaced by a new system.

Question 4.
List out the three basic ways in which change takes place.
Answer:
Change in three basic things brings change in society and these are :

1. Behaviour of the group
2. Social structure
3. Cultural attributes.

Question 5.
What are t he three sources from which change can originate ?
Answer:
(i) Innovation:
The meaning of innovation is creating something new by using an already known elememt. In this, new technique is innovated by using an already existing technology.

(ii) Discovery:
‘In means the ,act of finding for the first time or to invent something new about which we don’t know anything.

(iii) Diffusion:
It means to spread something widely. If cultural ideas of one group spread into the other, it is known as diffusion.

Question 6.
Briefly outline the difference between social and cultural change.
Answer:
(i) Social change can come consciously or unconsciously but cultural change alsways comes with conscious efforts.
(ii) Social change is the change which comes only in social relations but in cultural change, a major change comes in religion, ideas, values etc.

Answer the following short answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
What are t he main types of social change ? Briefly discuss them.
Answer:
Evolution, progress, development and revolution are the main types of social change. When internal, gradual and sequal change comes and social institutions start to become complex., it is known as evolution. When change comes in any thing in a desired direction, it is known as development. When people proceed towards a desired direction to achieve something and goal is achieved, it is known as progress. When sudden and quick change comes and the existing system is replaced by the new one, it is known as revolution.

Question 2.
Disc uss briefly the demographic factor of social change.
Answer:
Demogra phic factor also exerts a great influence on social change. Social organisation, traditions, institutions, customs etc. are also influenced by the demo graphic factor. Increase or decrease in population, change in sex ratio affect social relations. Change: in population becomes an obstacle in the way of society’s economic progress and a reason of many social problems. Increase in population often creates the situation of n alemployment and poverty which leads to the increase in corruption and disturbance in society.

Question 3.
Describ e any four factors responsible for social change.
Answer:

• Natural Factor: Due to natural factor such as flood, earthquake etc. soci¬ety completely cl langes and social change takes place.
• Demogrs iphic Factor: Increase or decrease in population, change in sex ratio also becomes a r eason of social change.
• TechnoHogical Factor: If change takes place in most of the existing tech¬niques in society, social change takes place.
• Educational Factor: When most of the society’s population starts to take education, it becomes one of the factors of social change.

Question 4.
Highlight the few points of differences between educational factor and technological factor.
Answer:

1. Educational factor can become a reason of tecnological factor but techno-logical factor cannot become a reason of educational change.
2. With the increase in literacy rate, every one in society gets affected but techno-logical factors have a very slow impact on the people.
3. With education planned change can take place but with technological factors, both planned and unplanned change takes place.

Answer the following short answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
Define Social Change. Discuss its features in detail.
Answer:
Word ‘Change’ is value free word. It never tells us about good or bad or about any rule. In general sense change is that difference which is there in the present state and earlier state of any thing. Like any one has money today but was poor yesterday. His position has been changed due to money.

Comparison is necessary in change be-cause if we want to clarify any change then it can be clarified only by comparison. In this way, social change is related with society. When change comes in society or social relationships then it is known as social change.

Every type of change in the human society cannot be called as social change. Social change is related with the change which comes in social relationships. We can include mutual actions and relations in different parts of society in social relationships. Meaning of change is the difference in existing conditions and earlier condition of any thing.

That’s why when we compare the existing condition and earlier condition of anything then we observe some difference. This difference is social change. In this way we can say that social change is related with the difference in social structure, actions, relations,organizations etc. Man is dynamic by nature and no society can live without change.

Definitions:
1. According to Gillin and Gillin, “Social change as variations.from the modes of life, whether due to alteration in geographical conditions in cultural equipment, composition of the population or ideologies, and whether brought by diffusion or invention within the group.”

2. According to Kingsley Davis, “By social change, I meant only such alterations as occur in social organization that is structure and function of society.”

3. According to Jones, “Social change is a term used to describe variations or modifications of any aspect of social process, social patterns, social interactions or social organization.”

4. According to Eldridge and Marril, “In its concrete sense, social change in activities that differ from those which they (or their immediate forefathers) engaged in some time before, society is compared of vast and complex network of patterned human relationships in which all men participate. When human behaviour is in the process of modification, this is only another way of indicating that social change is occurring.”

On the basis of given definitions, we can conclude that according to all sociologists, when any change or difference comes in any aspect of social interactions, social organization, social relationships, social process etc. then it is called a social change. In this way, we can say that every change is not a social change. Social change exists in the social relationships of society or organizations or actions.

Features of Social Change:
1. Social change is universal : Social change is that change which comes in every society. No society is completely static because change is the law of nature. It doesn’t matter which society it is, whether it is ancient or modern, it exists in every culture and society. Demographic change in society, change because of inventions, change in values and ideals etc. always exists in society. It is right that the speed of social change is different in different societies but change is always universal.

Social change is a universal phenomenon which occurs in all societies and in all ages. The time from which human society has started, changes have come in it and will remain forever. Every stage of human society has gone through changes, yet the speed of change in them might be different. Change is law of nature and no one can be prevented from this.

2. Definite prediction is not possible in social change : Any type of definite prediction is impossible in social change. It is so because social relationships are not definite. They keep on changing. For example, if we predict that caste system, untouch ability or dowry system etc. will come to an end in the coming ages and may be we’ll not be able to find complete end of these evils in society. That’s why if we will predict definitely-then it can be proved wrong.

We cannot imagine definitely about behaviour of a person. That’s why prediction is impossible in social change. Social change is a community change. It doesn’t mean that there is no rule of social change or we cannot imagine about it. It’s meaning is only that sometimes because of any reason change comes at once about which we have never thought of.

3. Speed of social change is not uniform: Yet social change is universal but its speed is different in different societies. It comes very quickly in some societies and in some societies its speed is very slow. For example, if we compare ancient and modern societies then we can see that speed of change is very fast in modern societies as compared to ancient societies.

Even this speed is very fast in metropolitan cities and very slow in smaller cities . The reason of difference of speed is that the factors, which bring social change, are different in different societies. We can imagine about change by comparing two societies.

4. Social change is community change : If any change comes in the life of one person or some people then it cannot be called as social change. It is so because social change is not personal. It is that change which comes in the life style of majority of persons living in a large community. So if change will affect only few persons, then it can be called as individual change.

But when majority of the people of a group are affected by the change then it can be called as social change. In this way, the nature of social change is social. It is not related with the change in any specific group, institution or caste but it is related with the changes which comes in whole community.

5. Social change is the result of interaction of number of factors : Social change is not the result of only one factor. Our society is complex in nature. Change comes in every sector of society because of many factors. Generally we can see that change comes because of economic progress, development in technology, change in atmosphere or change in demography. Yet it is right that change comes because of any factor but other factors are also reasons of change.

6. Change is law of nature : Existence of social change is law of nature. Change comes even against our wish. We cannot control natural forces which often brings change. Man is dynamic by nature. Change in society either comes because of natural forces or because of planned ways of humans to fulfil their needs. We always want new things and try to achieve them. So the dynamic nature of person is also responsible for social change.

Question 2.
Explain in detail the sources of social change.
Answer:
W. G. Ogburn has given a detailed description about the sources of social change. Accordings to Ogburn, out of three factors, one or more sources are the reasons of social change and these three sources are :

1. Innovation
2. Discovery
3. Diffusion

(i) Innovation:
The meaning of innovation is to prepare a new thing by using the existing elements. It means to prepare a new system of knowledge by using existing knowledge. For example by using the technology of an old car, innovating a new tech¬nology, finding technology for increasing its speed and to increase its mileage. Innova¬tion can be technological as well as social. In this, change can come in form, function, meaning or principle and consequently whole of society can change.

(ii) Discovery:
Discovery is the act of finding something for the first time. It means that when any thing is found for the first time, it is known as discovery. For example, some one made car or scooter for the first time or any scientist finds a news species of plant. It can be called as discovery. It means that elements are already existing in this world but we are not aware about it.1 With discovery, a new thing is added to the culture.

In reality, elements may have existed in the world but after its discovery, it becomes a part of our culture. However, it becomes a factor of social change at the time when it is put to use when it is merely known. Social and cultural circumstances either encourage or discourage the capacity of culture.

(iii) Diffusion:
The meaning of diffusion is the spreading of something. For example when cultural ideas of one group spread to another it is called .diffusion. Social change in almost all the societies come due to diffusion. It operates both within and between societies. Diffusion takes place at the time* when relations are made between societies. It is a two way process.

Due to diffusion elements of one culture are spread into the other, it changes and adopts the elements of other. For example the English used in England is very much different from the English used in India. When India was under the British occupation, many of their cultural elements were adopted by the Indian people. In this way during diffusion, change comes in the ele-ments.

Question 3.
Write down the factors influencing social change.
Answer:
1. Physical Environment. Change in physical environment comes through those processes which are out of control of humans. New directions open for humans due to these changes which indirectly affect the culture of humans. All these inani-mate phenomena are included in physical environment which affects social life in one way or the other. Change in climate like rain, heat, cold, change of season, earth-quakes, thundering, changes related to topography availability of minerals, rivers, stones etc.

affects greatly the social life. Physical changes affect the human ability to do work. Behaviour of humans is different in winter and summer. Human way of working changes with the change in climate. Humans work very quickly in winter and people get angry in summer. People like to live in those physical conditions where they should be able to spend their life very easily. People don’t like to live at those places where natural calamities like earthquake, flood etc. frequently come.

People live at those places where all the facilities of living life are easily available. Balance of population disturbs due to changes in physical environment because of which many problems occur. Physical environment affects the culture also. Where land is fertile, people do agricultural work and people living near coastal areas catch the fish.

2. Biological Factor. Some sociologists are of the view that biological factor is the important factor of social change. Meaning of biological factor is that quantitative aspect of population which occurs due to heredity. Like human sex is determined at the time of birth and on this base different physical differences exist in males and females.

Their social behaviour is also different due to this change. Females take care of house and children but males go out for work to earn money. If the proportion of males and females is not the same in any society then many social problems occur due to this.

Physical features are determined by heredity and these features create the similarities and disimilarities like being white or black. In U.S.A. jealousy is there due to colour. White female is known as beautiful and black female never gets that respect which any white female can get. Behaviour of the person is also related with the features of heredity.

Behaviour of the child is according to the behaviour of parents. Humans have more or less anger. Heredity and mental level both are inter related. Human behaviour and mental level are veiy important in social life. In short, we can say that individual traits of a person are determined by his hereditary traits. These traits affect the interactions of humans.

Human relations occur due to interactions on the basis of which social system and structure are determined. If any change comes in it then that is social change. In this way we can say that biological factors become the reason of social change. Great people help in bringing social change due to qualitative aspect of population.

3. Demographic Factors. Structure, size, distribution etc. of population affect the social structure. Countries with more population have to face many problems like poverty, unemployment, lower standard of life etc. Like India and China have to face many types of problmes. Countries with less population like U.K., Canada etc. have less problems and higher standard of life.

Countries with more population have many types of customs to reduce birth rate. For example, family planning prevails in India. Small families came into being due to family planning and social relations change due to smaller families. Those countries, where population is less, have different types of relations. Status of females is higher in them and there is no concept of family planning. In short, changes come in the patterns of interactions of people due to size of population.

In this way change also comes due to structure of population. In structure of population change comes due to age division, regional division of population, sex ratio, social structure, rural-urban ratio, ratio of population on technical level, immigration, emigration etc. These traits of population put a great effect on social structure and no problem can be solved without taking care of it.

4. Cultural Factors. Change in the material and non-material culture affects the social relations. Concept of family planning has put a great effect on the institution of family. Because of less number of children, they can upbring their children in a proper way. Direction of social change is also determined due to cultural factors. This not only determines the direction of social change but it also determines its limits by giving it speed.

5. Technological Factors. Yet the technical factors are the part of material aspect of cultural but it has its own important. These technological factors give a great contribution in social change. Technology changes our society. This change yet comes in our material environment, but change also comes in customs, traditions, institutions of the society with this factor. Means of transport and communication, machines of daily use etc. have completely changed our life and society.

Production on the large scale was started due to invention of machines, division of labour and specialization was increased. Cities were developed very quickly, standard of life became higher, industries were developed but quarrels, accidents were also increased, villages were changed into towns and cities.

Effect of religion was decreased, conflict was increased. In this way some aspects of social life are there which are greatly affected by technology. So in modern times technological factor is a very big factor of social change.

6. Ideological Factor. Except these factors different types of ideologies also bring a lot of change in society. For example, social change has come due to change in the institution of marriage, dowry system, increasing education among women, decreasing effect of caste system, change in gender relations etc. So many changes have come in social relations and individual relations due to new .ideologies. In short, new ideas and theories affect the inventions and economic conditions. Actually new ideology comes due to revolution.

Question 4.
What do you mean by social change ?’Highlight the demographic factor of social change.
Answer:
Demogarphic Factor : If we look at the society carefully then we will’see that population in our society is increasing or decreasing. Many problems of society are related only with more or less population. If we look at the 19th century then we can see that demographic factor was responsible to bring social change to a certain extent.

The effect of demographic factor is not related only with India but the whole world is affected by this. It is right that the increasing population in our country is producing many problems like to weaken the country from economic side, to produce social evils etc. but its effect is different in different countries.

In this way, we can see that demographic factors bring many changes in structure, organizations, functions, actions, ideals etc. of society. Social change is also related with this. Now we will look at the meaning of demographic factor. Meaning of Demographic Factor : Demographic factor is related to population. It means that we include size, density and distribution of population in this.

Demographic factor is that factor of social change which directly affects our society. Richness or poorness of society depends upon demographic factor. It means that the country with more population will have lower standard of living and countries with less population will have higher standard of living.

For example the countries like India and China have more population and that’s why their problems of poverty, unemployment etc. are increasing. But the countries like Canada, Australia, Britain etc.

have less population because of which their standard of living of people is higher than others. So from this example we can imagine that population plays an important role in bringing social change in society. In demographic factor, the increasing-decreasing birth rate and death rate affect our society.

From this description we come to conclusion that many changes in our society are because of more or less population. Increasing population of a country can create many problems for it. Now we will see that how demographic factor affects our social life.

1. Poverty : With increasing population people are unable to meet their daily needs. According to the theory of Malthus, the increase in population is like Geometry means 8 x 8 = 64 but increase in production is Arithmetically means 8 + 8 = 16. It means that 64 people are there to eat when production will meet the demand of only 16.

That’s why problems like poverty and starvation are increasing. It means that development in economic means is generally very slow but birth rate increases very quickly. Thus it affects the economy of the country adversely.

(а) Hereditary occupation or agriculture : India is basically an agriculturist country because of which most of the population is engaged in agriculture. Agriculture is that occupation in which more number of people are required. One person alone cannot control every work of agriculture. That’s why children in more number are required because if the family will be big then agriculture will be possible.

(b) Illiteracy : In a country like India, illiteracy is also a reason of increasing population. Most of the people in India are illiterate. Illiterate people are surrounded by many types of superstitions like son is necessary because of which they are without any conciousness about small family. They hardly see any benefit of small family because of which their standard of living is generally low. They are not conscious about getting education, raising their standard of living, health of children etc. It is all because of illiteracy.

(c) Cultural restrictions : People in India are very much influenced by culture that they cannot free themselves from the restrictions of culture. For example, according to Vedas, son will give fire to the body of the father. That’s why son is necessary. Even person gets more respects after the birth of son. In this way these cultural restrictions pressurise the person and he hardly thinks about progress.

(d) Protection : Actually every person is thinking that when he gets old then his children will take care of him. More numbers of children give more satisfaction to person that they will take care of him in his old age.

The traditional outlook, importance of having a son or lack of education are some of the reasons which are responsible for more population. For the development of country control over population is necessary. For this person should be educated so that he should be aware about the problems of increasing population.

2. Unemployment: With the development of industrialization and urbanization, unemployment has also been increased. People had to come out of their houses to get education. People of villages started to live in cities, because of which population of cities was increased and the number of houses were decreased.

Inflation started to go up. Function of domestic production was gone in the hands of factories. Machines started to do more work in minimum time. That’s why humans were replaced by machines and unemployment was increased.

3. Low Standard of Living : With the increase in population, poverty and unemployment also started to increase with which the standard of living of people became low. Earning members are decreasing and consumers are increasing. With increasing inflation it is difficult for people to give all the facilities to their children. Value of things has also increased which has resulted in low standard of living.

After looking at the growing problems related to population Indian Government took many steps. It was seen that the growing population is the main reason behind poverty. That’s why programmes of family planning were started.

With this help of films and T.V. steps were taken to change the attitude of people regarding having son or daughter. Government has given sanctions to small family as compared to bigger families. So the solution of problem of increasing population can be found in the programmes of family planning.

4. Immigration : Immigration and emigration also affect the population. For example, people from Bangladesh, Tibbet, Nepal, Sri Lanka are coming to India and start to live in India. With this immigration population increases very quickly. Poverty, starvation, inflation and many other problems are coming due to this.

5. Emigration : If .people are coming to India through immigration then people are also going out of India through emigration. Emigration means when people are leaving their country and started to live in another country. Specially the people with better education like Doctors, Engineers, Scientists etc.

are going to another country to live for better future. Country spends a lot of money to train and educate them but other countries are taking the benefit of their intelligence.

One reason of emigration is that our country is not giving them money according to their ability and even some don’t have any employment. Whichever country gives them employment and better facilities, they are going to that country. Even they break their family to go abroad. No one takes care of their parents. It affects the whole social structure of our society.

Question 5.
Discuss the role of educational factor in the process of social change in detail.
Answer:
Education is also one of the important factors of bringing social change. Actually education is the main base of progress. Knowledge of person increases after getting education. That’s why person finds solution of problems, which exist in society, after getting education. Countries with more educated people develop more as compared to other countries.

It is so because literate person gives his cooperation in removing problems of society. The percentage of illiterate people is more in Indian society. That’s why people are still related with superstitions. To remove these superstitions it is necessary that the person should be educated. To know about the effects of educational factor on society, first of all it is necessary that we should know about the meaning of education.

Word Education has come out of Latin word ‘Educere’ whose meaning is ‘to bring up’. Meaning of education is not only to give bookish knowledge to person but also to prepare him for future by putting good habits in him. According to Anderson, “Education is the social process by which an individual learns the things necessary to fit him for the life of his society.”

In this way on the basis of given description we can say that mores, customs, traditions, culture etc. of society are transmitted to other generation by education. This is given in informal and formal both ways. Formal education is given in educational institutions like school, college and universities.

Educational Factor and Social Change:
1. Educational factor and family:
Educational factor has put a great effect on the institution of family. Man has to arrange for bread and butter in ancient society just to live. All the members of the family were engaged in same occupation. Standard of living was very low because people were unconscious about the progress.

People started to live according to the changed values with the advent of formal education. Earlier all the members of the family were engaged in same occupation but now they started to adopt new occupations according to their wish and ability.

With this the new system of nuclear family came into being instead of traditional joint family. If person does hard work in modern societies then he can raise his standard of living. Now he achieves his position with his ability. Now his status is not ascribed but is achieved.

In this way educational factor has changed the structure and functions of family. In modern families where both husband and wife are doing work, children are generally taken care in cretches. That’s why the control of family on its members has been reduced.

Family is also very much affected by western education. Individualistic senses were developed in the person. Members of joint family started to go towards city for job after coming out of villages. People started to adopt new ideas instead of ancient ideas. Today it is right that some people are doing agricultural work jointly or with each other but their family life is certainly different.

A Conflicting situation has come in the views of old generation and younger generation. People became materialistic due to changes in the ways of living of the people. That’s why joint families have started to disintegrate. Number of literate persons in the family now has been increased.

2. Effect of educational factor on caste system: Caste system in’Indian society is that social evil which has produced obstacles in its progress. Education in the caste system was restricted only to the members of higher caste and the type of education was religious. Caste system started to weaken with the advent of British empire because all the people were Indians for Britishers.

They treated all the Indians in similar way. They gave emphasis to western education in the field of education. That’s why education became secular. Modern educational system gave emphasis on values like liberty, equality and fraternity. School, colleges of formal education were started. Person of every caste started to get education in these institutions. All members of higher and lower castes started to get education in same school with which the sense of untouchability was reduced.

3. Effect of educational factor on marriage: Institution of marriage has also been changed under the effect of educational factor. Outlook of educated persons towards marriage has been changed. In earlier times family was arranging the marriage and the bride or bridegroom was determined by the elder members of the family. They were of the view that marriage should be done in the family with equal status. They hardly considered the qualities of boy or girl instead they were considering the status of family.

But now the individual qualities of boy or girl are considered. Now marriage is not considered as religious sacrament but is considered as a contract which can be broken at any time. Now number of love marriages and court marriages are increased. Child marriages were popular in ancient times which have many demerits. But now the age of marriage is fixed by law that marriage is possible at a specific age.

Now the element of adjustment is there in the relations of husband and wife instead of religious sacrament. Now educated female is not the slave of male. If husband misbehaves with wife then she can give divorce to husband and can five separately. Educated youth never do haste in doing marriage. In fact they give preference to their career. Except this, love marriage and court marriages are increasing day by day.

