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Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 2 Rural Society Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 2 Rural Society

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Rural society is deeply related with
(a) Nature
(b) Neighbourhood
(c) City
(d) Metro city
Answer:
(a) Nature

2. How much of the Indian population lives in villages and cities?
(a) 70% and 30%
(b) 32% and 68%
(c) 68% and 32%
(d) 25% and-75%
Answer:
(c) 68% and 32%

3. What is the main occupation of rural society?
(a) Industry
(b) Different occupations
(c) Technology
(d) Agriculture
Answer:
(d) Agriculture

4. In the Jajmani system, one who gives service is known as
(a) Jajman
(b) Praja
(c) Kammen
(d) One of these
Answer:
(c) Kammen

5. In the Jajmani system, one who takes service is known as
(a) Raja
(b) Jajman
(c) Praja
(d) Kammen
Answer:
(b) Jajman

6. Who said, “Real India lives in its villages.”?
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Sardar Patel
(c) B.R. Ambedkar
(d) Jawaharlal Nehru
Answer:
(a) Mahatma Gandhi

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Head of the village was known as ………………..
Answer:
Gramini

2. In 2011, around …………… crore people lived in villages.
Answer:
83.3

3. In …………… A.D., first book of rural people is …………….
Answer:
1916

4. Main occupation of the rural people is ……………
Answer:
agriculture

5. ……………. family exists in rural society.
Answer:
Joint

True/False:

1. Rural people mostly work in industries.
Answer:
False

2. Jajman takes the service.
Answer:
True

3. Green revolution started in 1956.
Answer:
False

4. Due to indebtedness, many farmers have committed suicide.
Answer:
True

5. Panchayat acts as the government of the village.
ATruenswer:

One Word/One Line Questions Answers :

Question 1.
How much of Indian population lives in villages?
Answer:
Around 68.84% of the Indian population lives in villages.

Question 2.
What are features of rural society given by Robert Redfield?
Answer:
Small size, distinctiveness, homogeneity, self-sufficiency.

Question 3.
How much of the rural population is engaged in agriculture or related occuptions?
Answer:
Around 75% of rural population is engaged in agriculture or related occupations.

Question 4.
How many people in 2011, lived in villages?
Answer:
In 2011, out of total population of 121 crore, around 83.3 crore people lived in villages.

Question 5.
What was the most important event in the history of rural sociology?
Answer:
The establishment of Country Life Commission in U.S.A. was the most important event in the history of rural sociology.

Question 6.
When and who published the first book of rural sociology?
Answer:
J.N. Gillettee in 1916 published the first book of rural sociology.

Question 7.
Name few of the important scholars related with rural sociology.
Answer:
S.C. Dubey, Oscar Lewis, M. N. Srinivas, Marroitt, Bailey, Gough, KL.Sharma, Andre Beteille etc.

Question 8.
How is rural population in comparison with urban society?
Answer:
Rural population is quite less in comparison with urban society.

Question 9.
What type of relations rural people have with each other?
Answer:
Rural people have quite close and face to face relations with each other.

Question 10.
Which type of family exists in rural society?
Answer:
Joint family exists in rural society.

Question 11.
What is joint family?
Answer:
That family whose three generations live under a common roof and they eat in a common kitchen.

Question 12.
Which type of marriage is available in rural society?
Answer:
Monogamy i.e. one male can marry with one female at a given time.

Question 13.
When did 73rd Constitutional Amendment take place?
Answer:
73rd Constitutional Amendment took place in 1992 A.D.

Question 14.
Which is the smallest political unit in rural areas?
Answer:
Panchayat is the smallest political unit in rural areas.

Question 15.
Name the three levels of Panchayat Raj System.
Answer:
Panchayat at village level, Block Samiti at block level and Zila Parishad at district level.

Question 16.
What are the major issues of rural areas?
Answer:
The problem of indebtedness and impacts of green revolution.

Question 17.
What is indebtedness?
Answer:
When one person takes loan from another on interest to do any work it is known as indebtedness.

Question 18.
What is meant by HYV Seeds?
Answer:
HYV seeds are High Yielding Variety Seeds.