4. Effect of education on social stratification : Education is one of the- important factors of social stratification. It has divided the whole society in two parts (i) literate and (ii) illiterate. A person gets position in society by education. Person gets higher education to achieve higher status. Educational qualification leads to the achievement of position in society. In this way the population of modern society is divided on the basis of education. Literate person gets respect in society.

Status of a person,was ascribed in ancient society. In means that the person was getting status from his family in which he is bom. But with the development in educational sector, status of a person is achieved. It means that person gets social position in modern societies according to his qualities and ability. Person can achieve higher status with “his will, hard work and ability.

5. Effect of education on position of women; Educational factors have played an important role in changing status of woman. Educated woman in modern society is taking part in every sector of society. Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister of India and ruled over it for many years. With the spread of education, the age of marriage of a girl has been increased.

Now she is free to choose her partner of life. Love marriage is given importance and number of divorces has been increased. Position of women has been improved due to education. Family of small size is preferred. When a female starts to do job after getting education then she prefers to produce less number of children.

Upbringing of children is out of family these days and the wish of higher standard of living has put economic pressure on them. It is easy to give education to one or two children. Now female in Indian society is standing equally with males in every sector of society. Now she does not spend her life as a slave of male but spends her life as his friend.

6. Effect of education on social values : Education not only produces personal values but also develops the values like equality, democracy. It is education because of which all humans are equal in front of law. Under the effect of education many social evils like Sati System, child marriage, caste system, No to widow remarriage etc.

either are finished or are on the verge of finishing. Many good customs like widow remarriage, Inter caste marriage etc. are coming forward due to education. Now discrimination has been finished, position of women has been improved considerably due to education. Modern society and all the values of modem society are the contribution of education.

7. Effect of education on occupations : The basis of occupation in ancient societies was not education but was caste system. Person had to adopt the occupation of his caste in which he is born. There was no effect of education. But under the effect of modern education the importance is given to individual’s abilities instead of caste system. Now the occupation of a person is not dependent upon his caste but is dependent upon what he is and what is his educational qualification.

In modern times if a person wants to increase his ability then he should be educated. If any person wants to achieve higher status then it is necessary for him to be educated. Education has decreased the importance of caste system. Equality related to caste has been reduced to a great extent. Now any one can achieve any status after getting education.

Question 6.
Write a detailed note on technological factors of social change.
Answer:
Technological factors are very important in bringing social change in Indian society. Many new things are invented in society daily which greatly affects the whole society. In modern society the speed of these inventions has been increased because of which change often comes in society. Progress of any society is related with the technology of that society. Lot of progress has come in means of transport, communication, post etc. from technological point of view.

Today’s age is known as Machine Age because of which we can see the effect of machines in every sector,of society. Even according to many sociologists technological factor is the main factor in bringing social change in society. Actually all those machines, tools and things are included in technological factor in which human force is used.

Technology and Social change : Now we will see that how technology has played an important role in bringing social change.

1. Changes in the area of production :
Technology has greatly influenced the sector of production. Domestic production was affected by the opening of industries Biggest change was that the domestic production has been changed in the factories production. Thousands of persons are working in big industries, females came out of houses due to end of domestic production. Social life of females is changed with this.

Now more production is there at less cost and the quality is much better than the domestic quality. Females have got employment in big industries. People were making cloth and sugar in their houses. But now this production has come in the hands of factories. Now many textiles and sugar industries are there where thousands of people are working.

2. Development in means of communication : With the development of factories, machines and more production, development in the communication system was also necessary.

With the development of means of communication relations were established with other countries. With the help of modern techniques like Telephone, Radio, T.V., Magazines, Printing Press etc. dependence in interrelations was produced. Because of development of means of communication exchange of cultures was started with which proximity was produced in different countries.

In earlier societies communication was there only with talking and symbols, but when the writing was started with talking then different groups started to understand each other. With this speed came in daily life of the people. It was very helpful in establishing relations with the people of other countries. Now person is doing work according to his ability and his standard of living has been changed.

Development of communication has not only done progress in our society, but our social life has also been greatly affected by this. Instead of primary relations, secondary relations among humans has been established. It became easy for the person to come out of houses because person can talk from anywhere with his family members. But privacy has come to an end and family control has been reduced. .

3. New techniques of agriculture : Now new techniques are used in the field of agriculture, like new tools, use of chemical manure, new machines etc. are used by different people with which the standard of living of the people has been changed. With the use of chemical manures production in agriculture has been increased.

Now people are using new types of seeds. In ancient times, whole family was doing agricultural work. With machines people have been able to do more work with less human force. India’s business is also increased due to more production of agriculture. Number of people from villages started to work in industries.

4. Development of means of transportation : With the development of means of communication, means of transport also developed. They developed because people came in contact with each other. Planes, Buses, Cars, Cycles, Raliways, Ships were invented with which it became easy to go from one country to another. People started to go to work to far off places because they got a number of facilities at far off places. Because of this the mobility in humans has also increased.

The discrimination in Indian society was also decreased with the development of means of transport. People started to go in same means of transport with which the equal relations were established in the people of different castes.

5. Changes in Family : Under the effect of technological factors the institution of family has completely changed. Modern family has been changed completely. All the members of the family have to come out of house to earn bread and butter. That’s why all the functions of the family are taken away by other institutions. Small children are taken care of by cretches.

Functions related to health are taken away by Hospitals. Recreational functions of the family are taken away by cinema, T.V., pictures etc. Now the attitude of person is personal. Structure of the family has been changed. Now small families are developed. Now small and nuclear families are developed in place of joint families.

6. Changes in Marriage System : Marriage was a religious sacrament in the ancient society. Marriage of the person was generally fixed by his elders. But because of technical factors the outlook of people towards marriage has been changed. Now marriage is not a religious sacrament but is accepted as a social contract. Base of marriage is contract which can be broken at any time.

First of all now marriage is not considered as a religious sacrament but now it is considered as a social contract. Now base of the marriage is contract which can be broken at any time. The institution of marriage has been completely changed. Area of selection of mate has been increased. Person can marry out of caste with his wish.

If husband and wife are having opposite views then they can separate from each other. Now woman does not consider herself inferior to man. Now they are economically not dependent upon males. That’s why their status is considered as equal to man.

7. Changes in Caste System : In ancient times, caste system was so effective that person could neither adopt occupation of his choice nor he was allowed to establish contacts with other castes. Society was divided in four parts. Humans were getting social status according to their caste. But with the progress in technological sector, caste system has weakened to a great extent.

Now society has been divided on the basis of classes not on castes. Now the household production has gone in the hands of factories instead of houses. Person had to come out of house to earn money. People of all the castes have to work with each other in factories with which untouchability is reduced to a great extent.

Now humans get job on the basis of their ability. Even at some places people of lower castes are at higher positions and people of higher castes are at lower position and they have to work under them. Now relations between all the castes are on equal terms.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 10 Social Stratification Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 10 Social Stratification

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Social Stratification Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
What do you mean by social stratification ?
Answer:
The process of dividing society in different layers and on different basis is known as stratification.

Question 2.
Name the forms of social stratification,
Answer:
There are four forms of social stratification caste, class feudalism and slavery.

Question 3.
Name the elements of social stratification.
Answer:
It is universal and social, inequality exists in it and it has different base in different societies.

Question 4.
What is estate system ?
Answer:
This system prevailed in the medieval European society in which an individual was made feudal lord by giving a large piece of land.

Question 5.
From where has the word ‘Caste’ been derived ?
Answer:
The word ‘Caste’ has been derived from a Spanish and Portuguese word ‘Casta’ which means race, lineage or breed.

Question 6.
What is Varna System?
Answer:
The system of ancient India in which society was divided into four parts on the basis of occupation.

Question 7.
Name the hierarchical positions of the different Varnas in Hindu society.
Answer:
Ancient Hindu society had four Varnas : Brahmins, Kshatriyas Vaishyas and Shudras.

Question 8.
What do you mean by untouchability?
Answer:
During the times of caste system, different castes were not allowed to touch each other which is known as untouchability.

Question 9.
Name some reformers who protested against untouchability.
Answer:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Jyatiba Phuley, Mahatma Gandhi, B.R. Ambedkar etc.

Question 10.
What is Class?
Answer:
Class is a group of people having similarity on any basis such as money, occupation, property etc.

Question 11.
Name the types of Classes.
Answer:
Mainly three classes exist in society-upper class, middle class and lower class.

Question 12.
What are the two classes mentioned by Marx?
Answer:
Capitalist Class and Labour Class.

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
What is social inequality ?
Answer:
When all the members of the society do not get enough chances to develop their personality, differences prevail among them on the basis of caste, birth, race, colour, wealth, occupation etc. then this is known as inequality.

Question 2.
Name two forms of social stratification.
Answer:

1. Caste : Caste is a form of stratification in which stratification prevails among different castes.
2. Class : Many classes prevail in society and difference exists among them on different basis.

Question 3.
Write two features of caste system.
Answer:

1. Membership of caste is based upon birth and one cannot change his caste even if he has the ability to do so.
2. Caste is an endogamous group and marriage among different castes is not allowed.

Question 4.
What is endogamy ?
Answer:
Endogamy is a type of marriage in which one needs to marry within his group i.e. caste or sub-caste. If any one tried to break this rule, he was severely punished and thrown out of the group. That’s why every one preferred to marry in his group;

Question 5.
What do you mean by pollution and purity ?
Answer:
The hierarchy of caste was attached was the concept of pollution and purity. It means that traditionally few castes were considered pure and they had higher status in society. Few castes were considered impure or polluted and they had low status in society.

Question 6.
Write a short note on industrialisation and urbanisation.
Answer:
The meaning of industralisation is advent of large scale industries in the country. When people migrate from rural areas to urban areas it is known as urbanisation. Both these processes played a very important role in the decline of caste system. ,

Question 7.
Write two features of class system.
Answer:

1. Each class is conscious about the fact that its status is higher or lower than the others.
2. Members of one class prefer to keep relations within their own class and have very limited relations with other classes.

Question 8.
Write a short note on new middle class.
Answer:
During last few decades, a new middle class has emerged in our society. Doctors, engineers, managers, small traders, job-oriented people etc. come in this class. Upper class exploits lower class with the help of middle class.

Answer the following short answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
Write down four characteristics of social stratification.
Answer:

1. Stratification is a universal process. There is no society where this process doesn’t exist.
2. In stratification, all the members of society have an unequal status. Someone has higher status and someone has lower status.
3. In stratification, society is divided into different layers which determines an individual’s status. All the classes have mutual relations based on superiority or inferiority.
4. Yet many layers are there in this but these layers have mutual interdependence.

Question 2.
How is class related to social stratification? Discuss it briefly.
Answer:
Social stratification is always related with class. We can see that there exist many classes in society. Classes in different societies, ancient or modern, depend upon different basis and these bases can be caste, occupation, money, wealth, race, religion etc. All the classes depend upon each other for their own existence.

Question 3.
Differentiate between caste and class.
Answer:
Class:

• One gets social status according to one’s personal ability.
• Membership of class is based upon wealth, money, occupation etc.
• An individual gets more freedom in class system.
• Mutual difference is quite less in different classes.
• Class system is based upon the concept of democracy.

Caste:

• There was no place of personal ability in this and social status was based upon birth.
• Membership of caste is based upon birth.
• Many restrictions are imposed on an individual such as keeping relations, exchange of eatables, marriage etc.
• Different castes are quite far away from each other.
• It is completely against the system of democracy.

Question 4.
Write the four factors of change in caste system.
Answer:

• During 19th and 20th centuries, many socio-reform movements started which greatly affected the caste system.
• After independence, Indian government passed many laws and many provisions were kept in the constitution which brought many changes in caste system.
• With the advent of industrialisation, members of different castes started working with each other which reduced the caste based restrictions.
• In urban areas, people belonging to different castes live with each other which has reduced the caste’s rule of keeping relations with the same caste.
• Spread of education has also contributed a lot in reducing the impacj of caste system.

Question 5.
Distinguish between caste and class as two major forms of social stratification.
Answer:
Class:

• One gets social status according to one’s personal ability.
• Membership of class is based upon wealth, money, occupation etc.
• An individual gets more freedom in class system.
• Mutual difference is quite less in different classes.
• Class system is based upon the concept of democracy.

Caste:

• There was no place of personal ability in this and social status was based upon birth.
• Membership of caste is based upon birth.
• Many restrictions are imposed on an individual such as keeping relations, exchange of eatables, marriage etc.
• Different castes are quite far away from each other.
• It is completely against the system of democracy.

Answer the following short answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
Define stratification. What are the features of social stratification ?
Answer:
Eight from the ancient times, humans have tried to make a society based on equality and where there will be no class in it. In other words society based on equality is that society in which there is no class, social and economic status of all the members is equal, every one gets equal number of facilities. But till today none of the society of this type has come into being. Different types of classes exist in all the societies and all the societies are stratified.

All the societies, from ancient times till today are divided in different classes. In earlier times, society was divided on the basis of age, sex, head of the societies etc. but due to increased complexity, modern societies are divided in higher or lower classes on different basis. If we observe our society carefully then we will come to know that there are many inequalities existing in our society.

For example, some persons are rich and some are poor. Our society has been divided on the basis of political, social, religious, economic basis etc. Because of this division, relations of different individuals in our society are based on higher and lower positions. In this way the division of society in different parts is known as stratification.

(1) According to Sorokin, “Social Stratification means the differention of a given population into hierarchically superposed classes. It is manifested in the existence of upper and lower social layers. Its basis and very essence consist of unequal distribution of rights and privileges, duties and responsibilities, social values and privation, social power and influences among the members of a society.”

(2) According to Kurt B. Mayer, “Social Stratification is a System of social position whose occupants are treated as superior, equal or inferior relative to one another in social important respects.”

(3) According to Kingsley Davis, “Social inequality is thus an unconsciously evolved device by which societies ensure that the most important positions are consciously filled by the most qualified persons. Hence every society, no matter how simple or complex must differentiate persons in terms of both prestige and esteem.”

(4) According to Raymond W. Moorey, “Stratification is a horizontal division of society into higher and lower units.” On the basis of these definitions, we can conclude that the social stratification determines the higher and the lower social groups and status and roles of different humans.

It shows hierarchy among persons on the basis of birth, caste, occupation, gender, money, power etc. Relations of inferiority and superiority exist among different groups and every person has a definite position m society. That is why man gets status and respect in society.

Features or Characteristics of Stratification:
1. Stratification is social:
Differences exist on the basis of stratification in different societies. Whenever we differentiate anything, which exists in society, from other thing and until that difference is not accepted by all the members of society, we cannot accept that difference as the base of stratification.

It means that until members of a group will not determine the stratification, this stratification cannot exist in society. Stratification is possible only then when all the members of society will accept these differences. In this way, it is social because it is accepted by all the members of society.

2. Stratification is a universal process:
Process of stratification exists in every society. We can check every type of society, whether it is ancient, tribal, rural or modern complex society. Then we can see that definitely there were and there are some differences among people. Difference of Gender is natural on the basis of which we can divide the humans. There are many bases of stratification in modern complex society.

It means that yet the bases of stratification are different in different societies but stratification exists in every type of society. Each country and society is divided in different layers on different basis yet inequalities may be different. So we can say that it is a universal process.

3. Inequality of status of different classes:
Status and role of humans is not the same in social stratification. Any one has higher status and any one has low status. Position of persons never remains the same all the times. Changes keep on coming in this. It can go higher at anytime and can go to a low level. It means that inequality exists in position of humans.

If any one has higher position on the basis of money then other might have lower position. Anyone is officer and other one is clerk. Position of both is unequal. Yet the base might be different like gender, age, money, status, job etc. but the position of different classes is unequal.

4. Relation of upper and lower classes:
Society has been divided into different layers in stratification which determine the position of a person. Generally society can be divided in two parts higher and lower. Some people in society have higher position and some people in society have low status. Some people exist between them. In this way in higher and lower classes, there exists one middle class. All of them have some relations of higher and lower positions.

5. Stratification restricts interaction:
The interactions in the process of stratification are only restricted to a specific layer. Generally we can see that every person establishes relations with the members of his layer or class. That is why he shares his feelings with them. Person has friends in his class only. Sometimes man is unable to adjust by keeping contacts with the members of other strata.

Like in modern age interaction between a rich person and a poor person is not possible. Stratification restricts the interaction between different classes. Every class has class consciousness because of which they interact .with other classes in a limited way. In this way stratification restricts the interaction.

6. It develops the sense of competition:
The process of stratification produces the sense of hard work in person. In this every person is conscious about his social status. He always tries to move forward because he thinks that people around him are of higher strata. He tries to move forward by using his capabilities in competition with them.

In this way this consciousness produces the sense of competition, Every person wishes to take himself up in society and he can do this by hard work. He does this hard work and competes with members of other classes and takes himself up in stratification.

Question 2.
Discuss in detail the forms of stratification.
Answer:
(i) Varna Stratification:
After the advent of the Aryans in India, society was divided among the Aryans and the original inhabitants of India. Later on Aryan people, on the basis of their traits and behaviour, were divided among Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. In this way, society was divided among four Varnas and this form of stratification came in front.

In this hierarchy, Brahmins had the highest place, Kshatriyas came second, Vaishyas at third and at the end, people of fourth varna were there. In this system, occupation of each varna was fixed and separate from each other. Initial form of Varna system was not based on birth but was based on individual traits and one was free to change his varna. But it was quite a difficult process to change one’s varna.

(ii) Slavery Stratification:
Slave is a human who is completely controlled by the other individual. He lives on the mercy of his owner. He has no rights. In certain cases he is protected by his owner such as to protect him from becoming other’s slave. But still he is an individual without rights. He is considered as the property of his owner.

So, there existed a lot of inequality in slave societies. This custom prevailed, during 19th century, in America, Africa etc. Owner was free to sell his slave. He had to work very hard for his owner. With time, this custom was strongly opposed and gradually came to an end. Slave became farmers but still some sort of this stratification existed among farmers and labourers.

(iii) Feudalism:
Along with slavery, the institution of feudalism came into being. Feudal lords were the owners of large piece of land and they rented out their land to others on project sharing basis. During the medieval period, feudalism had legal sanction in Europe and feudal lords had special status, special privileges and duties.

Farmers, during those days, had very few rights. They had to depend upon the mercy of feudal lords for justice. Major power was in the hands of feudal lords and clergy. Zamindars existing in India were very much different from the feudalism existing in Europe. So stratification based on feudalism existed in society.

(iv) Racial Stratification:
Stratification on the basis of race also exists in different societies. Whole of the world is divided on the bases of race. Mainly three racial groups are there : Caucasion (white), Mongoloid (yellow or brown) and Negroid (black). A system of hierarchy exists among these races. White race is considered superior among all.

Yellow race is considered at middle leval and black race is at lower level. Racial discrimination in U.S. A. also exists on this base. People of different races never marry eaph other. Yet few changes are coming in modern society but still this system prevails in the world.

(v) Caste Stratification:
The stratification on the basis of birth is known as caste stratification because status of a child was determined according to his birth. In ancient and traditional Indian society this type of statification prevailed. It was having great impact on the Indian society. Mainly four castes existed-Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Shudras. This form of stratification was more stable because one was not allowed to change his caste. ,

(vi) Class Stratification:
It is also known as universal stratification because such stratification exists in every society. It is an open stratification and bases of this stratification are income, power, property, religion, education, occupation etc. One gets a definite position in this and people with equal status form a class. With this, different classes are formed and relations are established among them. One can change his status or class with his efforts.

Question 3.
What factors are causing change in caste system?
Answer:
1. Socio-Religious Reforms Movements:
Even before the advent of British empire many religious movements had criticised the caste system. Buddhism, Jainism, Islam and Sikhism had criticised caste system. Gautam Buddha had criticised caste system 2500 years back. Except this Islam and later on Sikhism had also criticised caste system.

In 19th century many social reformers had started movements against this. Some of these movements Brahmo Samaj by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Arya Samaj by Dayanand Saraswati, Rama Krishna Mission etc. were important. Except these Jyoti Ba Phule established Satya Shodhan Samaj in 1873 whose main aim was to provide equality to every person. Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar also criticised the caste system.

2. Efforts of Indian Government:
During British empire and after independence many important laws were passed by government which contributed towards weakening of caste system. Caste and rural panchayats were very powerful before British rule. These panchayats had the rights to give punishment to criminals.

During British empire One Law i.e. ‘Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850’ was passed which weakened the caste Panchayats. In this way ‘Special Marriage Act, 1872’ gave approval to the marriage of different castes. After independence a number of laws like Untouchability Offences Act, 1955 and Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 also weakened the caste system. In 1949 Hindu Marriage Validation Act was passed in which legal sanction was given to inter-caste marriage.

3. Contribution of the Britishers:
A comprehensive opposition against the caste system began during the British reign. The British had applied the rule of equality in front of law. Rights from caste based Panchayats were taken back. Educational system of the British was secular. Government jobs were open to everyone.