Question 19.
Who is known as the father of green, revolution in India?
Answer:
Prof. Swaminathan is known as the father of green revolution in India.

Question 20.
What is the full form of IADP?
Answer:
Intensive Agriculture District Programme..

Question 21.
When was green revolution started?
Answer:
Green revolution started in 1966.

Question 22.
Name few important elements of green revolution.
Answer:
HYV seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, machines, new means of irrigation etc.

Question 23.
Give one feature of Rural society.
Answer:
Rural society is small in size and social uniformity is there in it.

Question 24.
What according to Pannikar is the strong base of Indian social system?
Answer:
According to pannikar, caste system, rural life and joint family system are the bases of Indian social system. .

Question 25.
Who are known for their deceiveness in rural areas?
Answer:
Money lenders are known for their deceiveness in rural areas.

Question 26.
Give one result of Indebtness.
Answer:
A peasant comes under debt trap and finally money lender captures his land.

Question 27.
The production of which crops was increased with Green Revolution in Punjab?
Answer:
The production of Wheat and Rice was increased with Green Revolution in Punjab.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1. Rural Society.
Answer: Rural society is the society which lives quite close to nature, whose people’s main occupation is agriculture, where people have close relation with homogeneity, who live in a particular geographical area and are self-dependent in all aspects.

Question 2.
Two features of rural society.
Answer:

• Rural society is small in size in comparison with urban society and their population is quite less.
• People living in rural areas have close relations with each other.

Question 3.
Caste Panchayat.
Answer:
During earlier times, there existed caste system and each caste had its own panchayat which solved its problems. This caste panchayat had all the powers of giving justice and to impose fine.

Question 4.
Joint family.
Answer:
Joint family is a type of family in which people of three generations live under one roof, eat in a common kitchen and all the members have equal rights on the property of family.

Question 5.
Panchayat.
Answer:
At village level, a local self-govt, is established.which is known as Panchayat. Its members are elected by the village gram sabha and panchayat is elected for five years. Panchayat is responsible for the development of village.

Question 6.
Endogamy.
Answer:
When an individual needs to marry within a particular group, it is known as endogamy. According to ancient rules, an individual was required to marry within his caste or sub-caste or he was thrown out of caste.

Question 7.
Exogamy.
Answer:
When a person needs to marry out of a particular group it is called exogamy. According to this rule, one needs to marry out of his family, kinship, gotra, etc. as they all are his blood relatives.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Rural Society.
Answer:
Rural society is that area where technology is scarcely used, primary relations are very important, small in size and where most of the population depends upon agriculture. In this way rural community is that community which lives at a definite place, which is small in size, which has very close relations in its members and primary relations exist in it. People know each other very well and the main occupation of the people is either agriculture or agriculture-related occupation.

Question 2.
Two definitions of Rural Society.
Answer:
1. According to R.N. Mukherji, “A village is that community which is characterized by relative homogeneity, informality, prominence of primary groups, lesser density of population and agriculture as the main occupation.”

2. According to Peake, “The village community consists of a group of the related or unrelated persons larger than a single or unrelated persons, larger than a single family occupying a large house or a number of dwellings placed closed together, sometimes irregularly, sometimes in a street and cultivating originally in common a number of fields, dividing the available meadow land between them and pasturing their cattle upon surrounding waste land over which the community claims right as far as the boundaries of the adjacent community.”

Question 3.
Rural Society—Main occupation Agriculture.
Answer:
The main occupation of the tribal society is either agriculture or any of the related work because they are very much closely related with nature. Because they are closely related with nature, that’s why their views towards life are very much different. Yet many other occupations, like carpenter, blacksmith etc, are there in villages but they also make tools related with agriculture. Land is considered as a very important thing in tribal society and people like to live here because their life depends upon the land. Even the economic system and development of people and villages depend upon agriculture.

Question 4.
Rural Society—Scarcity of population and Homogeneity.
Answer:
Population of villages is very less as compared to urban areas. People are living in small groups and very much away from each other and these groups are known as villages. There are very less occupations in rural areas except agriculture because of which people like to go to cities to earn money and that’s why population in villages is very less. People have close relations with each other and their views are also same due to same occupation of agriculture. Customs, rituals, traditions etc. of rural people are common and there is hardly any. difference in their economic, moral and religious life. People in village are coming to live from far off places but they are the original inhabitants of villages or are living in the nearby areas. That? is why people have homogeneity among themselves.

Question 5.
Rural Society-Importance of Neighbourhood.-
Answer:
Neighbourhood has great importance in rural society. Main occupation of the people is agriculture in which they get enough pleasure time. This occupation hardly needs much time. That’s why people meet each other, talk with each other and co-operate with each other. People have very close relations with their neighbours. Neighbours generally are of same caste because of which their status is also same. People generally like to give respect to their neighbour. They come to help very quickly in each other’s problems. That’s why neighbourhood is of great importance in rural society.

Question 6.
Rural Family and Control of Family.
Answer:
Person is in complete control of the family in rural societies. Generally patriarchal families are there in the villages and every type of decision of the family is being taken by the head of the family. Division of labour in villages is being done on the basis of sex. Males are either doing agriculture or are going out of the house to earn some money and females are taking care of the house by living in the house. A joint family system is there in villages and a person adopts the traditional occupation of the family. Every member of the family works with each other and that’s why they have community feeling in them. Family is known as primary group. Younger ones like to give respect to elders. They have a great sense of co-operation due to same occupation. All the members of the family take part in all the festivals and religious activities. Person always takes the advice of the family before doing anything. In this way the family has complete control over its members.

Question 7.
Rural Society and closeness with Nature.
Answer:
Because the rural people live away from the artificial atmosphere, that’s why these people are very much close to nature. Their main occupation is agriculture and that’s why they are directly related with nature. Their life also depends upon nature. They worship Sun God, Varun, Indra etc. These people are very much afraid of natural forces like rain, flood, earthquake etc. because their agriculture depends upon these things. These forces can destroy their hard work of the whole year. That’s why these people are traditional and their outlook is also limited.

Question 8.
Rural Society—Lower Status of Women.
Answer:
Status of women is very low in villages because females are limited only to household functions. The division of labor in villages in ancient time was based on sex. Females were doing household work and males were doing work out of the house. Yet the time is changing and people are sending their girls to schools but still their point of view towards women is the same.

Question 9.
Changes which are coming in Rural Society.
Answer:

• Differences in urban and rural societies are decreasing.
• Changes in the structure of agriculture and commercialization of agriculture.
• Decreasing effect of religion.
• Effect of technology has been increased.
• Dependence on nature of farmers has been decreased.
• Level of education is increasing.

Question 10.
Rural Society—Decreasing impact of Religion.
Answer:
Rural people were under great impact of religion in ancient times. Every type of agricultural activity was under the influence of religion but now this thing remains no more. In earlier times, trees, birds and animals were considered as sacred but now this has been reduced. Many changes have come in the religious beliefs, customs, traditions etc. of rural people. New generation hardly accepts these things. Daily life, in today’s technological age, is moving away from the influence of temples and gurudwaras.

Question 11.
Rural Family.
Or
Joint Family.
Answer:
Rural families are generally patriarchal and joint families. Father has the complete authority in rural family and all the members of rural family live in one house. Due to living in one house they make food in one kitchen and community feeling is too much. In this way joint families are there in rural societies in which members of many generations are living. These are large in size and every one has equal right over the property.

Question 12.
Rural Family—Patriarchal Family.
Or
More powers of father in Rural Family.
Answer:
More powers of father. Father has more powers in rural family. Father is wholly incharge of the family. Many functions of the family are there which are being done by father with his will, like division of labour on the basis of sex and age, marriage of children, taking care of income and house etc. Father has so much influence on the family that not even a single member can speak against him. Rural family is exactly opposite to the Urban family where every member of the family has its own importance.

Question 13.
Characteristics of Rural Family.
Or
Write four features of Joint Family.
Answer:

• Rural families are quite large in size.
• Rural families depend upon agriculture.
• More community feeling or unity is there in rural families.
• More interdependence and discipline are there in rural families.
• Father has more rights in it.
• The person has more participation in family functions.
• Such families have a common kitchen, house etc. and they share family property within themselves.