The British started modern industries, rails, buses etc. which was a strong slap on the face of caste system. All the people jointly worked in the industries and travelled in rails and buses with each other which resulted in the establishment of contacts between different castes.

4. Industrialization:
Industrialization played an important role in bringing change in caste system. It increased the importance of ability of the person. Importance of materialism has also been increased. People came out of their houses to go to job. Everyone started to work in industries. In industries no one asks for anyone’s caste but they look to each other’s abilities. Lower castes have also got higher status with their hard work.

5. Modern Education:
Modern education has also put a great effect on the caste system. In ancient Hindu Society, education was confined only to higher castes and education was also based upon religion. But with the advent of Britishers, a rule of equality was started by Britishers. Then educational institutions were opened for everyone.

Western Education was started instead of religious education. Boys and girls both started to get education. In this way modern educational system started to give importance to individual’s abilities instead of any one’s caste. With this intercaste relations started to establish. After independence Indian Constitution also started to implement democratic values which was a great setback to caste system.

6. Urbanization:
Urbanization was also developed with industrialization because people came out of their houses for work. Urban features like more density of population, individual’s feelings, social mobility, more occupations etc. have weakened the caste system. People live with each other in big cities. Feeling of assimilation of higher and lower caste was increased. The individual abilities started to control the society. Man has to achieve status in society.

Difference on the basis of gender in cities was decreased. Males and females started to work together. In this way females came out of the four walls of house and started to work in offices. They became economically independent. Urbanization has increased the mutual contacts between different castes which resulted in exogamy instead of endogamy.

7. Importance of Money:
Caste System started to weaken due to increase in materialistic approach of the people. People get status due to money in society. Every one gives respect to rich persons irrespective of his caste. In Modern Society a person works only for the sake of his profit. Every one tries to earn more and more money. It increses the importance of individuals’ abilities. Inthisthe importance of moneyhas been increased and the importance of caste system has been reduced.

Question 4.
Define class system. Write down its characteristics.
Answer:
The base of social stratification is class. Status of a person in class depends upon his role in class. Position of all the persons is not same in all the societies. Some type of inequality is always there in class and because of this inequality of classes came into being. Especially because of westernization, industrialization, educational system, modernization etc. classes came into being in India. Stratification in Western Societies is also Based upon class system. Many classes also came into being in India like Teacher class, Business class, Doctor class etc. ‘

Meaning and Definitions of Class:
Every society has been divided into classes and every class has a different status in the society. On the basis of status person’s status is high or low. In this way when different persons achieve special social status in society, then it is known as class system. Every class is economically different from the other.

Different Sociologists have given different views about class system which are given below :
(1) According to Maclver, “A social class is any position of Community marked off from the rest by Social Status.”

(2) According to Morris Ginsberg, “A class is group of individuals who through common descent, similarity of occupation, wealth and education have come to have a similar mode of life, n similar stock of those ideas, feelings, attitudes and forms of behaviours and who on any or all of these grounds meet one another on equal terms and regard themselves, with varying degrees of explicitness as belonging to one group.”

(3) According to Gilbert, “A social class is a category of group of persons having a definite status in a society which permanently determines their relationships to other groups.”

(4) According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “The fundamental attribute of social class is thus its local position of relative superiority or inferiority to other social classes.”

On the basis of given definitions we can say that social class is a class of many persons which has one specific status in a specific time. That is why they have some special power, rights and duties. Ability of an individual is important in class system. That is why every person wants to achieve higher status in society with hard work.

Every society is divided in many classes. Status of a person is not definite in class system. There is some sort of mobility existing in his status. That is why it is known as open stratification. Person determines his class status himself. It is not based on birth.

Characteristics of Class:
1. Feelings of Superiority and Inferiority: Relationships of inferior and superior exist in class system. For example, people of higher class think themselves as different and superior from lower class. Rich persons are coming in higher class and poor people are coming in lower class. Rich people have higher status in society and poor people live at different places. By looking at the residence of the person we can imagine about the class of the person.

2. Social Mobility:
Class system is not definite for person. It keeps on changing. Man can achieve higher status with hard work and can go to lower status with wrong deeds. Every person wants to increase his prestige in society. That is why class system makes the person active. So in this way social mobility is there in class system.

For example if a person, who is working as a clerk in any office, does a lot of hard work and passes the I.A.S. exam then his status and position will be completely changed. It means that class system has social mobility in which person can make from one place to another with his hard work and ability.

3. Openness:
Openness exists in the class system because in this every person is free to do anything. He is free to adopt any occupation. Any one can become the member of any class on the basis of his ability. Person from lower class can go to higher class with his hard work. In this there is no value of birth of the person.

Status of person depends upon his ability. A boy from rich family can become rich only if he has the property. If this property will finish then he can become poor. This class system gives opportunity to every one to move forward. In this way openness exists in class system.

4. Limited Social Relations:
Social relations of a person are limited in class system. Persons of every class love to establish relations with the people of their own class. Every class wants to establish contacts with persons of their own class. They don’t like to keep contacts with the people of other castes.

5. Development of Sub-classes:
We can divide class system into three parts from economic point of view and these are :

1. Upper Class
2. Middle Class
3. Lower Class.

These classes are again divided into sub-classes. For example, we can see difference between rich people. Some one is Billionaire and some one is Millionaire. In the same way we can see sub-classes in middle class and lower class. In every class we can see sub-classes. In this way class is made up of sub-classes.

6. Different Basis :
Classes are made on different basis. According to Karl Marx, the main base of class system is economic. According to him, there are two classes in society. First one is capitalist class and second is labour class. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, Maclver and Gilberg, social base is important for class. Ginsberg and Lapire has accepted cultural base as the main base of class system.
In this way we can say that there is not a single base of class system but there are many bases of class system.

7. Identification of Class:
External outlook is important in class system. Sometimes just by external outlook we can imagine about the class of the person. In modern society big house, car, scooter, T.V., V.C.R., Fridge etc. symbolise towards the position of the person. In this way external symbols tell us about class differences. Life Style of one class is almost same and their necessities are generally same.

Question 5.
What new classes have emerged in India ?
Answer:
Durings the last few decades, the caste system has been replaced by the class system.After independence, many new laws were passed, people started taking education which resulted in the decline of the caste system and the advent of class system. Now class system is not a simple concept. In modern times, many new classes have emerged on different basis and the process is going on.

For example, after the Indian Independence, many land reforms were introduced which brought many changes in the rural economy. Green revolution greatly contributed in it. Along with old farmers, who had large pieces of land, a new farmer class emerged which had experience of new methods of agriculture.

These were the people who were retired from army or administrative services. They started investing their money in agriculture and earning lot of money. This is not the class of traditional farmers but are known as Gentlemen Farmers. Along with this, a new class of farmers, Capitalist farmers, is also emerging.

These are the farmers who earn a lot of money by using new techniques, HYV seeds, new techniques of agriculture, modern irrigation facilities, taking loans and by using modern means of transport and communication. But small farmers were unable to take advantage of this and are still poor.

They are unable to take advantage of the land reforms introduced by the government. After this, a middle class has also emerged which gave birth to the culture of consumerism. This middle class was seen as a potential market and many multinational companies get attracted towards this group. In the advertisements of different companies, upper middle class is seen as the most important consumer.

These days, a new middle class is emerging which gives more importance to its taste and consumption and it has become a cultural idea. In this way with the emergence of middle class, the concept of economic liberalism is also emerging. One of the important features of existing class system in modern India is that all these classes have helped in creating a national economy.

Now people from the far off villages are becoming a part of middle classes. People living in villages and engaged in different occupations have not remained isolated. Now caste based restrictions have come to an end and class based consciousness is coming forward.

Question 6.
Bring out the main features of class system in India.
Answer:
The base of social stratification is class. Status of a person in class depends upon his role in class. Position of all the persons is not same in all the societies. Some type of inequality is always there in class and because of this inequality of classes came into being. Especially because of westernization, industrialization, educational system, modernization etc. classes came into being in India. Stratification in Western Societies is also Based upon class system. Many classes also came into being in India like Teacher class, Business class, Doctor class etc. ‘

Meaning and Definitions of Class:
Every society has been divided into classes and every class has a different status in the society. On the basis of status person’s status is high or low. In this way when different persons achieve special social status in society, then it is known as class system. Every class is economically different from the other.

Different Sociologists have given different views about class system which are given below :
(1) According to Maclver, “A social class is any position of Community marked off from the rest by Social Status.”

(2) According to Morris Ginsberg, “A class is group of individuals who through common descent, similarity of occupation, wealth and education have come to have a similar mode of life, n similar stock of those ideas, feelings, attitudes and forms of behaviours and who on any or all of these grounds meet one another on equal terms and regard themselves, with varying degrees of explicitness as belonging to one group.”

(3) According to Gilbert, “A social class is a category of group of persons having a definite status in a society which permanently determines their relationships to other groups.”

(4) According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “The fundamental attribute of social class is thus its local position of relative superiority or inferiority to other social classes.”

On the basis of given definitions we can say that social class is a class of many persons which has one specific status in a specific time. That is why they have some special power, rights and duties. Ability of an individual is important in class system. That is why every person wants to achieve higher status in society with hard work.

Every society is divided in many classes. Status of a person is not definite in class system. There is some sort of mobility existing in his status. That is why it is known as open stratification. Person determines his class status himself. It is not based on birth.

Characteristics of Class:
1. Feelings of Superiority and Inferiority: Relationships of inferior and superior exist in class system. For example, people of higher class think themselves as different and superior from lower class. Rich persons are coming in higher class and poor people are coming in lower class. Rich people have higher status in society and poor people live at different places. By looking at the residence of the person we can imagine about the class of the person.

2. Social Mobility:
Class system is not definite for person. It keeps on changing. Man can achieve higher status with hard work and can go to lower status with wrong deeds. Every person wants to increase his prestige in society. That is why class system makes the person active. So in this way social mobility is there in class system.

For example if a person, who is working as a clerk in any office, does a lot of hard work and passes the I.A.S. exam then his status and position will be completely changed. It means that class system has social mobility in which person can make from one place to another with his hard work and ability.

3. Openness:
Openness exists in the class system because in this every person is free to do anything. He is free to adopt any occupation. Any one can become the member of any class on the basis of his ability. Person from lower class can go to higher class with his hard work. In this there is no value of birth of the person.

Status of person depends upon his ability. A boy from rich family can become rich only if he has the property. If this property will finish then he can become poor. This class system gives opportunity to every one to move forward. In this way openness exists in class system.

4. Limited Social Relations:
Social relations of a person are limited in class system. Persons of every class love to establish relations with the people of their own class. Every class wants to establish contacts with persons of their own class. They don’t like to keep contacts with the people of other castes.

5. Development of Sub-classes:
We can divide class system into three parts from economic point of view and these are :

1. Upper Class
2. Middle Class
3. Lower Class.

These classes are again divided into sub-classes. For example, we can see difference between rich people. Some one is Billionaire and some one is Millionaire. In the same way we can see sub-classes in middle class and lower class. In every class we can see sub-classes. In this way class is made up of sub-classes.

6. Different Basis :
Classes are made on different basis. According to Karl Marx, the main base of class system is economic. According to him, there are two classes in society. First one is capitalist class and second is labour class. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, Maclver and Gilberg, social base is important for class. Ginsberg and Lapire has accepted cultural base as the main base of class system.
In this way we can say that there is not a single base of class system but there are many bases of class system.

7. Identification of Class:
External outlook is important in class system. Sometimes just by external outlook we can imagine about the class of the person. In modern society big house, car, scooter, T.V., V.C.R., Fridge etc. symbolise towards the position of the person. In this way external symbols tell us about class differences. Life Style of one class is almost same and their necessities are generally same.

Question 7.
What are the Marxian and Weberian perspectives on class?
Answer:
Marxian Conflict Theory of Stratification. Karl Marx has given conflict theory of social stratification and this theory comes out because of political and social conflicts of 19th century. According to Marx, economic factor is the alone factor of social stratification and struggle in different classes. Marx has given this theory on the base of division of labour.

According to him, labour is of two types, physical and mental and this difference is the main reason of difference in social classes. Marx was of the view that there are only two classes in society. First class is the owner of the means of production and second class is not the owner of means of production.

On the basis of this ownership the position of owner class is higher and position of non-owner class is lower. According to Marx, owner class is capitalist class and non-owner class is labourer class. Capitalist class economically exploits the labourer class and labourer class fights with capitalist class to get their rights. This is the result of stratification.

Marx was of the view that the main reason of stratification is the unequal distribution of property. The nature of stratification depends upon the classes of that society and the nature of the classes depends upon the means of production. Ways of production depend upon technique. Class is a group in which relations of its members with forces of production are equal.

In this way all those persons, who control the forces of production, come in first class i.e. capitalist class. Second class is that class which is not the owner of forces of production but it earns its livelihood by selling its labour and that is labourer class. Their name in different societies is different. For example, Feudal Lords and agricultural labourers in Feudal societies and capitalist and labourer in capitalist societies.

Capitalist class has all the forces of production and labourer class has only its labour to sell with which it earns its livelihood. In this way the classes made on the basis of ways of production and unequal distribution of property are, according to Marx, social classes.

According to Marx, society today comes out of four stages or societies and these are :
(a) Primitive ancient society or communism
(b) Ancient society.
(c) Feudal society
(d) Capitalist society

According to Marx, classes did not come into being in first type of society but in later societies two main classes came into being. In ancient society owner and servant, Feudal Lords and agricultural labourer in Feudal society and Capitalist and Labourer class in Capitalist society came into being. In every society labour was being done by second class. Labour class is more in number and capitalist class is less in number.

Marx has given two classes in every type of society but on this point his views were not the same. Marx was of the view that there are three classes in capitalist society and these are labour class, capitalist class and land owners. Marx has given difference in these three classes on the basis of means of income, profit and rent of land. But Marx’s this three classes system never came into being in England.

Marx has written that with the development of capitalism three classes system will change into two classes system and middle class will come to an end. About this he has written in Cfommunist Manifesto. Marx also wrote about other classes in specific society. He has divided the capitalist class into two sub groups and these are effective capitalists and smaller capitalists.

Effective capitalists are those capitalists which are bigger capitalists and industrialists which give work to thousands of labourers in their industries. Small capitalists are those small industrialists or shopkeepers whose business is at low level and they are not giving work to many labourers. They are doing most of their work themselves.

Here Marx again says that with the development of capitalism middle class and small capitalists will* come to an end and will join hands with labourer class. In this way, there will be two classes in society and that is capitalist class and labourer class. Relations between Classes. According to Marx, the capitalist class always exploits the labourer class and labourer class always fights for its rights.

That is why the relations between both the groups are of opposition. Yet this opposition between these groups will hide due to their mutual interests but this opposition is always there. It is not necessary that we can see this opposition directly or opposition never comes in front of us but they know about each other’s opposition.

According to Marx, the relations between the classes depend upon the mutual interdependence and conflict. We can take example of capitalist society in which two classes are there. First class is of capitalist class and second class is of labour class. These both classes depend upon each other for their existence. Labour class doesn’t have the ownership of forces of production.

It doesn’t have any other mean to earn its livelihood except selling its labour. Labourers sell their labour to the capitalist class and are dependent upon them. They give their labour to capitalist and for that capitalist gives money to labourers for their labour. With this money or rent of labour, labourer takes care of the needs of the family. Capitalist also depends upon the labour of labourer because without their work, production in his factory is not possible and accumulation of capital is also not possible.

In this way both these classes depend upon each other. But this dependency doesn’t mean that they have relations of equality. Capitalist class always exploits the labour class. They want to make things in their factory by giving less money so that they can earn more profit. Labourer wants more money so that he can take care of the needs of his family. Capitalist tries to sell his product with more value by paying less money so that he can earn more profit.

In this way conflict of interests is always there between both the classes. This conflict will give birth to communism later on in which there would be no opposition, there would be no exploitation and there would be no conflict of interests. This society will be classless society. Karl Marx has explained the conflict theory of stratification on historical basis.

Important things in the conflict theory of stratification of Marx are given below :
1. Two classes in Society. Marx was of the view that generally two types of classes exist in every type of society. First one is that which has all the means of production in its hands and this class is known as capitalist class.

Second class is that which doesn’t have any means of production and which earns money only by selling its labour. This class is known as labour class. First class exploits the other class. It means that capitalist exploits and labourer is being exploited by capitalist.

2. Right over means of production:
While explaining stratification on histrical basis Marx says that the stratification in society is based on the right over means of production. There exist two types of classes in every society on this base. First class is that which has the right over all the means of production. Second class is that which doesn’t have any right over means of production and which earns money by selling its labour.

3. Modes of production:
The nature of social stratification depends upon the modes of production. Position of that class is higher than other classes which has all the means of production. According to Marx, this class’ is known as capitalist or Bourgoisie. Second class is that which doesn’t have m^ans of production, which is not satisfied by its position and which wants to change its position. Marx has given it the name of labour class or proletariat class.

4. Human History-History of class struggle:
Marx was of the view that human history is the history of class struggle. We can take example of any society. Struggle in classs is going on, in every society, in one form or the other. In this way Marx was of the vew that two types of classes exist in all the societies- capitalist and labour class. Class struggle always goes on in both the classes.

There are many reasons of class struggle in both the classes for example too much economic differences between both the classes because of which class struggle is going on. Capitalist becomes rich even without doing any hard work and labourer becomes poor even after doing a lot of hard work.

With the passage of time, labour class makes its organization to meet its demands and this organisation does struggle with capitalist class to meet its demands. Result of this struggle between both the classes comes in the form of revolution which labour class does against the capitalist class.

After revolution, labourer class will eliminate the capitalist class and establishes its authority. Capitalist class tries to start anti-revolution movement against labourers but this movement will be suppressed and authority of the labourer class will be established. First of all communism and then the state of socialism will come in which every one will get according to his needs and ability.

There will be no class in society and this will be a classless society in which every one will get equal share. No one will be of higher or lower status and the authority of labour class will remain there. Marx was of the view that this state has not yet come but it will come very shortly and stratification in society will come to an end.

Max Weber gave the theory of stratification in which he explained class, status group and party differently. Weber’s theory of stratification is considered as practical and rational. That’s why his theory is given enough importance by American Sociologists.

Weber has explained stratification from three aspects and these are class, status and party. All these groups could be called as interest groups which not only can fight within themselves but they can fight even against each other. They tell us about a specific authority and are interrelated as well.

Now we will explain them one by one :
CLASS. Karl Marx has defined class on economic basis and in the same way Weber has also defined class on economic basis. According to Weber, “Class is a group of those people which are at equal status in structure of social economic opportunities and which live in same condition. These conditions depend upon their form and quantity of economic power.”

In this way Weber talks about a type of group in which a specific number of people have equal chances in life. Yet this concept of Weber is not very much different from Marx’s concept of class but Weber has imagined class as the group of people living in same economic conditions q,ot as a group of self-consciousness.

Weber has given three types of classes which are given below :

1. A Property Class
2. An Acquisition Class
3. A Social Class.

1. A Property Class:
A property class is the group whose position depends upon the fact that how much property it has?

This class is again further divided into two parts :
(i) The Positively Privileged Property Class. This class owns a lot of property and it lives on the income generated from its property. This class can keep monopoly over selling or buying of consumer goods, by collecting property or on taking education.

(ii) The Negatively Privileged Property Class:
Illiterate, poor, property less and people under debt are major members of this group. But there is one another group between these two groups and that is Privileged Middle class in which members of both the given classes are included. According to Weber, Capitalist is member of this group due to his privileged position and Labourer is its member due to his negatively4 privileged position.

2. An Acquisition Class:
It is that type of group whose position is determined by taking advantage from opportunities of services available in the market.

This group is of three types :
(i) The Positively Privileged Acquisition Class. This class keeps monopoly over administration of producer manufacturers. These factory owners are bankers, industrialists, financiers etc. These people not only keep control over administrative system but they exert influence on government’s economic policies as well.

(ii) The Middle Privileged Acquisition Class. This class belongs to middle class people in which small professional people, artisans, independent farmers etc. are included.

(iii) The Negatively Privileged Acquisition Class. People of lower classes are part of this group which include trained, semi trained and untrained labourers.

3. Social Class:
Most numbers of people are included in this group. This class observes definite changes due to progress made by different generations. But Weber does not explain social class according to privileges. According to him, people of labour class, lower middle class, intellectual class, property owner class are included in it.

According to Weber, members of class work with each other under specific circumstances and to this protest of doing work is being given the name of class action by Weber. According to Weber, feeling of mutually related gives birth to class action. Weber has not believed that the thing like class action could take place all the times.

Weber, was of the view that there is no class consciousness in class but its nature is completely economic. There is no possibility among them that they would struggle collectively to achieve their common objectives. A class is only a group of people whose economic condition is same in the market.

They can feel changes in their lives while collecting those things which have some respect in society and there is a possibility that they would collectively perform s,ome action. Weber was of the view that if it does so then class can take the form of community.

Status Group:
Status group is generally considered as opposite to economic class stratification. Class is only based on economic assumption which is a group of same interests due to market conditions. These are not statistical classes but these are actually those groups whose life-style is common, outlook towards the society is common and which keep unity among them.

According to Weber, there is some difference between status group and class. Each has its own style and people can be unequal among them. For example, teacher of a school. Yet his income might be 8-10,000 per month which is quite less in today’s age but his status is quite high due to his sacred profession.

But on the other hand any smuggler or a prostitute could earn lakhs in a month but their status group will remain low because their profession is not sanctioned by society. In this way difference is there between both the groups. Any occupational group can be called as a status group because in each type of profession, people get equal opportunities to earn money.

This group also leads to same life-style of people. Members of one occupational group remain near to each other, wear same type of clothes and even have same type of values. That’s why its members have quite a wide circle.

Party:
According to Weber, Party represents the determined interests associated with class status or a status group. This party enrolls those members, in any condition, whose ideology matches with the ideology of party. But it is not necessary that the party could become status party for them. Weber was of the view that Parties always want to keep control over power.

It means power should remain in their hands. Weber was of the view that yet parties are a part of political authority but even then power could be gained through various means like wealth, influence, pressure, rights etc.

Parties want to obtain power of State and State is an organisation. Each activitiy of the party is concentrated on the fact that how the power could be obtained ? Weber analysed the state and from here he gave the theory of Bureaucracy. According to Weber, parties are of two types.

First one is Patronage party in which there are no class rules, concepts, ideology etc. These are made for special purposes and could be left after the completion of objective. Second type of party is party of Principles which has clear and strong rules. These parties are not made for specific purposes.

Weber was of the view that there is quite much difference between these three i.e. class, status group, and party but the mutual relationship is always there among them.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 9 Social Structure Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 9 Social Structure

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Social Structure Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
Give the meaning of the term social structure.
Answer:
Systematic form of interrelated parts of society is known as social structure.

Question 2.
From which word the word ‘structure’ is derived ?
Answer:
The word ‘structure’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Staruere’ whose meaning is ‘building’.

Question 3.
Who was the first sociologist to use the term social structure ?
Answer:
Herbert Spencer was the first sociologist to use the term social structure,

Question 4.
Name the elements of social structure.
Answer:
Status and role are the elements of social structure.

Question 5.
Who wrote the book ‘The Principles of Sociology’?
Answer:
This book was written by Herbert Spencer.

Question 6.
What is Status ?
Answer:
Status is a position given to a person while living in society.

Question 7.
Name two types of social statuses.
Answer:
Ascribed status and Achieved status are the two types of social statuses.

Question 8.
Who gave the terms ascribed and achieved status?
Answer:
These terms are given by Ralph Linton.

Question 9.
Give two examples of ascribed status.
Answer:
Status of father and brahmin are the examples of ascribed status.

Question 10.
Give two example of achieved status.
Answer:
The status of Prime Minister and Deputy Commissioner are the examples of achieved status.

Question 11.
Define Role.
Answer:
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Role is a set of socially expected and approved behaviour patterns consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular position in a group.

Question 12.
Mention any two characteristics of Role.
Answer:
(i) Role is the functional aspect of status.
(iii) Role is always having social sanction.

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
Define social structure.
Answer:
According to Talcott Parsons, “ The term social structure applies to the particular arrangement of the interrelated institutions, agencies, social patterns, as well as the statuses and roles which each person assumes in the group.”

Question 2.
Give two points of similarities between status and role.
Answer:

• Status and role are the two sides of same coin.
• Status is the position of an individual in society and role is the functional aspect of status.
• Both status and role change with time and circumstances.

Question 3.
Give the diagrammatic representation of structure of family.
Answer:

Question 4.
Distinguish between ascribed and achieved status.
Answer:

• One gets ascribed status according to his birth but one gets achieved status according to his ability.
• There are many bases of ascribed status but the only base of achieved status is one’s hard work.

Question 5.
In what ways are roles learned behaviour ?
Answer:
It is true that roles are learned behaviour as they are the collection of rules which are learned either through socialization or observation. After learning, whatever meaning man gives to it is a social role.

Question 6.
Write a short note on status and role.
Answer:
status:
Status is a position given to a person while living in society.

Role:
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Role is a set of socially expected and approved behaviour patterns consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular position in a group.

Question 7.
What is Status ?
Answer:
The position in a group, given to an individual, is known as social status. It is the position which one gets through his gender, age, birth, occupation, activities, patterns of work etc. For example an officer is respected by every one due to his post. Specific patterns related with his activities are known as status.

Question 8.
What is role set?
Answer:
While living in society, an individual gets many statuses. The collection of roles related with all such statuses is known as role set. For example students of 11th class of any school need to meet many persons in their daily routine and have to behave differently with them. Collection of roles related with all is known as role set.

Question 9.
What do you mean by role conflict ? Give its example.
Answer:
Every individual has many a status and a particular role is attached with each status. One has to fulfill all the roles attached with him. When he is unable to maintain balance with all of them and is not in a position to do justice with all of them, it is known as role conflict.

Answer the following short answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
State the three characteristics of social structure.
Answer:
(i) Different social structures of different societies : Social structure of each society is different because the social life of different parts of a society is different. Every society has its different institutionalised rules. That’s why structures of all the societies are different.

(ii) Social structure is abstract : Social structure is abstract because the units with which this structure is formed like institution, association, norms etc. all are abstract. They don’t have any concrete form, we can only feel them. That’s why they are abstract.

(iii) Formed due to interactions : No proper planning is made to keep all the social units in a system. It is developed due to human interactions. That’s why no conscious efforts are required for its formation etc.

Question 2.
What is ascribed status ? Give its example.
Answer:
Ascribed status is the status which a person gets without doing any effort or hard work. Like, Brahmans have the higher status in caste system of Hindu society. Person gets social status according to his caste in which he was born. Sex, caste, birth, age, kinship all are ascribed status which a person gets without any effort.

Question 3.
Role is an element of social structure. Discuss in brief.
Answer:
Sub groups are the units of social structure and in these groups, members are given roles according to definite rules. Interactions take place among humans and to clarify them, roles are given to individual. Role is the behaviour of an individual in a particular situation which is associated with his status. If any change comes in social structure, change often comes in the status and role of an individual. Due to these roles, people establish contacts with each other and consequently social structure is maintained.

Question 4.
Status is an element of social structure. Discuss.
Answer:
There is no denying the fact that status is an element of social structure. Sub-groups are the units of social structure and every one gets many a status in these groups. People mutually interact and to clarify them, many status and roles are given to the people. When one gets any status, he needs to behave differently in different circumstances. If any change comes in social structure, change also comes in the status of people. Due to these statuses, people establish mutual relations and social structure is maintained.

Question 5.
Discuss how status and role are interrelated ?
Answer:
It is true that status and role are intererelated. Actually they are two sides of the same coin. If out of these two only one is given, other is of no importance. It means rights are given but not responsibility or vice versa. In the absence of one, other cannot work properly. If any one is given the status of an officer but he is not given any responsibility, the officer is of no advantage for people. If any one is given responsibility but no status is given, he will not be able to fulfill his role. So, they both are deeply related.

Answer the following short answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
Define social structure and discuss its characteristics.
Answer:
Society is not an unbreakable system. Society is made up of many parts. These parts of society are interrelated with each other by doing their respective functions and they produce one type of balance. In the words of Sociology this balance is known as social system. On contrary to that when these different interrelated parts join each other and make a structure then this structure is known as social structure. In short the meaning of structure is the collection of those units or parts of society which are interrelated with each other.

(i) According to Maclver, “Social structure is abstract and many groups like family, class, caste and community come in this.–MacIver has accepted the stability and changing nature of social structure. According-to Maclver, “For a while the social structure itself is unstable and changeful, it has a definite character at every stage and many of its major elements have shown greater persistence of type through change.”

(ii) According to Morris Ginsberg, “Ginsberg has not differentiated between social structure and organization. He used the word social structure for systematic relations. According to him humans combine themselves with groups, institutions, associations etc. to achieve any purpose with which social structure is formulated.

According to Ginsberg, “The study of social structure is concerned with the principal forms of social organization i.e. types of groups, associations and institutions and the complex of these which constitute societies…full account of social structure would involve a review of the whole field of comparative institutions.”

(iii) According to Harry M. Johnson, “The structure of anything consists of relatively stable inter-relationship among its parts, moreover the part itself implies a certaip degree of stability since a social system is composed of the inter-related acts of people, its structure must be sought in some degree of regularity or recurrence in these acts.”

1. Different societies have different social structure. Every society has its own different rules because the relations which exist in different units of society have different place in social life. Except this social structure in different times is different. This difference is so because the relations which exist in units of society are different in different societies. It is related with specific society. That’s why social structure is related with specific society. Its different units like family institution, group, caste etc. have different forms.

2. It refers to the external aspect of society. Social structure is not related to internal system of society but is related with external aspect of soceity. For example the way in which different parts of human body make the full body and make the external structure of body, in that same way different parts of society combine and form the external structure of society. Hands, legs, head, nose etc. only show the external parts of body.

3. Social structure is abstract. Social structure is the sequence of interrelations of different units of society. Groups, castes, institutions, categories etc. are these units. This sequence of social structure doesn’t have any concrete form. That’s why it cannot be touched and seen. It can be felt only. Different relations which exist in different units are without any form and that’s why structure is abstract.

4. Social structure is changeable. Brown was of the view that mobility and continuity exist in social structure. It is not static. The way in which physical body changes in the same way change comes in structure of society but it doesn’t mean that the basic elements of structure also change.

5. Hierarchy of sub-structure in a structure. Our physical body is made up of many small structures, like backbone, neck, hands, feet etc.All these small structures form a big structure. In the same way we can take structure of educational institution. Staff, Principal office etc. are sub-structures which form the complete structure of educational institutions. In the same way in society, different categories and layers are there which jointly make a social structure.

6. Every unit of social structure has a definite position. Our social structure is made up of various units. Their position is definite and limited. No unit can take place of the other and cannot go beyond its limits. For example religion, school, family, caste etc. are different units of social structure. All of these have different place in social structure.

Religion never does function of school, school never does function of family etc. because every unit works in its limited area. If any unit comes out of its limits and works in the area of other unit then it will not be accepted by society. Every unit has different and definite place in society in different times. That’s why social structure is maintained.

7. Social structure is the product of social interactions. Development of social structure in every society is the product of social interactions. Different units of social structure are interrelated with each other. That’s why single unit is of no importance. Social interactions are very helpful in giving sequence to family, group, institution, association etc.

Question 2.
Which system helps in the maintenance of social structure ?
Answer:
In social structure, all the human beings have organised themselves into different associations to pursue some common goals. Such goals can be achieved if the social structure is based upon operational systems which help in its maintenance. Few of such systems are given below :

1. Normative System : Normative system presents some ideals and values in front of members of society. Members of society attach emotional importance to these values and ideas. Different groups, associations, institutions, communities etc. are interrelated according to norms and values. Different members of society perform their roles according to these norms. .

2. Position System : Position system refers to status and roles given to different individuals. Every one has unlimited and multiple aspirations and expectations. Different individuals in different societies have different status. For example, an individual in a family is a father, son, brother, uncle, husband etc. When he is in conversation with his wife, he acts as her husband and he forgets about other status. In the same way, while interacting with his son, he acts like a father. In other words, for the smooth functioning of social structure it is a must to properly allocate status and roles in society.

3. Sanction System: For the proper implementation of rules, society also provides a sanction system. To maintain balance between different parts, it is necessary to properly implement norms and values. Sanction can be negative as well as positive. Those who follow norms and values are rewarded by society and those who do not follow them are punished. Stability of social structure depends upon the effectiveness of sanction system. ‘

4. System of Anticipated Responses : A system of anticipated responses expects the individuals to participate in the social system. With their participation, social structure sets in metiori. The successful working of social structure depends upon the realisation of duties by the individuals. Members of society internalise the sanctioned behaviour with the help of socialisation with which they anticipate the experted behaviour of others in different situations. So the system of anticipated responses becomes one of the reason of stability-of a social structure.

5. Action System : Talcott Parsons gave special-stress on the concept of social action. He was of the view that society (web of social relationships) has emerged out of the action and interactions of the individual. Thus, the action system becemes one of the important elements that makes society active and sets the social structure in motion.

Question 3.
What is social structure ? What are the elements of social structure ?
Answer:
Our society is the web of social relationships. It has different units which are related with each other. They cannot do anything without each other’s help. It means they have the sense of cooperation These units are groups, institutions, associations, organizations etc. These units don’t have any independent existence, in fact when they relate with each other then they take the form of one structure. One sequence is there in their relations. With this sequence our society works properly.

We clarify the words sequence and arrangement pattern in an easy way with another example. If desk, bench, black-board, teacher, principal, peon, student and building can be kept at one place then it cannot be called as school. It can be called as school at that time when these different units will work in proper sequence with a proper arrangement pattern and on their definite place. Then only it can be called a school. We can take another example that we buy cloth for the shirt then it cannot be called as shirt until it doesn’t have any shape.

In this way every society has different social structure because there is always some difference in the units of the structure which makes the social structure. Our society is changeable. Time to time change comes in this due to natural forces or due to inventions by humans. That’s why social structure also changes. Its units are not concrete because we cannot touch them.

Yet these units of social structure like family, religion, institution, association, economy etc. are like each other but their types are different. Like any society is Patriarchal and any society is Matriarchal. It means that except some similarity its types are different. In short we can say that social structure it that systematic arragngement through which social relations can be tied in one thread.

Elements of Social Structure:
According to Harry M. Johnson and Talcot Parsons, there are four main elements of social structure which are given below :
1. Sub-Groups. According to Johnson and Parsons, every social structure is made up of units or sub-groups. Bigger group is made up of some sub-groups.

For example under educational group, school, college, university, family, religion etc. all these sub-groups are included which are related with educational group in one way or the other. Humans are getting roles and status through these groups and sub-groups. Place of every status and role is definite in the society.

Humans get birth and dying in society but these roles and status are definite. Humans get them after birth and after their death, other humans get their place. For example if principal of any school dies then other person takes his responsibilities by taking his status and role by becoming principal of that school. It means that sub-groups are short and permanent. They never come to an end. Their members are changing due to birth and death. Family, school, college etc. remain at their same place as they were 50 years ago but the members working in it are changing with time.

2. Roles. In sub-groups of social structure, humans are related to their roles through definite patterns. Society is the web of social relationships. Interactions take place between humans and groups to develop these relations. To clarify the activeness of these interactions, status and roles are defined.

Role is related with that behaviour of person which humans perform in specific condition and whichever function person has to perform related with specific status, are determined by social sanctions. Roles and status of members of society are changed when changes come in social structure. Social structure is maintained with these roles and definite social relations.

3. Social Norms. Roles and sub-groups are related with social norms because functions of humans are determined by these norms. That’s why roles and sub-groups become static. Social norms have many rules and sub-rules. These are those sanctioned ways of individual behaviour with which social structure is being formulated. Social ideals are related with these norms.

Humans would not be able to know about their responsiblities in the absence of these norms and our social structure cannot be maintained in its absence. For example, humans which are getting roles of father- son, mother-daughter, brother-sister, teacher-student etc.

are told about their responsibilities through these social norms. That’s why these are very important for social structure. Behaviour of humans is being regulated and directed by social norms in specific conditions with which roles and sub-groups are maintained. It is the third important element of social structure.

4. Social Values. According to Harry M. Johnson, “Value may be defined as a conception or standard cultural or merely personal, by which things are compared and approved or disapproved relative to one another held to be relatively desirable or undeiable, more meritorious or less, more or less correct. All kinds of things may be evaluated, feelings, ideas, actions, qualities, objects, persons, groups, goals and means.”

According to Johnson, values are measured because through them social norms are being evaluated. They appeal to the feelings of the members of society. Whenever person decides about any thing then he is definitely under the effect of his feelings. According to Johnson, everything is evaluated through values.”

The word ‘norm’ is used for specific behaviour pattern but values are simple measurements. These can be called as the norms of higher level. Social values are very important for social system and to stop social disorganization. Feelings of group are also related with these values. They also have functional relation between them because of which web of social relationship never breaks up.

With this our social structure and social system are maintained. With them balance is generally established between the feelings of human and group with which values are used as measures for the selection of behaviour. Human functions are divided in good or bad, high or low classes through these social values.

Question 4.
Define Status. Write its characteristics in detail.
Answer:
Society is the web of social relationships. The system of society is maintained through relations. No society can live without system. So to maintain this social system, every person in society is given one specific position. It is necessary for the maintenence of social system and organization that different persons should work according to their status in an efficient way and society expects from them that they should perform their duties in a proper way.

In this way every person has a position or status in society. Some persons are at higher posts and some persons are at lower posts. Status is the social position of a person which a person gets while living in society. Every person is related with some status.

All these statuses are the part of social position of a person because of which all these are the basis of social system. We can come to know about importance of status by comparing it with other status. Society has been divided into different parts due to status and as a result identity of person establishes in society.

In simple words, word ‘status’ is taken as social prestige. Higher status leads to more prestige. Social position of a person depends upon the evolution done by society. In sociology, meaning of status is taken by the position of person in society. There are many statuses in society and person gets some of them. Number of status, which a person gets, depends upon his membership of different groups.

In this way we can say that status is the position of a person which is given to him by organisation of group. Person gets status due to his age, gender, equality, birth, duty and his relations with other members. Every person has got some status like status of father, son, uncle, peon, officer etc. Person has to do some work according to his status. In this way we come to know about status by its functions. Person gets different status in different situations.

Definitions of Status:

•  According to Secard and Berkman, “Status is the worth of a person as estimated by a group or a class of persons.”
• According to Kingsley Davis, “Status is a position in the general institutional system recognized and adopted by the entire society, spontaneously evolved rather than deliberately created, rooted in the folk ways and customs.”
• According to Linton, “The place in a particular system which a certain individual occupies at a particular time will be referred to as his status with respect to that system The role is what the individual has to do in order to validate his occupation of the status.”
• According to Maclver and Page, “Status is the social position that determines for its possessor apart from his personal attribute or social service, a degree of respect, prestige and influence.”

In this way on the basis of these definitions we can say that whichever position a person gets in specific group is his status. Because status is in group, that’s why number of status depends upon the number of groups of which a person is the member. In this way status is the social position of a person which a person gets due to his abilities, birth, gender, age, qualities etc. Person has to do a number of works related with his status. Person has to obey the orders of person of higher status than him. It maintains the social system and social discipline. Social prestige is also related with every status.

Characteristics of Social Status:
1. Every status has a place in society : Every status is known by the related rights, duties, norms and prestige of the group because a person has to do functions related to that. Like status of high ranked officer and low ranked officer is different in an office and this status can be known on the basis of group.

2. Status is determined by the culture of the society : Status is determined by the specific cultural values of a specific society that which status should be given to which person and what would be the related rights and duties. Person has to do functions according to social status. Like an elder member of the house father gets status and related roles automatically. All in all we can say that the status of every person is determined by the culture of that society.

3. Status is always comparable : Status is always comparable because we can come to know about our status by comparing it with the status of another person. If there would be no comparison of two status then how can we come to know that which status is higher or lower. For example, the status of owner of a factory is definitely higher than the status of a manager and we can come to know about this only by comparing it.

4. Every status has psychological base : Person always does hard work to get higher status because of which feelings also come in person. Respect and disrespect are also related with every status and these are related with psychological sector of person. When person achieves that social status with hard work then he gets mental satisfaction. In this way status has a psychological base.

5. Sthtus is of two types : Two types of status are there for every person. First one is Ascribed Status which a person gets without any effort and hard work. For example son, elder brother, elder sister etc. Second type of status is Achieved Status and this type of status person achieves with his hard work while living in society like officer, clerk etc.

6. Role is determined by status : Any role is definitely related to every status and this role is determined on the basis of social values. Person performs his role according to his status. Some statuses in society are very important and the roles of these statuses are also very important which the relative person has to perform. For example D.C. or S.S.P.

7. Similarity of status but not of functions : Many times it happens that many statuses in society are equal but their functions are different, for example, professors of any college. Status of all of them is same but their function, means subject of teaching is different. They teach different subjects or do different functions but their status is same. There are many engineers in a factory but their functions may be different.

Question 5.
Define role. Write its characteristics in detail.
Answer:
Every person has definitely any status in the society and some demands and responsibilities are also related to that status. These demands tell us that what a person has to do. Person achieves many status on the basis of ability, age, caste, sex etc. and person has to do a number of functions on the basis of tradition of that status. In this way it is expected from the person that what specific function he has to do in specific condition and this function is his role.

Importance of social role is at that time when person performs relative role. In this way status and role are the two sides of the same coin. Humans are differentiated on the basis of their functions. For example doctor, teacher, engineer etc.

It means functions of person are divided on the basis of different sectors. In this way person is given any function in social status on the basis of rules, laws or traditions. This function is role. Role is related with every status.

In this way we can say that every status has a set of relative functions. This set of functions is known as role. Person is always there on any status and some responsibilities are also there related with those status. The collection of those responsibilities is known as role.