Question 14.
Rural Familism.
Answer:
Family is a very important unit in the rural social structure. Every type of institution, which prevails in villages, is greatly influenced by rural families. That’s why the family has more importance in rural society as compared to an individual. It is known as Familism. When the whole family is given importance as compared to one or two persons then it is known as familism. Some sociologists are of the view that in agriculturalist societies, social and political organizations has the features of the family because family is the basic and most important unit in rural society. Influence of familial traits over social organizations of rural society are made according to the political organization is known as Familism.

Question 15.
Rural Marriage.
Answer:
Marriage, in rural society, is not a contract but is considered a religious sacrament. Marriage, in villages, is being done in the traditional way and with complete rituals and customs. Gods and Goddesses are worshiped before marriage. Boy takes his Baraat to girl’s house and many rituals and customs are being performed related with marriage, with this marriage are completed. Yet these customs and rituals are decreasing in urban areas but rural societies are used to performing marriage with all customs and rituals. We can’t see the great pomp and show of cities in rural marriage but it is performed with complete traditions.

Question 16.
Rural Marriage is a Religious Sacrament.
Answer:
Marriage is considered a religious sacrament in rural society because its aim is religious. It has been written in religious books that a person will do marriage to make his house, to produce children, for the continuation of society, and to pay his debts. A person can pay his debts only by doing marriage and by producing children. Person in rural society has to go through many rituals from birth till death. That’s why it is considered a religious sacrament.

Question 17.
Arranged Marriage.
Answer:
Marriage in rural societies is not a relation of one male and female but is considered as the relation of two families, groups or two villages. That’s why parents play an important role in finding a mate for their children. Enough importance is given to the size, status, kinship and economic position of the family while selecting the mate of the child. With this, the personal traits of would-be mate are also given enough importance. If the child has any personal problem then it would be very difficult to find his/her mate. Parents are doing marriage of their child and they always try to do marriage with great pomp and show.

Question 18.
Rules of Mate Selection in Rural Areas.
Answer:
Kapadia has given three rules of mate selection in rural areas and these are as follows :

• The field of selection
• Parties for selection
• Criteria of selection.

Question 19.
Village Exogamy.
Answer:
According to the rule of village exogamy members of one village cannot marry each other. A person has to marry out of his village. It is considered that all the citizens of a village are the children of one parent. Citizens of one village are considered as the relatives of each other. We can listen commonly in the villages of Punjab that sister or daughter of village is the sister or daughter of every one. That’s why a person has to marry out of his village. It is“known as village exogamy.

Question 20.
Dowry.
Answer:
Dowry. People are giving dowry to their girl at the time of marriage and this process is going on from the ancient times. At the time of marriage, parents are giving some gifts to the bridegroom and his relatives while sending their daughter to the boy’s house. These gifts are known as dowries. Every family gives dowry according to their economic status and according to the social status of the family of the bridegroom. If the economic status of the family is good then they give good dowry but if the economic status of the family is weak then they give less dowry. This custom is in great demand in modern times and it prevails equally in the whole of Indian society.

Question 21.
Rural Economy.
Answer:
The rural economy is based upon agriculture and agriculture is being done on land. That’s why land is of great importance in rural society and the rural economy. Around 70% population of our country is engaged in the occupation of either agriculture or any other agriculture-related occupation. Yet there are certain other occupations in the rural economy but agriculture is of great importance. People produce things by cultivating the land. Methods of production are still ancient. Yet farmers, in many parts of the country, are using modern technology and machines to do agriculture but still, most parts of the country are using old means of agriculture.

Question 22.
Indebtedness.
Answer:
Another important feature of the economy of Indian rural society is the indebtedness of farmers. There are many reasons behind the indebtedness of farmers. Rural families are large in size. Yet their income is less but their expenditure is more due to large family. They have to take loans on interest from money lenders to meet their needs because of which they come into the circle of indebtedness. Expenditure of agriculture has been increased to a great extent these days like rates of seeds and fertilizers have been increased, spending on diesel for pumps of irrigation due to unavailability of electricity. More expenditure on agriculture due to less rain, bad quality of production forces them to sell their produce at rates less than the minimum support price, etc. Due to these factors, farmers are unable to meet their expenditure on cultivation. That’s why they have to take loans either from banks or from money lenders. They are unable to repay their loans due to more rate of interest and slowly and slowly they come under the trap of indebtedness.