Role of every one is different. In this way roles tell the person about that behaviour which is expected from the person who has that status. Role and status cannot be differentiated. Role is related with status. To know the more clear meaning of status now we will see the definitions of role.

Definitions:
1. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “A role is a set of socially expected and approved behaviour patterns, consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular position in a group.”

2. According to Ginsberg, “Status is a position and a role is the manner in which that position is supposed to be filled.” .

3. According to Fitcher, “When a number of interrelated behaviour patterns are clustered around a social function we call this combination a social role.”

4. According to Kingsley Davis, “Role is the manner in which a person actually carries out the requirements of the position.”
In this way on the basis of these definitions we can say that the meaning of role is related with the specific behaviour of a person which he does in specific conditions.

Role is the way with which person fulfils his responsibilities or functions related with his status. For the maintenance of our social system it is necessary because society cannot run without doing work. In this way role is the accepted way in which a person performs his duties related with his status and uses rights of his status.

Characteristics of Role:
1. One person has many roles. A person gets many statuses while living in society and automatically gets many roles related with those status because he is able to perform those responsibilities or roles. For example, role of father and husband in family, role of clerk or officer in office, role of chairman in club etc. In this way one person performs many roles.

2. Role is determined by our culture. Because a person has many statuses, that’s why he needs to perform roles related with status according to the relative rules, laws, values and traditions. These laws, rules, traditions and values are the part of our culture. That’s why role is regulated by our culture.

3. Role is functional. Role always has one functional aspect. The meaning of functional aspect is that to do work related with that status. Person has to do work related to the status which he has and this is the functional aspect of role.

4. Role is determined by the social sanctions. The nature of humans is not same. If the members of the society will be allowed to work according to their wish then no work would be done in an efficient way. It is so because some will not be able to do that work and some will work against the values of society. That’s why only those roles are accepted by society which have social sanctions. These are determined by our culture that which role would be performgd by which person.

5. Different importance of different roles. S.ome roles in society are very important because they are related with any specific aspect and for them, person needs special training. That’s why they have more importance. In the same way some roles are of less importance because their status is of less importance and there is no need of special training for them. For example, there is a great difference between the role of the I.A.S. officer and a clerk.

6. Importance of ability in Role. Individual’s ability is of great importance in performing any role. It is so because it is not necessary that he can perform his role in proper way. One person performs one role successfully and in another he fails. It means that person can perform his role in right or wrong way according to his ability.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 12 Social Issues: Old Age and Disability Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Chapter 12 Social Issues: Old Age and Disability

Sociology Guide for Class 12 PSEB Social Issues: Old Age and Disability Textbook Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The imposing of power by young on elderly of the family creates:
(a) Love
(b) Tension
(c) Stress
(d) Conflict
Answer:
(b) Tension

2. What does the shift in family structure makes elders feel?
(a) Neglected
(b) Poor
(c) Angry
(d) Weak
Answer:
(d) Weak

3. By which act does the maintenance and welfare of parents and senior citizens take place?
(a) Senior Citizen’s Act 2009
(b) Senior Citizen’s Act 2008
(c) Senior Citizen’s Act 2007
(d) Senior Citizen’s Act 2006
Answer:
(c) Senior Citizen’s Act 2007

4. What is the other name for Continuity theory?
(a) Undeveloped theory
(b) Developing theory
(c) Development theory
(d) Non continuity theory
Answer:
(c) Development theory

5. The term ……………. carries with it the connotation of a deficiency mental, physical or sensory.
(a) Blindness
(b) Mental retardation
(c) Disability
(d) Cerebral palsy
Answer:
(c) Disability

6. Children with physical disability whose non-sensory physical limitations or health problems interfere with school attendance or leaving have:
(a) Orthopaedic disability
(b) Cerebral palsy
(c) ADHD
(d) Learning disability
Answer:
(d) Learning disability

7. Embracing which model do the disabled individuals assert a positive identity not only in being disabled but also in being impaired?
(a) Social model
(b) Affirmative model
(c) Politics of disablement model
(d) Structural model
Answer:
(a) Social model

8. The rights of people with disabilities are best promoted by:
(а) Family and friends
(b) Formulating various policies
(c) People with disabilities themselves
(d) Social and government construction
Answer:
(a) Family and friends

Fill in the Blanks:

1. The study of social and sociological aspects of aging is called ………………..
Answer:
Social gerontology

2. Arthritis, high blood pressure, diabetes, heart disease etc. are age related ……………….. diseases.
Answer:
Chronic

3. One of the most challenging phenomenon worldwide in 21st century is ……………….. population.
Answer:
Aging

4. The new housing system for the elderly is known as ……………….
Answer:
Old age homes

5. The ……………… department can take an active role in preparing employees to face retirement and old age issues.
Answer:
Social justice and welfare

6. ………………. is a condition where a person suffers from total blindness or visual acuity not including 6/60 or 20/200 vision.
Answer:
Visual disability

7. The first policy statement in which recognised the rights of people with various impairment is equal opportunities is ……………….
Answer:
The Rehabilitation Council Act

True/False:

1. The Parents’ Maintenance Act was passed in Himachal Pradesh.
Answer:
True

2. The inequality between the young and old in society is explained in the Modernization theory.
Answer:
False

3. Old age people do not have any role problems.
Answer:
False

4. The old age people experience financial insecurity at this age.
Answer:
True

5. Old age people are not considered much productive due to age factor.
Answer:
True

6. The people with Disabilities Act 1995 recognises the need to replace emphasis on medical rehabilitation with emphasis on social rehabilitation.
Answer:
True

Match The Columns:

Column A	Column B
Withdrawl from society	Activity Theory
Change in socioeconomic status	Social Problems
Elders should be more active	Disengagement theory
Field of study that aims to study	Economic Insecurity
the process of ageing Unable to sustain themselves	Gerontology

Answer:

Column A	Column B
Withdrawl from society	Disengagement theory
Change in socioeconomic status	Economic Insecurity
Elders should be more active	Activity Theory
Field of study that aims to study	Gerontology
the process of ageing Unable to sustain themselves	Social Problems

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
According to United Nation, what is the cut off age for older population?
Answer:
This age is 60 + years.

Question 2.
How much would India’s elderly population go upto by 2020?
Answer:
140 million.

Question 3.
On which day is the UN International day for older persons celebrated?
Answer:
1st October.

Question 4.
Which are the five stages of a person’s life?
Answer:
Infancy, Childhood, adolesence, adulthood and old age.

Question 5.
What is the age of retirement in India?
Answer:
60 years.

Question 6.
What do you understand by the term disability?
Answer:
Disability is the consequence of impairment in terms of functional performance and activity.

Question 7.
Distinguish between handicap and impairment.
Answer:
Handicap means deficiency of any physical organ and impairment means loss of psychological, physical or anatomical structure.

Question 8.
What is inclusion?
Answer:
The meaning of inclusion is including any disable person in any work.

Question 9.
What is learning disability?
Answer:
When any person is unable to learn anything, it is called learning disability.

Question 10.
Define social model in your own works.
Answer:
The meaning of social model is that unequal relation in society in which disable persons are not given any importance.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What are the physical signs which mark an individual as old?
Answer:
There are few physical signs which mark an individual as old. Some of these signs are tooth decay, grey hair, hunched back, hearing loss, slow pace of walk, vision impairment etc.

Question 2.
What are the causes of loneliness and depression found among the old age people in society?
Answer:
When the children of old age people go for job or to cities for work, they remain alone at home. With time, authority of family goes in the hands of young one’s. Nothing remained in the hands of old age people because of which they becomes the victim of laneliness and depression.

Question 3.
How inclusion is different from integration?
Answer:
In Inclusion, disable persons are included in any work due to any pressure but in Integration, they are made the part of any work and they become a necessary part of that work.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
How does the Government help in the rehabilitation of the old age population?
Answer:
After independence, the Indian government started doing a lot for the welfare of old age population. In 1999, United nations decided to celebrate the same year as the International year for the aged population. After this on 13 January 1999, the Indian government made a national policy for them so that they can get benefits from this. In 2007, ‘Maintenance and welfare of parents and Senior Citizens Act’ gave legal status to the rights of aged people. Along with these, many other programmes were initiated from them such as old age security, old age pension, construction of old age homes, expansion of old age services, to make housing policy for old age etc.

Question 2.
Highlight the housing and health related problems faced by the old age people in our society.
Answer:

• Housing problems: The aged people have to face housing problems. Out of total old age people, most of them are widows and females, and they lack proper house to live in. There is a common complaint that they feel lonely at home or family members force them to live alone.
• Health problems: In this age, the immunity power of the body declines considerably. People become weak from physical and psychological points of view. They suffer from many diseases such as no digestion, tooth decay, high blood pressure, sugar etc.

Question 3.
What do you understand by ‘social security benefits’?
Answer:
In the changing situations of the present society, economic dependency on children is quite a difficult task. That’s why the importance of social security benefits given by government has increased. It means that the government gives some help in old age. But in our country, India, old age people are given very less social security. 90% of the total old age people work in unorganise sector and they do not get pension or any other benefits. Government gives some help to poor old age people such as

• National old age pension which is ₹ 75 per month but is given only to those whose age is 65 years and above.
• Many state governments have made schemes in which ₹ 60-250 per month are given. This is given only to those whose age is 65 years and above and those who live below the poverty line.
• Widows are given ₹ 150 per month.

Question 4.
Write about the disability discourse in India in your own words.
Answer:
In almost whole of the world, more than 100 crore people are living with one or the other disability. We might have seen many people around us who are disable and face many problems in living an easy life. Disable persons face many crunches in life such as education, employment and other benefits. Along with this, a social curse is attached with it which is an obstacle in the way of their normal economic and social life. Out of 100 crore disable persons in whole of the world, three crore in India are facing any type of disability. These people are either hated or mercy is shown to them. They cannot use all the basis facilities of life and that’s why lack many things in life. Around 2% of the total Indian population is living with any type of disability.

Question 5.
Disability need not to be an obstacle to success. Discuss.
Answer:
There is no denying the fact that if any individual wish to achieve any thing, no obstacle can stop him. This thing is correctly applicable even on disable persons. In any disable person wish to achieve anything, he can achieve that. We have many examples who achieved success even if they were disable. In Special Olympics, such people take part and make their country proud.

Very Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Write a detailed note on the theories of ageing.
Or
Explain Activity and Modernisation theory of Ageing.
Or
Discuss modernisation and activity theory of Ageing.
Answer:
There are many theories of ageing which are given below:

1. The Disengagement Theory: According to this theory, old age is such condition in which society and an individual start to move away or disengage from each other. Authority of family moves out of the hands of aged people and goes in the hands of young one’s with which society works efficiently. So, according to this theory, when an individual becomes old, his physical efficiency does not allow him to do more work and he starts to move away from society. That’s -why, every thing goes in the hands of young one’s.

2. The Activity Theory: Activity theory says that, to remain happy in old age, it is necessary for an old man to continue with his work. This theory says that if existing relations are no more, they must be replaced. Change in roles and relations is necessary because with the decline in human ability to do work, decline also comes in his level of satisfaction.

3. The Continuity Theory: Continuity theory also known as development theory. This theory says that the old people try to maintain and preserve internal and external structures by using methods which maintain continuity. This theory has great capability for explaining how people adopt to their own ageing.

4. Modernisation Theory: This theory says that elder persons typically fail to change to satisfy the rules of the modernisation process such as material economy, technological maturity, achievement orientation etc.

5. The Age Stratification Theory: This theory tells us which inequalities exist in any society among young one’s and old persons. This theory also says that the relative inequality of the aged at any given time and in any cultural situation depends upon two types material experiences. First one is those life experiences with which physical and psychological changes come in them and the second is their historical experiences that with which group he is related.

Question 2.
Explain the various problems faced by old age people in society.
Or
Write a detailed note on the problems of the aged.
Answer:
Elders not have to face one or two problems but have to face many problems which are given below:
1. Problems due to Technological Development. Elders were very much respected in ancient times because it was believed that elders have the knowledge of any art. People need those elders to get knowledge of that art. But it is not so in today’s age. Now elders are unable to get that respect due to technological development because any type of knowledge can be saved with the help of technology. That’s why the respect of the aged, which they were getting in earlier times, has been reduced. Now there is no importance of aged for the society. They are considered as useless and misbehaved because of which problems occurred for them.

2. Problem due to decreasing effect of caste system. Many types of laws were made after independence because of which the importance of caste system was reduced to a great extent. Occupation of person, in ancient times, was determined according to his caste, person has to adopt the occupation of that caste in which he is born. He was not allowed to change his occupation even if he had the ability. Elder people of the caste were used to give some secrets of the occupations to the younger members of the family. But after independence, the importance of caste system was reduced because of which now person can adopt anx occupation with his ability. In this way the importance of the secrets given by elders was reduced and their need remains no more. They were considered as useless and their problems were started.

3. Problems due to Spread of Education. Yet the spread of education is good for society but many a times it brings problems for the elders. People of villages send their children to cities to get better education. After getting education they get job in cities. They start to live in cities and even marries over there. In the start they regularly go back to villages and even send money to their parents. But due to increasing business they stop going back to villages and even stop sending money to their parents. Parents has no option except living quitely. From here economic problem starts for them.

4. Problem of Economic Dependency. Generally it has been seen that dependence of money also becomes a reason of problem in old age. If father has died and mother has no source of income then she becomes helpless and becomes dependent upon children. She is left with no option except depending on children to run their daily expenditure. She becomes helpless. In this way dependence upon children also becomes a reason of problem in old age.

5. Spending whole Income on Children. It is very difficult to save money in today’s age of inflation. A middle class family has to do a lot of expenditure. Lot of money is required to meet expenditure of house and expenditure of education of children etc. Every person wants to give better education to his children. Better education is very expensive these days. They spend whole of their income and saving on children to give them good education so that they could be given a good future.That’s why nothing is left with them for old age. Children get good education and good job and even make their own house after marriage. Parents enter in an old age but economic problems surround them. In this way they have to face economic problems.

6. Problems related to Health. Person works with great heart for his whole life. When he becomes old then his body stops responding to them. They surrounds by many diseases like sugar, blood pressure, heart problem etc. They have to take the help of medicines to control these diseases. Their body hardly responds to them. They are unable to do anything. In this way health related problems are very important problems.

7. Problems due to Industrialization. Problems of many aged persons were started after the advent of industries. People are going to cities from villages in search of work. They have to go to cities to save themselves from unemployment and economic problems. They hesitate to take elders to the cities. In this way elders have to live alone in the villages. If there is no economic problem then its fine unless elders hardly get and economic and social help. They struggle themselve to lives because their children do not take their elder’s responsibilities.

8. Another problem is related to the sex of the aged means whether the aged person is male or female. If the aged person is male then he will have to face less problem. But if it is female then there are more chances of misbehaviour with her. She had to do every type of work of the family. She has to take care of the house when her daughter in law goes out for job and has to take care of children. In this way she has to face many problems. After the death of her husband, her economic and social security comes to an end. Widow has to depend upon others and has to live in a pitty condition.

9. It has also been seen that boys create more problems for their elders as compared to girls. Girls give more help to their elder parents. Unmarried children are even more irresponsible. Boys hardly care about their parents because of which daughter in law also stop to do so and elders have to do every type of work themselyes.

10. Quarrel between mother in law and daughter in law also becomes a reason of problem of the aged. Elders depend upon their children. Its reason is that they are wasting their money by spending it on their elders. When situation goes out of control then elders are left with no option except finding other place to live. In some cases some boys send their elders to old age homes. Except this if parents were working in an unorganized sector they are hardly left with any saving for their old age. Their health deteriorates in the old age and have to face many types of problems in the absence of money.

11. Aged people were given a very important place in family and society in traditional Indian Society. Any important decision of the family has been taking according to the wish of the person. But due to the reducing effect of joint family system and with the advent of modern industrial society, many important changes came in social structure. Economic factor was given more importance according to new conditions and the social status of the person now depends upon the socio¬economic condition of the person. That’s why lot of changes have come in the conditions of the aged because they lack money. Their position is changed from earlier conditions. They have to face disrespect and that’s why they have to face psychological tension. Even their children hardly give respect to them.

12. Problem of Leisure Time. Person has to face another problem in the aged condition and that is the problem of spending leisure time. Aged persons have a lot of time and they don’t know what to do with their leisure time. People are working for 8-12 hours in a day in cities and in villages they are working more than that. But after retirement, it becomes very difficult to spend their leisure time. They hardly know that what to do with their leisure time. In this way it has been seen that young generation is leaving their elders in the changed circumstances and in changed values. They are running away from their responsibility of being a child. On the other side parents are spending whole of their income and saving in the upbringing of their children because of which they become useless in their old age.

Question 3.
How can the problems of old age people be solved?
Answer:
In the present age, almost all the countries have started using social, legal and reformative methods to solve the problems of old age people. Some of the methods are given below:

1. Old Age Homes: Few elders are unable to maintain balance with their families and were left alone by them. They even do not keep any relations with their elders. Sometimes, such elders become the victims of tension. For such elders, many countries have started opening old age homes to give them physical, medical and economic security.

2. Welfare Programmes: Almost in all the countries, many welfare programmes for elders have been started such as old age pension, accidental facilities, free medical help etc. To provide the economic security many legal and welfare programmes were started such as provident fund, gratuity, life insurance etc.

3. Jobs: To take care of elders, many methods have been adopted but it is necessary to keep them busy even after their retirement. That’s why few easy jobs have been created for them to take advantage of their experienca

4. Stronger Family Care System: Society must take some steps to have a stronger family care system which could care about elders because one is emotionally attached with his family. There must be a system in which family itself should take care of its elders. In family, members of atleast three generations live together and their relation must be so strong that they must not leave their elders. Traditional values must be so strong that elders must not be left alone.

5. Effective Laws: Different governments have made many laws for the security of elders but there is a need to strictly implement them. There must be a provision that if any one will leave its elder alone, their property will be confiscated and will sent behind bars. Due to this fear, people will not disrespect their elders.

6. Better Medical Facilities: Our present medical facilities are not capable enough to meet the needs of old age people. That’s why we must develop our medical facilities so that the elders can live a happy life.

Question 4.
Write a note on types of disabilities.
Or
Highlight types of disabilities.
Or
Describe Hearing and Mental disability as type of disability.
Answer:
There are many types of disabilities and some of the important one are given below:

1. Locomotor Disability: According to the PWD Act, locomotor disability is the disability of bones, joints or muscles. It leads to the substantial restrictions of the movement of limbs. It also includes cerebral palsy.

2. Visual Disability: Visual disability or low vision can be divided into two parts and these are the blind and the partially sighted. The PWD Act says that the vision of an individual becomes so weak that he is unable to see anything without any external help i.e. spectacle. He is unable to do anything without its help.

3. Hearing Disability: Those individuals who can not hear anything beyond a fixed level come under this category. They need to take help of a machine to hear anything.

4. Mental Disability: This disabilities starts before the age of 18 years and creates hurdle in the normal functioning. His brain cannot work normally. He cannot think properly, brain works in a limit and cannot speak read and write properly. Such disability is known as mental disability.

5. Speech Disability: Those individuals who cannot speak, can speak few limited words or have lost their voice, come under the category of speech disabilities.

Question 5.
What are th’e problems encountered by the people with special needs?
Or
Highlight two problems encountered by differently abled people.
Answer:
1. Social oppression: People with special needs are oppressed in society. They are either hated or are shown mercy by the people. No one gives them a hand full of love. It is so because people feel that they are not normal like them and have some sort of disability. Due to this thinking of common people, such people feel neglected.

2. Inequality: While living in society, they encounter inequality as well. They are behave in an unequal way. They cannot enjoy all the facilities which a common man enjoy. They are discriminated everywhere and on most of the occasions, they are not included. That’s why, they become the victims of tension.

3. Health Related problems: People with special needs are those who are the victims of any type of disability. They cannot hear or cannot see or cannot understand or cannot move freely. In this way they need to take help of anyone to do any work. It is quite difficult for them to do any work of their own.

4. Poverty: Those who are physical disable get very few chances to earn money. Due to their physical inability, they are unable to fully use their ability and that’s why, they always have the problem of money. So, they remain poor.

5. Segregation: Disable people face the problem of segregation. More physical disability leads to more feeling of segregation. Their own behaviour increases the feeling of segregation. Sometimes situation goes out of control and their disability becomes an obstacle in the way of their participation in any work.

Question 6.
In what way legislation can play an important role in empowering the people with special needs?
Or
In what way legislation has played an important role in empowering the people with special ability.
Answer:
There is no denying the fact that legislation can play a very important role in empowering the people with special needs. Actually, along with love and sympathy of society, few legal constraints are required so that the people with special needs can live a happy and prosperous life. It can happen only if the government must makes laws for this.

During last few decades, to include them in the mainstream of our country, few anti discrimination laws were made, equal chances were provided and many programmes were made. But this is possible if few people will collectively work in this field. That’s why in 1986, The Rehabilitation council of India was organised. It is an autonomous organisation which gives training to the people who work for the rehabilitation of people with special needs. It was given the legal status under ‘The Rehabilitation Council Act, 1992 with which this organisation was empowered to give training. According to this law, the work of training will be checked from time to time and it will be provided help with new inventions.

Many laws were passed for them such as:

• Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995.
• National Trust for the welfare of persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disability Act, 1999.
• Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992.

Major objectives of these acts was to provide equality to the people who live with any type of disability. These laws help us to provide facilities to such people who are disable and have no family support. These laws help those organisations or non-government organisations who are engaged in rehabilitation of these people. Few seats in government jobs are kept reserved for them to give them a happy life.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 15 India and United Nations Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 15 India and United Nations

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Write a note on U.N.
Answer:
There breathes nobody in this world who is not acquainted with the name of the United Nations. After long debates and discussions which took place in various World Conferences held from time to time between 1940 and 1945, ultimately the United Nations Conference was held at San-Francisco from April 26 to 25 June 1945. The Conference adopted the U.N. Charter which was signed by delegates of 51 Nations. The U.N. actually started functioning on October 24, 1945. It is an organisation of 193 countries of the world which aims at establishing peace in the world. Peace can be established in the world if all the countries extend willing co-operation to this organization.

Aims and Principles of U.N.
The U.N. Charter contains 111 short articles, prefaced by a preamble, which speaks for the aims of the United Nations. It starts with the words. “We the people of the United Nations,” signifying thereby that the United Nations speak in the name of the people of the world. The basic aims of the U.N. are:

• To save succeeding generations from the scourge of war;
• To re-affirm faith in the fundamental human rights;
• To establish justice and respect for international obligations; and
• To promote social progress and better standards of life.

These aims can be classified as under:

• To maintain international peace and security.
• To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of people.
• To achieve international co-operative for solving international problems of an economic, social and humanitarian character.
• To promote and encourage respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without any distinction of race, sex, language or region.
• To act as a centre for harmonizing the actions of world nations in the achievement of agreed common ends.

Basic Principles of The U.N.
All the members, in order to achieve the main purpose of U.N., will act in accordance with the principles given ahead:

• The organization is based on the principles of sovereign equality of its members.
• All member-States are supposed to fulfil the obligation imposed upon them by Charter.
• All international disputes are to be settled through peaceful means.
• All member-States must refrain from the use of force in any international dispute.
• The organization as far as possible, shall avoid intervention in the domestic affairs of a State.
• The member-States are supposed to assist the organization in any action taken by it in accordance with the U.N. Charter.
• All member-States must give free help to U.N.O. in any action taken according to the Charter.
• All members must act according to the principles of U.N.O. in order to create international peace and security.

Organs of U.N.
The principal organs of U.N. are given as under:
1. The General Assembly
2. The Security Council
3. The Economic and Social Council
4. The International Court of Justice
5. The Trusteeship Council
6. The Secretariat.

1. General Assembly:
The General Assembly consists of all the members of U.N. Each state can send five representatives in the General Assembly. Each member-State has, however, one vote. In the Assembly all the member- States, however big or small, meet on the terms of sovereign equality of all the member-States. It elects its President and Vice-Presidents for each session. The General Assembly meets regularly once every year, commencing usually in September.

Special sessions may be convened at the request of the Security Council or of a majority of the members of the U.N. All decisions on important questions are taken by 2/3 majority of those present. A majority of the.members of the General Assembly constitutes a quorum. The General Assembly does most of its work in Committee’s voting but decision regarding less important questions may be taken by a simple majority of votes. Functions. The General Assembly can be called World Parliament or World Panchayat.

The Assembly elected 10 non-permanent members of the Security Council for a term of two years, 54 members of the Economic and social Council and some members of the Trusteeship Council. A Secretary-General is elected on the recommendations of the Security Council. It is the deliberative body of the organization. Apart from the duties discussed above, it performs the following functions:

• The General Assembly can deal with all matters within the scope of U.N. Charter.
• It can make recommendations to any member or to the Security Council on any question within its jurisdiction.
• It considers principle of co-operation for the creation of world peace and security.
• It can initiate studies and make recommendations for the development of International Law and its codification.
• It can call the attention of the Security Council to such situations which may endanger world peace.
• It is empowered to make suggestions for promoting international co-operation in economic, social, cultural and health fields.
• It receives and considers the annual reports from the Security Council and other organs about the maintenance of world peace.
• It considers and approves the budget of U.N.
• It fixes the amount which each member-State has to contribute for the working of U.N.
• To assist in the realization of fundamental human rights for all without distinction of race, sex, language or religion.

‘The Uniting for Peace Resolution’ confers effective power on the General Assembly for the purpose of maintaining International peace and security.This Resolution was adopted by the General Assembly on 3rd November, 1950.

2. Security Council:
It consists of 15 members, five of which are permanent members. It is the most important and most powerful organ of the U.N. The permanent members are- England, France, U.S.A., Russia and Republic of China. Ten members are non-permanent, These non-permanent members are elected by the General Assembly for a period of two years. No State can be elected as a member for two consecutive terms.

The Security Council must meet at least twice a month, but its meeting can be held even before if the need arises. Meetings of the Security Council are held at the call of the President at any time he deems necessary, but the interval between meetings must not exceed fourteen days. Each member presides over the meeting of the council for a month turn by turn.

The concurrence of permanent members is necessary for all vital decisions of the Security Council affecting international peace and security. Decisions on all matters are to be made by a majority of nine members (including the five permanent) except on procedural matters which require the decision of any nine members.

By casting a negative vote, any one of the permanent members can veto a decision. But mere abstention from the vote, or the absence of a permanent member from the meeting, does not operate as a veto. No member can cast his vote in a matter with which he is personally connected. The Security Council can invite any State to participate in its meeting but it is not entitled to exercise its vote.

Functions:

• The admission of new States to the organization and the expulsion therefrom can only be done on the recommendation of the Security Council.
• It makes recommendations to the General Assembly for the appointment of the General Secretary.
• It can take any measure necessary to maintain or restore international peace.
• It can ask the contesting parties to solve their conflict by peaceful means, like negotiation, enquiry and mediation.
• The Security Council may decide measures, not involving the use of armed force, to be employed to give effect to its decisions.
• The Security Council may take such action by air, sea or land force, as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security.
• It shares with the General Assembly the function of electing judges to the International Court of Justice and right to request the court for advisory opinion or legal matters.

3. Economic and Social Council:
Before 1965 this body consisted of 18 members who were elected by the General Assembly. From 1st Jan. 1966 its membership was increased to 27 and now-a-days it has 54 members. One- third of its members retire after every one year and this way a member is elected for a period of three years. A retiring member is eligible for immediate re-election. It can have extra members also but these members cannot have the right to vote. It must meet at least twice a year and decisions are taken by ordinary majority. It elects its own President.

Functions:
Its main function is to solve the economic and social problem of the people.

• It initiates studies and makes report about international economic, social, educational, health and cultural matters to the General Assembly and other specialized agencies.
• It sets up commissions in economic and social fields for the promotion of human rights.
• It calls international conferences on matters under its jurisdiction.
• It makes recommendations for the purpose of promoting respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedom of all.
• It helps the nations in their development plans.
• It may take appropriate steps to obtain regular reports from the specialised agencies.

4. International Court of Justice:
It is the judicial organ of the United Nations. It decides the disputes among different member-States of the U.N. It has 15 judges, and they are elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council, voting independently. Those candidates who obtain an absolute majority of votes in the General Assembly and in the Security Council are considered as elected. The judges are elected for nine years.

After every 3 years, 1/3rd of the judges retire but they can be re-elected. Its meetings are held at the Hague and decisions are taken by a majority vote of the judges present. The Court elects its President and Vice-president for three years. Except for judicial vacations, the Court is permanently in session. A quorum of nine judges is required to constitute the Court. French and English are the official languages of the Court.

Functions:

• It decides disputes among different States. Any State can refer its case to the court for decision.
• It hears and decides disputes on the basis of International Law. United Nations Charter, international treaties and international customs and traditions.
• The General Assembly can ask for legal advice on any issue from the International Court of Justice.
• Its decisions are only in the form of advice and no member is bound to act according to the decision given by it. The Security Council gets its decisions enforced

5. Trusteeship Council:
It consists of members from States which administer Trust territories and such of the five permanent members of the Security Council as do not administer any trust territory. But it has also to include some other representations in such a way that the total becomes equally divided between the trust administering members and the non-trust administering members. All these extra members are to be elected by the General Assembly for a period of 3 years. The Trusteeship Council meets twice a year, generally in January and June. At its summer session each year it elects its President and a Vice-president to preside over its meetings. All the decisions are made by a majority of the members present and voting. Each member of the Trusteeship Council possesses one vote.

Functions:

• The council is to see that trust territories are administered and ultimately get responsible government or independence according to the wishes of the masses.
• It also considers reports which have been submitted by the administering authority.
• It further examines petitions and visits the respective trust territories in order to promote world peace.
• It makes efforts for the promotion of moral, social and economic welfare of the trust territories.
• It formulates a questionnaire on the political, economic, social and educational advancement of the inhabitants of each trust territory.

6. Secretariat:
A Secretariat has been established for working out the administration of the various organs of the U.N. It functions under the Supervision and direction of a Secretary General. He is appointed for a period of five years. The General Assembly appoints the Secretary General on the recommendations of the Security Council. Secretary General can be re-elected. He is the Chief Administrative Officer of the United Nations. Antonio Guterres of Portugal is the present Secretary General. The international staff is required by him under the rules and regulations laid down by the General Assembly.

The Secretariat is located at the Headquarters of the U.N. in New York. It has branch offices at Geneva, Vienna and Nairobi.
Functions:

• The Secretariat maintains the records of the proceeding of the various organs of the U.N.. It collects information and materials needed by them and conducts correspondence with States on behalf of the U.N.
• It calls the meeting of the various organs of the U.N.
• It enforces the decisions taken by various organs of the U.N.
• It prepares the annual report of each organ of the U.N. and presents it to the General Assembly.
• It brings to the notice of Security Council any matter which in its opinion may threaten the international peace and security.
• It produces statistical publication, information bulletins and analytical work in accordance with the decisions of the General Assembly.
• It organises conferences, expert group meetings, seminars on topics of concern to the international community.
• It is to run the working of the U.N. smoothly and efficiently.

Question 2.
Describe India’s role in the United Nations.
Or
Describe the role of India in United Nations Organisation (U.N.O.).
Answer:
India has been a member of the U.N.O from the very beginning. She is among those countries which signed the U.N. Charter first of all. As India is a peace- loving country so its policies are very much in tune with the policies of the U.N.O. After the attainment of Independence, India took a keen interest in the activities of the U.N.O. She co-operated with the U.N.O. in all its activities. She helped the U.N.O. in its aim of maintaining world peace. India also became the member of the specialised agencies of U.N.O. and helped in its co-operative efforts. Whenever the U.N.O. was faced with a problem, India extended her full support for solving it. India performed the following functions for helping the U.N.O. in the fulfilment of its objects:

1. Policy of Neutrality:
India had adopted the policy of neutrality in international affairs. India is always anxious for maintaining friendly relations with all countries of the world. Today the entire world is divided into two blocs and each bloc is opposed to the other. This division of the – world into two blocs is a hindrance in the fulfilment of the objectives of the U.N.O. It increases the chances of war and decreases the chances of co- 1 operative efforts on the part of member countries. India has kept itself aloof from these power-blocs and has always stood for the policy of neutrality. India has also made efforts to bridge the gap in these two power-blocs and has done its best in reducing the tension between them.

2. Panchsheel:
India had propagated the principles of Panchsheel for the maintenance of world peace. By following the principles of Panchsheel the chances of war are much reduced and all the countries of the world live in co-operation with one another. The principles of Panchsheel have been accepted by Asian, African and many European countries. It has helped a great deal in the maintenance of world peace. The maintenance of world peace is one of the main aims of the U.N.O.

3. Peaceful solution of her disputes with other countries:
India has always tried to find out a peaceful solution of her disputes with other countries.
Just after the attainment of Independence, India had a dispute with Pakistan over the Kashmir issue, and the dispute was referred to the U.N.O. by India.
In 1962, China attacked India and we put in our best to solve the problem peacefully. In 1965, India was attacked by Pakistan, but it accepted the cease-fire and respected the resolution on cease-fire of Security Council of the U.N.O. Whatever differences we have with other countries, we are always: desirous of solving them peacefully.

4. Co-operation in ending wars in other countries:
India has always; co-operated with U.N.O. in ending wars in other countries. It helped in bringing to an end the civil war in Korea. India had a hand in the maintenance of peace in Laos and Indo-China. India was given the responsibility of defending the ceasefire line in Korea. Indian representative headed the Commission appointed for the maintenance of peace in Indo-China. India helped U.N. to the maximum in ending the civil war in the Congo. India was substantially associated with the conversion of the United Nations Operation in the Congo from a non-military to a military force.

India was:also appointed a member of the Advisory Committee on the Congo. India; made every possible effort to bring the dispute between England and Egypt over Suez Canal to an end. Speaking in the debate on the question of Cyprus in the General Assembly on May 11, 1983, India called for the withdrawal of foreign military forces from Cyprus and appealed to both parties to resume the inter-community talks. India declared, Cyprus cannot be divided or partitioned The identity and integrity of this island republic must be preserved at all costs.” Thus whenever world peace is threatened, India takes a keen interest in solving the issues peacefully.

5. Help in the freedom of dependent countries:
India has always helped the dependent countries in the attainment of freedom. India helped Indonesia -in the attainment of freedom. Whenever any country started the movement for attaining independence, India always supported the cause.

6. Anti-Colonialism:
India stood for anti-colonialism. India is for stepping up fight against Colonialism. Speaking during a General Assembly debate on decolonisation on Nov. 23, 1982, India called for combating colonialism and its new manifestations like Namibia and Palestine with renewed vigour. On April 8, 1987, India asked the U.N. Security Council not to ‘shy away’ from its responsibility in getting Namibia freed from its illegal occupation bySouth Africa against whom it demanded comprehensive mandatory sanctions.

7. Criticism of Injustice-rand Aggression. Whenever any country committed aggression against any other country or did injustice to any other country, India always raised its voice against the aggressor. It criticised the aggressive designs of powerful nations. When Russia attacked Hungary; Britain and

France attacked Egypt and Britain attacked Cyprus, India criticised their actions without any hesitation. India condemned South Africa’s unprovoked and wanton aggression against Lesotho and acts of subversion and aggression against Angola. On Dec. 13, 1982 India called for the total isolation of South Africa to compel it to end its illegal occupation of Namibia as well as its terrorist activities against other countries in the region. India has always supported a measure on its merits and has always sided with truth. It had adopted the policy of neutrality.

8. Support of Disarmament:
India has also supported disarmament for lessening the possibility of wars. India is against the policy of performing nuclear experiments. In principle, India has stood for general and complete disarmament within the framework of the United Nations.
Addressing the General Assembly, Mr. Rajiv Gandhi, Prime Minister of India, asked nuclear powers to eliminate all nuclear weapons by the year 2010.

India proposed a Comprehensive Global Security System that would ensure “peaceful co-existence for a new, just, equitable and democratic world order.” On January 14, 1993 India signed along with other countries the Chemical Weapons Ban Treaty. After India conducted nuclear tests in May, 1998 United States and other countries urged India to sign CTBT (Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty) unconditionally. But India reiterated its stand that since the treaties are discriminatory, they are not acceptable to the nation without any change.

9. Admission of New States:
India tried her best for the admission of Communist China and Bangla Desh into the United Nations.

10. Against Racial Discrimination:
India has always spoken fearlessly against the racial discrimination to which the ‘Coloured people’ (as in South Africa) are being subjected by the ‘White’ ruling class. India was the first country to impose comprehensive voluntary sanctions against the apartheid regime of South Africa in 1946. India urged the United Nations to treat the problem of racial discrimination as a threat to international peace and security and carry out the responsibility enjoined by the Charter. Consequently, the United Nations adopted a number of resolutions calling upon the government of South Africa to end racial discrimination. In this way India has become the friend of the black people.

11. Protection of Human Rights:
India is a great supporter of human rights. India has always made great efforts that U.N. should adopt proper measures to safeguards the human rights.

12. India in Space Committee of U.N. India is a member of space committee of U.N. India has always made efforts that space should be used for world peace.

13. Restructuring the U.N. Security Council:
India has raised the question of restructuring the Security Council. Addressing the General Assembly on Sept. 26,1998 Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee proposed induction of fresh blood in the Security Council so as to make it more representative of the membership of the United Nations. The Prime Minister made a passionate plea that some developing countries should be made permanent members at par with the present members. Mr. Vajpayee also put India’s claims for a permanent seat in the Security Council.

The Secretary-General expressed appreciation of India’s role in furthering the efforts of the non-aligned movement for peace, security and development. Thus India has played a significant role in U.N.O.’s peace keeping role.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by United Nations?
Or
When did India become the member of the U.N.O.?
Answer:
United Nations Organisation is an international organisation which was established after Second World War on October 24,1945. India is the founder member of this organisation. The United Nations represents the second major effort in the twentieth century to achieve the goal of a better world through a general international organisation of the states. U.N.O. is an association of states and its primary objective is maintenance of international peace and security. At present 193 States are the members of the United Nations.

Question 2.
Write the main objectives of United Nations.
Or
Write the main objects of U.N.O. (United Nations Organisation.)
Answer:
The aims and purposes of the United Nations as laid down in Article 1 of the Charter are as follow:

1. To maintain international peace and security.
2. To develop friendly relations among nations.
3. To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural and humanitarian character and to promote respect for human rights and humanitarian freedoms.
4. To promote and encourage respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without any distinction of race, sex, language or region.

Question 3.
What role has India played in the United Nations in the maintenance of world peace?
Or
What role has India played in maintaining the world peace?
Answer:
The main aim of the United Nations is maintenance of international peace and security. India is a peace-loving country and India has played a very important role in the United Nations in maintaining world peace. India has given its full co¬operation to U.N. to settle international disputes such as:
1. Korean problems:
In 1950 North Korea attacked South Korea. India supported the resolution of the U.N. by which North Korea was declared the aggressor. To stop war U.N. sent forces of sixteen countries and India also participated. ,

2. Indo-China problems. Indian representatives headed the Commission appointed for the maintenance of peace in Indo-China.

3. Congo and Gaza crises. India helped U.N. to the maximum in ending theCivil War in Congo. India was substantially associated with the conversion of the United Nations’ operation in Congo from a non-military to a military force. Lt. General P. S. Gyani from India was the commander of the U.N. forces in Gaza.

4. Iran-Iraq War. India played a very important role in ending Iran-Iraq war.

Question 4.
What do you mean by United Nations? Write its main organs.
Or
When was United Nations formed? Write the names of its organs.
Answer:
Meaning of United Nation:
United Nations Organisation is an international organisation which was established after Second World War on October 24,1945. India is the founder member of this organisation. The United Nations represents the second major effort in the twentieth century to achieve the goal of a better world through a general international organisation of the states. U.N.O. is an association of states and its primary objective is maintenance of international peace and security. At present 193 States are the members of the United Nations.

Main organs of United Nations:
There are six organs of U.N-

1. General Assembly
2. Security Council
3. The Economic and Social Council
4. International Court of Justice
5. Trusteeship Council
6. The Secretariat.

Question 5.
What are the major organs of the United Nations?
Or
Write down names of the four organs of United Nations.
Answer:
There are six organs of the United Nations. The brief description of these organs is given below:
1. General Assembly:
General Assembly is the biggest organ of the U.N. and it consists of all the members of the U.N. At present 193 states are the members of the General Assembly. Mainly General Assembly is the deliberative body and it also approves the annual budget of the United Nations.

2. Security Council:
Security Council is mainly responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security. The Security Council is the executive body of the United Nations. At present it consists of fifteen members. Five big powers (England, U.S.A., France, Russia, China) are the permanent members of the Security Council and ten are the temporary members elected by the General Assembly for a period of two years.

3. Economic and Social Council:
Economic and Social Council consists of 54 members and they are elected by the General Assembly for a period of three years. This Council is mainly responsible for solving economic and social problems of the world.

4. Trusteeship Council:
Trusteeship Council is responsible for supervising the administration of trust territories. The Trusteeship Council consists of an equal number of administering and non-administering powers.

5. International Court of Justice:
It consists of fifteen judges who are elected by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for nine years. International Court of Justice decides the cases between the states.

6. Secretariat:
Secretariat comprises a Secretary General and such staff as the organisation may require. Secretary General is the Chief Administrative Officer of the Secretariat.

Question 6.
Write the names of five countries having veto power in U.N.O.
Or
Write down the names of four permanent members of the Security Council of United Nations.
Answer:
The Security Council of the U.N. consists of 15 members, five of which are permanent. The permanent members are- England, France, U.S.A., Russia and People’s Republic of China. Ten members are non-permanent or temporary. These non-permanent members are elected by the General Assembly for a period of two years. The permanent members of the Security Council enjoy the power of Veto. Veto power is a special power of permanent members by which they can affect the decisions of the Security Council.