Question 23.
Jajmani System.
Answer:
The entire rural economy in the Jajmani system revolves around agriculture and farmer. Farmer has the most important place in rural economy and other castes have many related functions of agriculture. Farmer prepares the land for agriculture but other castes give their services for the completion of the whole agricultural process and they take their part from the produce of that land. The blacksmith makes the related tools of agriculture and cobler makes shoes for the farmer. The main feature of the Jajmani system is that human needs of life are fulfilled only at the local level. In this way rural economy moves in a proper way with the Jajmani system.

Question 24.
Characteristics of Rural Economy.
Answer:

• The main occupation of people in tribal economy is agriculture and life of the people depends upon this.
• Production in rural economy is being done through agriculture and the means of production are still old.
• The land is the base of every type of relation in rural economy and the farmer is the owner of the land.
• More population is there in rural areas because of which pressure on land increases for more production.
• There is a great problem of indebtedness in rural economy and farmers are always in debt of money lenders.

Question 25.
Reasons of Indebtedness in Rural Society.
Answer:

• Means of income of farmers are temporary because of which they have to take loans if any need arises.
• The population of the family of a farmer is more but income is limited because of which they have to take loan.
• Farmers have the habit to show off because of which they spend more than they need. That’s why they have to take a loan for that.
• The loan is easily available for farmers from money lenders because of which they get encouragement to take loans.
• Money lenders never let any farmer to go out of its clutches. That’s why they are rounded in this cycle of indebtedness.

Question 26.
Zamindari System.
Answer:
Zamindari system was started in the rural society of our country after the advent of Britishers. Under this system, one person or zamindar was the owner of a very big piece of land. He himself was not doing anything and was living a very luxurious life. But he used to give his land to marginal farmers for cultivation. Some portion of the production was given to the marginal farmers. In this way, he was getting a lot of money without doing anything and was living a luxurious life. This system was abolished after independence.

Question 27.
Tenancy reforms.
Answer:
Tenancy reforms. The main aims of reforms related to tenants in five-year plans were

• Security of laborers
• to decrease rent
• ownership of tenants. Even after the abolition of the zamindari system, labor was going on in large areas of the land. That’s why many steps were taken by governments of different states like the security of laborers and co-determine proper rent of land with which laborers came in direct contact with the state. These reforms were revived in the meetings of Chief Ministers in Nov. 1969 and Sept. 1970 and it was decided that more steps should be taken by the government for the improvement of position of labourers.

Question 28.
Panchayati Raj Institution.
Answer:
There are two ways for the development of the local areas in our country. Local governments are there for the development of urban areas and Panchayati Raj institutions are there for the development of rural areas. 70 % of the total population in our country lives in rural countries. That’s why the institutions which have been made for the development of rural areas are known as Panchayati Raj Institutions. It has three levels. Panchayat is there for the development at village level, Block Samiti is there for the development at block level and Zila Parishad is there for the development at district level. Its members are nominated as well as elected.

Question 29.
Gram Sabha.
Answer:
All the adult persons of the total population, of the village, are the members of Gram Sabha and it is the complete unit of the whole population of the village. This is the basic unit on which the whole structure of our democracy rests. Grain Sabha can be made in that village whose population is more than 250. If the population of one village is less than 250 then two villages can jointly make the Gram Sabha. Every adult of the village is a member of Gram Sabha, who has the right to vote. There is one chairman and some members of every Gram Sabha. It is elected for 5 years.

Question 30.
Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
Every Gram Sabha elects one Gram Panchayat from its area. In this way, Gram Sabha is an executive institution that elects members for the Gram Panchayat. It has one Sarpanch and 5-13 panches. There are certain places in panchayats that are reserved for backward classes and females. It is generally elected for 5 years but the state government can dissolve them even before 5 years if it will try to misuse its power. Government officials and mentally ill persons cannot fight the elections. Gram Panchayat solves the problems of the village and develops many things like industries, agriculture, cleanliness, means of recreation, and means of transport.