Question 7.
Enumerate three main organs of the U.N which are considered to be as Legislature, Executive and Judiciary of the U.N.
Answer:
1. General Assembly:
General Assembly is the largest organ of the U.N. It can also be called world parliament, world panchayat or the legislature of the U.N. The General Assembly consists of all the members of U.N. All the deliberative functions are performed by it.

2. Security Council:
Security Council is the executive body of the U.N. consisting of 15 members, of which 5 members are permanent and 10 members are temporary. No decision can take place without the consensus of the Security Council.

3. It considers and approves the budget of U.N.O.

4. International Court of Justice:
It is the Judicial organ or the Judiciary of the U.N. It decides the disputes among different member-states of the U.N. It has 15 Judges.

Question 8.
Mention the main functions of the General Assembly.
Answer:
The General Assembly performs the following functions:

• The General Assembly can deal with all matters within the scope of the U.N. Charter.
• It considers and approves the budget of U.N.O.
• The General Assembly can call the attention of the Security Council to such situations which may endanger world peace.
• It is empowered to make suggestions for promoting international co-operation in economic, social, cultural and health fields.

Question 9.
Write the names of five countries having Veto Power in United Nations.
Answer:

1. U.S.A.
2. Russia,
3. China,
4. England
5. France.

Question 10.
Write important specialised Agencies of United Nations.
Answer:

• UNESCO
• World Health Organisation (W.H.O)
• International Labour Organisation (I.LO)
• Food and Agriculture Organisation (F.A.O).

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by United Nations?
Answer:
United Nations Organisation is an international organisation which was established after Second World War on October 24, 1945. India is the founder member of this organisation. U.N.O. is an association of states and its primary objective is maintenance of international peace and security. At present 193 States are the members of the United Nations.

Question 2.
Write two objectives of United Nations.
Answer:
The aims and purposes of the United Nations as laid down in Article 1 of the Charter are as follow:—
1. To maintain international peace and security.
2. To develop friendly relations among nations.

Question 3.
Write down the names of the principal organs of the United Nations.
Answer:
There are six organs of U.N.

1. General Assembly
2. Security Council
3. The Economic and Social Council
4. International Court of Justice
5. Trusteeship Council
6. The Secretariat.

Question 4.
Write the names of five countries having veto power in U.N.O.
Answer:
The Security Council of the U.N. consists of 15 members, five of which are permanent. The permanent members are-England, France, U.S.A., Russia and People’s Republic of China.

Question 5.
Mention two functions of the General Assembly.
Answer:
The General Assembly performs the following functions:

• The General Assembly can deal with all matters within the scope of the U.N. Charter.
• The General Assembly can call the attention of the Security Council to such situations which may endanger world peace.

Question 6.
When was United Nations Organisation formed? What is the number of its founder member countries?
Answer:
United Nations organisation was formed on 24th October, 1945. The number of its founder member countries was 51. India is the founder member of this organisation.

Question 7.
Write down the names of four specialised agencies of the U.N.O.
Answer:

1. UNESCO
2. World Health Organization (W.H.O.)
3. International Labour Organization (I.L.O.)
4. Food and Agriculture Organization (F.A.O.)

Question 8.
Write two organs of U.N.O. which are called respectively legislature and executive.
Answer:

1. Legislature – General Assembly.
2. Executive – Security Council.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Why was U.N.O. established?
Answer:
The United Nations Organisation was established to stop wars in the world and to promote international peace and security.

Question 2.
Give any one basic principle of the United Nations.
Answer:
A basic principle of the United Nations is to establish the United Nations on the basis of equity of nations.

Question 3.
Write down any one objective of establishing the United Nations.
Answer:
The main objective of the United Nations Organisation is to maintain international peace and security.

Question 4.
Write one important specialised Agency of the United Nations.
Answer:
International Labour Organisation (I.L.O.).

Question 5.
Write names of two organs of the United Nations.
Or
Write two main organs of the United Nations.
Answer:

• General Assembly
• Security Council.

Question 6.
When was the U.N. Declaration of Human Rights adopted?
Answer:
The U.N. Declaration of Human Rights was adopted on 10 December, 1948.

Question 7.
When was United Nations founded?
Or
When was United Nations established?
Answer:
United Nations was established on 24 October, 1945.

Question 8.
How are the temporary members of the Security Council elected? Answer: The temporary members of the Security Council are elected by the General Assembly.

Question 9.
Who is the present Secretary General of the United Nations Organisation?
Answer:
The present Secretary General of the United Nations is Shri Antonio Guterres.

Question 10.
When did India become member of the United Nations?
Answer:
India became member of the U.N.O. in 1945.

Fill in The Blanks

1. India is a founder member of ……………………..  .
Answer:
U.N.O.

2. U.N.O. was established in ……………………..  .
Answer:
1945

3. The U.N.O. has …………………….. principal organs.
Answer:
Six

4. Security Council of …………………….. U.N.O consists of members.
Answer:
15.

True Or False Statement

1. U.N.O was established after Second World War.
Answer:
True

2. All members of the U.N.O are sovereign state.
Answer:
True

3. The U.N.O has 10 principal organs.
Answer:
False.

4. Kofi Annan is a General Secretary of U.N.O.
Answer:
False.

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
India became the member of U.N.O. in:
(a) 1945
(b) 1947
(c) 1950
(d) 1960.
Answer:
(a) 1945

Question 2.
The number of nations which gathered at San Francisco to formulate U.N. Charter was:
(a) 51
(b) 49
(c) 50
(d) 52
Answer:
(a) 51

Question 3.
Who was the first Woman President of the U.N. General Assembly?
(a) Sarojini Naidu
(b) Aruna Asaf Ali
(c) Vijay Luxmi Pandit
(d) Raj Kumari Amrit Kaur.
Answer:
(c) Vijay Luxmi Pandit

Question 4.
Which one of the following is not a permanent member of U.N. Security Council?
(a) Russia
(b) India
(c) China
(d) France.
Answer:
(b) India

Question 5.
How many organs has U.N.O.?
(a) 5
(b) 6
(c) 7
(d) 8
Answer:
(b) 6

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 14 Foreign Policy of India-Determinants and Basic Principles Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 14 Foreign Policy of India-Determinants and Basic Principles

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the various determinants of India’s Foreign Policy.
Or
What do you mean by foreign Policy? Explain the main factors that determine India’s Foreign Policy.
Answer:
Meaning of Foreign Policy. Foreign policy is the set of principles and means adopted by a nation for defining, justifying and securing the objectives of national interests. According to Dr. Mohinder Kumar, “Foreign Policy is a thought out course of action for achieving objectives in foreign relations as dictated by the ideology of national interest.”
Norman Hill defines foreign policy “As the substance of Nation’s efforts to promote its interests vis-a-vis other nations.”

Factors determining India’s Foreign Policy:
A number of factors influence the foreign policy of a nation. India had to formulate its foreign policy after attaining freedom in 1947. The Directive Principles of State Policy have been described in the Constitution of free India and they are to be followed. Following are the principles related to foreign policy:
1. To contribute to international peace and security.

2. To establish just and respectable relations with various nations.

3. To create the feeling of devotion and trust in the nation for international laws and treaties.

4. To encourage the settlement of international disputes by arbitration. Indian leaders, even before attaining independence, started thinking about the principles which the Government of India would follow in its foreign policy after independence. Congress, in 1925, expounded the following four principles with regard to foreign policy:

• To oppose imperialistic and colonialistic Governments.
• To support people’s struggle for freedom and equality.
• To establish world-peace and to develop hatred for wars.
• To remain aloof from foreign groupism.

Free India has adopted that foreign policy which is based on national interest. Various factors given below have contributed in determining this policy:
1. Geographical Factors:
The geographical factors have contributed a lot in determining India’s foreign policy. India has enormous coastal dimensions- its length is about 3,500 miles. Any country dominating Indian Ocean can easily overpower Indian trade and can pose danger to India politically. The Britishers could rule over India by their sea-power only. So, strong naval forces are required for the security of India and efforts are being directed in this direction. But Indian naval forces will take a long time to be at par with the English, American and Russian naval forces. That is why India has friendly relations with Great Britain.

India shares its boundaries with Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bangla Desh and Myanmar. Some of the provinces of Kashmir State, though under Pakistan at present, have common boundaries with Afghanistan and Russia. China is situated in the north of India. The Himalayas are situated between India and China and they have performed the role of a watchman in the ancient and middle ages. Now the situation has undergone a change because of scientific inventions and production of war weapons. But Chinese aggression in 1962 disillusioned India. India had always tried to improve its relations with Communist China. Besides, India has followed the policy of non¬alignment to avoid strained relations with China.

The Communist and Western Blocs in international politics have tried to maintain friendly relations with India. India’s geographical situation is in the middle of Indian Ocean. It is equally connected with West Asia and South East Asia by sea route. It is not far from China and Russia situated in North. So under these circumstances, it is not safe for India to join either of the two Blocs. India’s policy of non-alignment, in fact is the result of these geographical factors.

2. Historical Background:
Every nation’s foreign policy is under the impact of its historical background. India’s foreign policy, too, is not devoid of this effect. India remained under the British rule for two hundred years and as a result it has more contacts with Great Britain as compared to other nations. After the Second World War and because of changed circumstances, the British themselves ended their rule. Both the countries are friendly with each other even today because of this background.

Historical background has played important role in Indo-Pak relations. Kashmir problem has not been solved so far because Pakistan claims its right over the majority of Muslims whereas Kashmir is an inseparable part of India. The welfare of both the nations lies in the policy of co-operation from geographical point of view, but their historical background embitters their relations.

India’s exploitation and slavery because of imperialism has influenced its foreign policy and how its main principle is to oppose imperialism and colonialism.

3. Economic Factors:
The economic factors of a developing country play a major role in shaping the foreign policy of a nation. Economic considerations influence the foreign policy of even advanced nations like the U.S.A., the Russia, Britain, France etc. India depends on advanced countries for scientific and technological assistance. India has trade links mainly with England and United States of America. India imports machinery and foodstuffs mainly from these countries. Enough of the capital of America and Britain has been invested in Indian factories. India’s foreign policy is favourably inclined towards western capitalistic states. India, during the last few years, has increased its trade relations with Russia also. As Pt. Jawahar Lai Nehru once remarked, “The foreign policy of a country is the outcome of her economic policy.”

(i) Population:
Population, too, affects foreign policy. The progress of a nation can be slack because of its over-population as it has to get assistance from other nations also. A big nation having over-population is weaker than a small nation with less population. We have to depend upon foreign countries for food-stuffs because of growing population. According to Morgenthau, “India’s foreign policy has weakened because of food crisis.”

The return of immigrants from South-East Africa, Sri Lanka, South East Asia and other countries added to India’s population problem which influences India’s foreign policy. The population of immigrants in India is less in proportion to its total population but their number is large in the countries accepting them. Because of this, various problems have arisen between natives and Indian immigrants.

(ii) Natural Resources:
The foreign policy of a nation is undoubtedly, affected by its natural resources. These natural resources play an important role in developing the industry and trade of that nation. America and Russia, because of their abundant natural resources, are self-dependent economically and possess huge military power. These natural resources hold an important place in India’s independent foreign policy.

The proper use of natural resources depends upon other co-factors such as capital, labour, organisation, new social set-up and values. Japan progressed sufficiently even in the absence of these factors and raw-material whereas Myanmar, with all these facilities, didn’t make a headway. The availability of natural resources for a long time properly influences the foreign policy of a nation.

(iii) Technology:
Every nation in the beginning has to depend upon foreign assistance or technology for economic development. For example America depended upon foreign monetary help or technology and Japan took assistance from other countries to strengthen itself. Similarly, Russia depended on foreign help to be an industrial nation. Russian capital made China prosperous after 1949. So India’s dependence on other countries for economic and industrial progress is not surprising but with the economic and industrial development, dependence on other countries lessened. India’s foreign policy will certainly be influenced by capitalistic and technologically prosperous countries as it becomes self-sufficient.

4. National Interest:
National interest has played a remarkable role in formulating foreign policy. On 4th Dec. 1947 while addressing Constituent Assembly, Pt. Nehru said, “Whatever policy you may lay down, the art of conducting the foreign affairs of a country lies in finding out what is most advantageous to the country. We talk about international goodwill and mean what we say but in the ultimate analysis, a Government functions for the good of the country; it governs and no Government dares to do anything which is disadvantageous to the country.
Therefore, whether a country is Imperialist or Socialist or Communist, its foreign minister thinks primarily in the interest of that country.”

Pt. Nehru based India’s foreign policy on non-alignment and establishment of world-peace and paved a way for economic and industrial development. Had India got involved in one of the two power Blocs, it wouldn’t have enjoyed economic help. Thus the policy of non-alignment was adopted, keeping in view the national interests.

India preferred to remain a member of Commonwealth of Nations for national advantage. For the safety of India’s sea boundaries and economic and trade development, it was essential to have relations with British Commonwealth. India, for national interest, indulged in certain activities which can’t be appreciated.

5. Impact of Ideology:
All ideology of a country leaves its deep impact on its foreign policy. The Congress, during national movement, presented various ideologies before the world in international spheres. Congress always favoured world peace, peaceful co-existence and strongly opposed imperialism and colonialism. Congress, on assuming office, had to formulate a foreign policy based on these ideals. Congress was under the impact of Gandhian ideals and principles and so India’s foreign policy was bound to be affected by Gandhism. India’s sympathies for Communist countries are attributed to the influence of Marxism. Pt. Nehru, the maker of India’s foreign policy, was under the impact of western democratic traditions. He liked the qualities of Western democracy and Communism and preferred to avoid their evils. So the policy of non-alignment was adopted.

6. National Struggle:
India’s national movement contributed a lot in the making of its foreign policy.

• Indians were determined not to make national movement a pawn in the hands of great powers.
• An awakening was created to play an important role in international politics inspite of remaining a non-aligned state.
• People were encouraged to oppose colonialism, socialism and colour discriminations
• People got inspired to participate in freedom struggle.

7. Personal Factors:
The foreign policy of India has been influenced by the individual trait of its great leaders. Pt. Nehru’s ideology has sufficiently affected India’s foreign policy. He was deadly against imperialism, colonialism, fascism and supported peaceful way of solving problems. He favoured friendly co-operation and peaceful co-existence but at the same time he supported the use of power against injustice.

Besides Pt. Nehru, the ideology of Dr. Radhakrishnan, Krishna Menon, Pannikar etc. left its impact on India’s foreign policy in relation with Chinese, in the beginning, was influenced by Pannikar’s personality. So India couldn’t properly judge the nature of its relations with China. As a result of the false reports given by Pannikar, India’s ambassador to China, Pt. Nehru remained in illusion and India faced defeat in Chinese aggression. But the events of 1962 gave realistic touch to India’s foreign policy. The basic as well as practical elements lying in India’s foreign policy were preserved during the regime of late Prime Ministers Shri Lai Bahadur Shastri, Mrs. Indira Gandhi, Mr. Rajiv Gandhi, P.V. Narasimha Rao, Mr. Atal Bihari Vajapyee and at present by Sh. Narinder Modi.

8. Promotion of World Peace:
One of the basic determinants of Indian Foreign policy is world peace. India has always formulated its foreign policy to promote world peace.

9. Principle of Non-alignment:
Principle of non-alignment has played a very important role in formulating foreign policy. India itself is a non-aligned country and so its foreign policy is also based on non-alignment.

Love for peace, toleration, friendly behaviour, co-operation, co- existence are the very pillars of our foreign policy even today but they are based on realism and practicality. Mere slogans for peace are futile-a strong nation with immense military force and capability are essential to give a true meaning to these slogAnswer: India is not interested in aggression and expansion, rather it needs strong military base for self-protection.

Question 2.
Describe main basic principles of the Foreign Policy of India.
Or
Write down any six features of India’s Foreign Policy. Explain.
Or
What do you mean by ‘Foreign Policy’? Write any four features of Indian Foreign Policy.
Or
What do you mean by ‘Foreign Policy’? Discuss the principles of ‘Non-Alignment’ and ‘Panchsheel’ under Indian Foreign Policy.
Answer:
Meaning of Foreign Policy:
Foreign policy is the set of principles and means adopted by a nation for defining, justifying and securing the objectives of national interests. According to Dr. Mohinder Kumar, “Foreign Policy is a thought out course of action for achieving objectives in foreign relations as dictated by the ideology of national interest.”
Norman Hill defines foreign policy “As the substance of Nation’s efforts to promote its interests vis-a-vis other nations.”

Factors determining India’s Foreign Policy:
A number of factors influence the foreign policy of a nation. India had to formulate its foreign policy after attaining freedom in 1947. The Directive Principles of State Policy have been described in the Constitution of free India and they are to be followed. Following are the principles related to foreign policy:
1. To contribute to international peace and security.

2. To establish just and respectable relations with various nations.

3. To create the feeling of devotion and trust in the nation for international laws and treaties.

4. To encourage the settlement of international disputes by arbitration. Indian leaders, even before attaining independence, started thinking about the principles which the Government of India would follow in its foreign policy after independence. Congress, in 1925, expounded the following four principles with regard to foreign policy:

• To oppose imperialistic and colonialistic Governments.
• To support people’s struggle for freedom and equality.
• To establish world-peace and to develop hatred for wars.
• To remain aloof from foreign groupism.

Free India has adopted that foreign policy which is based on national interest. Various factors given below have contributed in determining this policy:
1. Geographical Factors:
The geographical factors have contributed a lot in determining India’s foreign policy. India has enormous coastal dimensions- its length is about 3,500 miles. Any country dominating Indian Ocean can easily overpower Indian trade and can pose danger to India politically. The Britishers could rule over India by their sea-power only. So, strong naval forces are required for the security of India and efforts are being directed in this direction. But Indian naval forces will take a long time to be at par with the English, American and Russian naval forces. That is why India has friendly relations with Great Britain.

India shares its boundaries with Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bangla Desh and Myanmar. Some of the provinces of Kashmir State, though under Pakistan at present, have common boundaries with Afghanistan and Russia. China is situated in the north of India. The Himalayas are situated between India and China and they have performed the role of a watchman in the ancient and middle ages. Now the situation has undergone a change because of scientific inventions and production of war weapons. But Chinese aggression in 1962 disillusioned India. India had always tried to improve its relations with Communist China. Besides, India has followed the policy of non¬alignment to avoid strained relations with China.

The Communist and Western Blocs in international politics have tried to maintain friendly relations with India. India’s geographical situation is in the middle of Indian Ocean. It is equally connected with West Asia and South East Asia by sea route. It is not far from China and Russia situated in North. So under these circumstances, it is not safe for India to join either of the two Blocs. India’s policy of non-alignment, in fact is the result of these geographical factors.

2. Historical Background:
Every nation’s foreign policy is under the impact of its historical background. India’s foreign policy, too, is not devoid of this effect. India remained under the British rule for two hundred years and as a result it has more contacts with Great Britain as compared to other nations. After the Second World War and because of changed circumstances, the British themselves ended their rule. Both the countries are friendly with each other even today because of this background.

Historical background has played important role in Indo-Pak relations. Kashmir problem has not been solved so far because Pakistan claims its right over the majority of Muslims whereas Kashmir is an inseparable part of India. The welfare of both the nations lies in the policy of co-operation from geographical point of view, but their historical background embitters their relations.

India’s exploitation and slavery because of imperialism has influenced its foreign policy and how its main principle is to oppose imperialism and colonialism.

3. Economic Factors:
The economic factors of a developing country play a major role in shaping the foreign policy of a nation. Economic considerations influence the foreign policy of even advanced nations like the U.S.A., the Russia, Britain, France etc. India depends on advanced countries for scientific and technological assistance. India has trade links mainly with England and United States of America. India imports machinery and foodstuffs mainly from these countries. Enough of the capital of America and Britain has been invested in Indian factories. India’s foreign policy is favourably inclined towards western capitalistic states. India, during the last few years, has increased its trade relations with Russia also. As Pt. Jawahar Lai Nehru once remarked, “The foreign policy of a country is the outcome of her economic policy.”

(i) Population:
Population, too, affects foreign policy. The progress of a nation can be slack because of its over-population as it has to get assistance from other nations also. A big nation having over-population is weaker than a small nation with less population. We have to depend upon foreign countries for food-stuffs because of growing population. According to Morgenthau, “India’s foreign policy has weakened because of food crisis.”

The return of immigrants from South-East Africa, Sri Lanka, South East Asia and other countries added to India’s population problem which influences India’s foreign policy. The population of immigrants in India is less in proportion to its total population but their number is large in the countries accepting them. Because of this, various problems have arisen between natives and Indian immigrants.

(ii) Natural Resources:
The foreign policy of a nation is undoubtedly, affected by its natural resources. These natural resources play an important role in developing the industry and trade of that nation. America and Russia, because of their abundant natural resources, are self-dependent economically and possess huge military power. These natural resources hold an important place in India’s independent foreign policy.

The proper use of natural resources depends upon other co-factors such as capital, labour, organisation, new social set-up and values. Japan progressed sufficiently even in the absence of these factors and raw-material whereas Myanmar, with all these facilities, didn’t make a headway. The availability of natural resources for a long time properly influences the foreign policy of a nation.

(iii) Technology:
Every nation in the beginning has to depend upon foreign assistance or technology for economic development. For example America depended upon foreign monetary help or technology and Japan took assistance from other countries to strengthen itself. Similarly, Russia depended on foreign help to be an industrial nation. Russian capital made China prosperous after 1949. So India’s dependence on other countries for economic and industrial progress is not surprising but with the economic and industrial development, dependence on other countries lessened. India’s foreign policy will certainly be influenced by capitalistic and technologically prosperous countries as it becomes self-sufficient.

4. National Interest:
National interest has played a remarkable role in formulating foreign policy. On 4th Dec. 1947 while addressing Constituent Assembly, Pt. Nehru said, “Whatever policy you may lay down, the art of conducting the foreign affairs of a country lies in finding out what is most advantageous to the country. We talk about international goodwill and mean what we say but in the ultimate analysis, a Government functions for the good of the country; it governs and no Government dares to do anything which is disadvantageous to the country.
Therefore, whether a country is Imperialist or Socialist or Communist, its foreign minister thinks primarily in the interest of that country.”

Pt. Nehru based India’s foreign policy on non-alignment and establishment of world-peace and paved a way for economic and industrial development. Had India got involved in one of the two power Blocs, it wouldn’t have enjoyed economic help. Thus the policy of non-alignment was adopted, keeping in view the national interests.

India preferred to remain a member of Commonwealth of Nations for national advantage. For the safety of India’s sea boundaries and economic and trade development, it was essential to have relations with British Commonwealth. India, for national interest, indulged in certain activities which can’t be appreciated.

5. Impact of Ideology:
All ideology of a country leaves its deep impact on its foreign policy. The Congress, during national movement, presented various ideologies before the world in international spheres. Congress always favoured world peace, peaceful co-existence and strongly opposed imperialism and colonialism. Congress, on assuming office, had to formulate a foreign policy based on these ideals. Congress was under the impact of Gandhian ideals and principles and so India’s foreign policy was bound to be affected by Gandhism. India’s sympathies for Communist countries are attributed to the influence of Marxism. Pt. Nehru, the maker of India’s foreign policy, was under the impact of western democratic traditions. He liked the qualities of Western democracy and Communism and preferred to avoid their evils. So the policy of non-alignment was adopted.

6. National Struggle:
India’s national movement contributed a lot in the making of its foreign policy.

• Indians were determined not to make national movement a pawn in the hands of great powers.
• An awakening was created to play an important role in international politics inspite of remaining a non-aligned state.
• People were encouraged to oppose colonialism, socialism and colour discriminations
• People got inspired to participate in freedom struggle.

7. Personal Factors:
The foreign policy of India has been influenced by the individual trait of its great leaders. Pt. Nehru’s ideology has sufficiently affected India’s foreign policy. He was deadly against imperialism, colonialism, fascism and supported peaceful way of solving problems. He favoured friendly co-operation and peaceful co-existence but at the same time he supported the use of power against injustice.

Besides Pt. Nehru, the ideology of Dr. Radhakrishnan, Krishna Menon, Pannikar etc. left its impact on India’s foreign policy in relation with Chinese, in the beginning, was influenced by Pannikar’s personality. So India couldn’t properly judge the nature of its relations with China. As a result of the false reports given by Pannikar, India’s ambassador to China, Pt. Nehru remained in illusion and India faced defeat in Chinese aggression. But the events of 1962 gave realistic touch to India’s foreign policy. The basic as well as practical elements lying in India’s foreign policy were preserved during the regime of late Prime Ministers Shri Lai Bahadur Shastri, Mrs. Indira Gandhi, Mr. Rajiv Gandhi, P.V. Narasimha Rao, Mr. Atal Bihari Vajapyee and at present by Sh. Narinder Modi.

8. Promotion of World Peace:
One of the basic determinants of Indian Foreign policy is world peace. India has always formulated its foreign policy to promote world peace.

9. Principle of Non-alignment:
Principle of non-alignment has played a very important role in formulating foreign policy. India itself is a non-aligned country and so its foreign policy is also based on non-alignment.

Love for peace, toleration, friendly behaviour, co-operation, co- existence are the very pillars of our foreign policy even today but they are based on realism and practicality. Mere slogans for peace are futile-a strong nation with immense military force and capability are essential to give a true meaning to these slogAnswer: India is not interested in aggression and expansion, rather it needs strong military base for self-protection.

The basic elements of India’s foreign’s policy today are the same what they were previously. The only difference is that idealism was emphasised more in the age of Nehru whereas realism got the upper hand in Shastri-era. But a fine combination of idealism in India’s foreign policy was witnessed under the leadership of Mrs. Gandhi. Shri Morarji Desai, too, preferred to combine idealism and realism in India’s foreign policy. Also under the able leadership Mr. Atal Bihari Vajpayee, and at present Sh. Narender Modi, the same old principles are being emphasised.

Following are the features of India’s foreign policy:

1. The policy of non-alignment.
2. Opposition to imperialists and colonialists.
3. Opposition to the policy of caste, colour and discriminations etc.
4. Friendly relations with other States.
5. Unity of Afro-Asian countries to strengthen mutual economic and political relations.
6. Importance of the principles of United Nations,
7. India is not neutral in International Politics.
8. Panchsheel.
9. National consensus.

1. Non-Alignment:
The main characteristic of India’s foreign policy is non¬alignment. India itself is a non-aligned country and so its foreign policy is also based on non-alignment. In fact India was the first country which initiated the policy of non-alignment which was adopted by most of the countries of Asia and Africa which attained indepedence in the post World- War II period. Pt. Nehru said-as far as possible, we don’t want to associate with power groups which caused two World Wars which can take place in future also. India signed a friendship treaty with Russia in 1971 to make its relations all the more friendly. For this agreement, the critics started condemning India’s foreign policy.

Non-alignment doesn’t mean that India can’t have friendly relations with other countries. The Janata Government, after assuming office in 1977, stressed the policy of real non-alignment. Non alignment is still the best policy for India and in recognition of this fact there is no intention in official or non-official circles to deviate from it. Late Mrs. Gandhi’s foreign policy was truly based on non-alignment. Former Prime Ministers-Rajiv Gandhi, P.V. Narsimha Rao, H.D. Deve Gowda, I. K. Gujral, Atal Bihari Vajpayee followed the principles of non-alignment. At present Sh. Narender Modi is also following the policy of non-alignment.

2. Opposition to Imperialists and Colonialists:
Since India itself remained a victim of British imperialism it has always opposed imperialism and colonalism. India regards imperialism to be injurious to world peace as it leads to war. So Indian leaders by visiting other countries and delivering speeches in U.N. have tried to liberate slave countries from the clutches of imperialistic countries. India has always supported the national movements in the slave countries. Whenever imperialism tried to dominate, India strongly opposed it. When Holland, after the Second World-War, tried to overpower Indonesia, India protested against it.

When England and France attacked Egypt to capture Suez Canal in 1956, India sided with Egypt. In the same way India strived to liberate countries like Malaya, Algeria, Congo and Morocco. India strongly protested against United States of America when it tried to overpower Cuba.

3. Opposition to the policy of caste, colour, discrimination etc. Another basic principle of India’s foreign policy is that it has always raised its voice against the policy of caste and colour discriminations. India has always favoured the abolition of caste system and it has tried to remove caste- ridden policies from the world also. India has consistently raised the question of the treatment of the people of Indian origin in the Union of South Africa and severely condemned the policy of racial segregation followed by the government of South Africa. India also took up the cause of Negroes in United States and non-white population in Rhodesia.

4. Friendly relations with other States:
India is always ready to have friendly relations with other States of the world. India not only improved its friendly ties with Asian countries but with other countries of the world also.

5. Unification of Afro-Asian countries:
India tries to unify Asian and African countries to strengthen economic and political relations. India believes that these countries can unitedly oppose colonialism and create an atmosphere for the freedom of other Asian and African countries. The imperialistic and developed countries believe that Afro-Asian countries will depend upon them for economic and technical help and thus they will dominate them. But the united Afro-Asian countries can successfully face this challenge and safeguard their freedom.

6. Importance to the principles of United Nations:
Much importance has been attached to the principles of United Nations in India’s foreign policy. India has always strived to establish world peace by stopping wars. India has full faith in the capacity of the United Nations to settle the disputes. It was precisely out of this faith that India took the issue of Kashmir to the United Nations. India also extended full support to the United Nations in implementation of its decision by providing military and other personnel. During the Congolese conflict, India made available a large number of contingents to preserve peace in the region.

7. India is not neutral in international politics:
Non-alignment is the very basis of the India’s foreign policy but it doesn’t stand for India’s non¬participation in international politics. Since India has not joined any group, it adopts the policy of rational judgement. In the words of Pt. Nehru-“We can’t and won’t remain neutral when freedom is in danger, justice is challenged or invasion is in progress.”

India is partial neither to Russia nor to America. That is why India, like other non-aligned countries, blamed Soviet Union when Korean war took place and also held America responsible in Vietnam war.

8. Panchsheel:
Panchsheel is another important contribution of India to international politics. The principles became popular when an agreement on the issue of Tibet took place between India and China. Five principles were evolved to maintain friendly ties between the States. These five principles called ‘Panchsheel’ are as given below:

1. The nations should respect each other’s territorial unity and sovereignty.
2. No nation should attack another nation.
3. No nation should interfere in the internal affairs of another nation.
4. All the countries should have peaceful and harmonious co-existence. All the non-aligned countries, including India, participated in

Bandung conference in 1955 and India added five more points to the principles of Panchsheel:
1. To respect fundamental human rights.
2. To protect one’s self alone or collectively, India will retaliate against the attack of another country but won’t initiate war. India heroically faced Chinese attack in 1962 and fought bravely against Pakistan in 1965 and 1971.
3. All the agreements and treaties on the international level will be signed by India independently.
4. India will indulge in secret agreements for its own welfare.
5. India will peacefully settle disputes with different nations.

9. National Consensus:
India’s foreign policy is based on a national consensus. The consensus does not necessarily mean complete indentity of views on all matters but foreign policy issues have seldom been controversial during elections. This has been the case since the days of Jawaharlal Nehru, the prime builder to non-alignment. There have been no wide swings or radical changes in India’s foreign policy, though there has been a shift in emphasis, for instance, on close ties with the U.S.A. or Moscow.

The foreign policy of India under Rajiv Gandhi was based on the basic principles enunciated by Nehru and followed by Shasrti and Mrs. Gandhi. United Front government also followed the same basic principles. Present government is also following the same basic principles.

10. Faith in Disarmament:
India has full faith in disarmament. It means reduction or destruction of armament. India considers race for armaments as a grave threat to the world peace. For the realisation of this end, India has pleaded for disarmament within and outside the United Nations.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is meant by Foreign Policy?
Answer:
Foreign policy is the set of principles and means adopted by a nation for defining, justifying and securing the objectives of national interests. According to Dr. Mohinder Kumar, “Foreign Policy is a thought out course of action for achieving objectives in foreign relations as dictated by the ideology of national interest.” Norman Hill defines foreign policy as: “It is the substance of Nation’s efforts to promote its interests vis-a-vis- other nations.”

Question 2.
What is ‘Panchsheel’? Write the principles of Indian Panchsheel.
Or
What do you mean by Panchsheel?
Answer:
Panchsheel is another important contribution of India to international politics. The principles became popular when an agreement on the issue of Tibet took place between India and China. Five principles were evolved to maintain friendly ties between the two States. These five principles called ‘Panchsheel’ are as given below:

• Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
• Non-aggression.
• Non-intervention in each other’s domestic affairs.
• Mutual benefit and equality.
• Peaceful co-existeqce.

Question 3.
Describe any four determinants of India’s Foreign Policy.
Answer:
1. Geographical Factors:
The geographical factors have contributed a lot in determining India’s foreign policy. India shares its boundaries with Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bangla Desh and Myanmar. That is why India has always tried to maintain friendly relations with her neighbouring countries.

2. Economic Factors:
Economic factors have largely influenced the Indian policy. Population, national resources, technology etc. have played a remarkable role in determining foreign policy of India.

3. National Interest:
National interest has played a remarkable role in formulating foreign policy. The policy of non-alignment was adopted keeping in view the national interests. India preferred to remain a member of Commonwealth of Nations for national advantage.

4. Promotion of World Peace:
One of the basic determinants of Indian Foreign Policy is world peace. India has always formulated its foreign policy to promote World Peace.

Question 4.
What is the meaning of Non-Alignment?
Or
What do you understand by Non-Alignment?
Answer:
Pt. Nehru, the architect of India’s foreign policy, adopted non-alignment as its base. Following are the meanings derived from the policy of non-alignment.

• India has not joined any bloc nor will it join any group.
• The policy of non-alignment is an independent policy.
• Non-alignment is a policy of peacefulness.
• Non-alignment does not stand for isolationism.
• Non-alignment does not mean neutrality in international affairs. Our policy is that there should be active efforts for world peace and it should be given a firm foundation.

Question 5.
What is the role of geographical factors in determining the Indian foreign policy?
Or
Explain the geographical determinant of the Indian Foreign Policy.
Answer:
The geographical factor has played a very significant role in determining India’s foreign policy. India has enormous coastal dimensions-its length is about 3,500 miles. Strong naval forces are required for the security of India and efforts are being made in this direction. India has friendly relations with Great Britain. India shares its boundaries with Pakistan, China, Nepal and Burma (Myanmar). The Himalayas, situated between India and China, have performed the role of a watchman in the ancient and middle ages. India has always tried to improve its relations with Communist China, Pakistan, Bangla Desh, Nepal etc.

Question 6.
Explain the constitutional provisions with regard to India’s Foreign Policy.
Answer:
Article 51 of Chapter IV of the Indian Constitution lays down certain principles which are the bases of Indian Foreign Policy. Following are the constitutional bases of the Indian Foreign Policy-

• To promote international peace and security.
• To establish just and respectable relations with various nations.
• To foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of organised people with one another.
• To encourage the settlement of international disputes by arbitration.

Question 7.
What is meant by statement that India is opposed to Colonialism and Racialism?
Answer:
1. India has always opposed imperialism and colonialism. India regards colonialism to be injurious to world peace as it leads to war. India has always supported the national movement in the slave countries. India strived to liberate countries like Malaya, Algeria, Congo, Morocco etc.

2. India has always raised voice against the policy of caste, colour and discrimination. India has always condmned the policy of racial discrimination followed by South Africa on every platform. India has opposed the discrimination against the Negroes in America.

Question 8.
What is Indian Nuclear Policy?
Answer:
India has stood for general and complete disarmament within the framework of the United Nations. Addressing the General Assembly, Mr. Rajiv Gandhi, Prime Minister, asked nuclear powers to eliminate all nuclear weapons by the year 2010. India is the sixth country in the world enjoying atomic power by having undertaken a successful experiment in 1974. There are four atomic power centres working in India. But this power is being utilised for peaceful and creative purpose and not for making atomic bomb.

After India conducted nuclear tests in May, 1998 United States and other countries urged India to sign CTBT (Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty) unconditionally. But India reiterated its stand that since the treaty is discriminatory, they are not acceptable to the nation without any change.

Question 9.
Write any four characteristics of Indian Foreign Policy.
Or
Write any three basic principles of India’s Foreign Policy.
Answer:
1. Non-Alignment:
Non-alignment is the basic principle of India’s foreign policy. In fact, India was the first country which initiated the policy of non-alignment which was adopted by most of the countries of Asia and Africa which attained independence in the post world war-II period.

2. Opposition to the policy of Caste, Colour and Discrimination etc. Another basic principle of India’s foreign policy is that it has always raised voice against the policy of caste, colour and discrimination.

3. Opposition to Imperialism:
India has always opposed imperialism and colonialism. India regards imperialism to be injurious to world peace as it leads to war.

4. Faith in United Nations: India is a founding member of the United Nations and has full faith in the aims and principles of the United Nations.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is meant by Foreign Policy?
Answer:
Foreign policy is the set of principles and means adopted by a nation for defining, justifying and securing the objectives of national interests. According to Dr. Mohinder Kumar, “Foreign Policy is a thought out course of action for achieving objectives in foreign relations as dictated by the ideology of national interest.”

Question 2.
Write down the principles of Panchsheel.
Answer:
Following are the five principles of Panchsheel:

• Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
• Non-aggression.
• Non-intervention in another’s domestic affairs.
• Mutual benefit and equality.
• Peaceful co-existence.

Question 3.
Mention any two determinants of India’s Foreign Policy.
Answer:

1. Geographical Factors: The geographical factors have contributed a lot in determining India’s foreign policy.
2. Economic Factors: Economic factors have largely influenced the Indian policy. Population, national resources, technology etc. have played a remarkable role in determining foreign policy.

Question 4.
What is the meaning of Non-Alignment?
Answer:
Pt. Nehru, the architect of India’s foreign policy, adopted non-alignment as its base. Following are the meanings derived from the policy of non-alignment.

• India has not joined any bloc nor will it join any group.
• The policy of non-alignment is an independent policy

Question 5.
What is meant by statement that India is opposed to Colonialism and Racialism?
Answer:
1. India has always opposed imperialism and colonialism. India regards colonialism to be injurious to world peace as it leads to war. India has always supported the national movement in the slave countries. India strived to libterate countries like Malaya, Algeria, Congo, Morocco etc.

2. India has always raised voice against the policy of caste, colour and discrimination. India has always condmned the policy of racial discrimination followed by South Africa on every platform. India has opposed the discrimination against the Negroes in America.

Question 6.
Write any two characteristics of Indian Foreign Policy.
Answer:

• Non-Alignment. Non-alignment is the basic principle of India’s foreign policy.
• Opposition to the policy of Caste, Colour and Discrimination etc.

Another basic principle of India’s foreign policy is that it has always raised voice against the policy of caste, colour and discrimination.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by Foreign policy?
Answer:
Foreign policy is a group of those rules and principles through which a country establishes its relations with the other country.

Question 2.
In which Articles of the Indian Constitution the principles of foreign policy have been mentioned?
Answer:
In Art. 51 of the Directive Principles, the principles of foreign policy have been mentioned.

Question 3.
What are the main basic principles of the Indian foreign policy?
Answer:

• Non-alignment
• Protection of National Interests
• Opposition to the policy of Apartheid.

Question 4.
Who was the main architect of Indian Foreign Policy?
Answer:
Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru was the main architect of Indian foreign policy.

Question 5.
Mention the main feature of Indian Foreign Policy.
Answer:
The main feature of India’s foreign policy is Non-alignment.

Question 6.
What do you mean by Non-alignment?
Answer:
Non-alignment means not to join any group and to have free domestic and foreign policy. It means that India is free and has not joined any group.

Question 7.
Write down any two determining factors of India’s foreign policy.
Answer:

• Geographical position of India.
• History of Indian struggle for freedom.

Question 8.
What is the meaning of Panch-Sheel?
Answer:
Panch-Sheel is the group of those five principles which were mentioned in the Preamble of an Agreement between India and China in 1954.

Question 9.
Mention any one element of Panch-Sheel.
Answer:

• To honour territorial integrity and sovereignty of each other.
• Peaceful co-existence.

Question 10.
Write down any two objectives of the foreign policy of India.
Answer:

• To defend the territorial integrity.
• To maintain and encourage international peace and security.

Question 11.
Mention any two principles of India regarding establishment of relations with other countries of the world.
Answer:

• To promote international peace and security.
• To establish honourable and peaceful relations among nations of the world.

Fill in The Blanks

1. India became independent in …………………………  .
Answer:
1947

2. ………………………… is main important policy of Indian foreign policy.
Answer:
Non-aligned Movement

3. Baidung conference was held in …………………………  .
Answer:
1955

4. India made its first Nuclear test in …………………………
Answer:
1974

5. So far ………………………… summits have been completed of Non-aligned movement.
Answer:
17.

True Or False Statement

1. India is a peaceful country.
Answer:
True

2. India is an imperialist state.
Answer:
False

3. Economic factor effects the Indian foreign policy.
Answer:
True

4. Non-aligned Movement is a main feature of Indian foreign policy.
Answer:
True

5. India is a supporter of Panchsheel.
Answer:
True

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
The principles of Panchsheel were first propounded at international level between:
(a) India and China
(b) India and Pakistan
(c) India and Sri Lanka
(d) India and Japan.
Answer:
(a) India and China

Question 2.
‘The foreign policy of a country is the outcome of her economic policy.’ This remark was made by:
(a) Indira Gandhi
(b) Jawaharlal Nehru
(c) Morarji Desai
(d) Charan Singh.
Answer:
(b) Jawaharlal Nehru

Question 3.
Main principles of Indian Foreign Policy are:
(a) NAM
(b) Opposition to imperialism
(c) Support to UNO
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Question 4.
Which out of the following is not the feature of Indian Foreign Policy?
(a) Faith in the aims of UNO
(b) Support for disarmament
(c) Support for colour discrimination
(d) Non-Alignment.
Answer:
(c) Support for colour discrimination