Question 31.
Functions of Panchayat.
Answer:

• The first function of Gram Panchayat is to uplift the social and economic life of the people.
• Village panchayat tries to open schools in the village and motivates the people to send their children to schools.
• Gram Panchayat also arranges for the means of a recreation like films, festivals and opening up of library in the village.
• Panchayat tells the people about new techniques of agriculture and it arranges for new seeds and developed fertilizers.
• For the industrial development of the village, it also tries to establish any industry in the village.

Question 32.
Nyaya Panchayat.
Answer:
Nature of two persons is not same. That’s why problems are arising among them. In this way problems between villagers are arising and they fight with each other. Nyaya Panchayat stops and solves these problems. One Nyaya Panchayat is generally formed for 5-10 Gram Sabhas. Its members are elected and Sarpanch makes one committee of 5 members. They have the right to ask questions to Panchayat.

Question 33.
Panchayat Samiti or Block Samiti.
Answer:
Panchayats coming under one block are the members of Panchayat Samiti and Sarpanches of these Panchayats are the members of Panchayat Samiti. Members of Panchayat Samiti are also elected. Panchayat Samiti takes care of the functions of the Panchayats which-are coming in its area. It checks the developmental functions of the village and directs the Panchayat for the welfare of the village. It is the second level of Panchayati Raj.

Question 34.
Zila Parishad.
Answer:
The highest level of Panchayati Raj is Zila Parishad which takes care of the functions of the Panchayats which are coming in the district. It is an executive institution. Chairman of Panchayat Samiti, elected members, members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and Legislative Assemblies are the members of Zila Parishad. All these take care of the developmental functions done in the villages of the district. Zila Parishad does many functions like improvement of agriculture, improvement of land, irrigation, rural electrification, arrangement of seeds and fertilizers, education, industries, etc.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Rural Family? Explain its characteristics.
Answer:
Family keeps a very important place in rural social structure because family is of great importance in agriculturist societies. Generally, we can see many forms of families in villages but a joint family is that family which exists in all the rural societies. We can find Patriarchal joint families in every part of India. That’s why now we will discuss the joint family in rural society.

A joint family is a group in which members of many generations live with each other. It means that grand father-grand mother, mother-father, uncle-aunt, their children, wives of boys, and unmarried children live in one place.

According to Karve, “A joint family is a group of persons who generally live under one roof, who eat and cook at one hearth, who hold property in common and who participate in common worship and are related to each other as some particular type of kindred.”According to I.P. Desai, “We call that household joint family which has greater generation depth than the nuclear family and the members of which are related to one another by property, income and mutual rights and obligations.” So after looking at these definitions we can give some of the features of a joint family and these are :

1. They are large in size.
2. Members of this family have a sense of co-operation.
3. Property in the family is common to all.
4. All the members of the family live at one commonplace.
5. All the economic, social, and cultural activities of the members are common in the family.

Desai was of the view that those societies, where occupations related to agriculture are more in number, have a patriarchal joint family. The joint family acts as an economic property in agricultural societies. Patriarchal rural joint family has many functional, psychological, political aspects which differentiate it from the urban family system. So from this description, it is clear that the generally patriarchal joint family exists in rural society. Characteristics of this type of family are given below : Characteristics of Rural Family

1. Large in size
2. Dependency upon agriculture
3. More unity
4. More inter-dependency and discipline
5. More proudness of family
6. More powers of the father
7. More participation in household affairs.

Now we will explain them in detail.

1. Large in size: The first characteristic of rural family is that it is large in size because members of many generations live at one place. The increasing population of our country is responsible for its large size. Even at some places its members reach the number of 60-70. But generally one simple rural family has 6-15 members and that’s why it is large in size.

2. Dependency upon agriculture: The main occupation of the rural people is agriculture because of which all the members of rural family are engaged in agricultural activities. For example, ploughing is done by any one and any one else brings fodder for cattle. Females of the rural family work in fields because of which rural family is different from urban family. Many females give their help to the husbands in fields and work to fill the gap of labourer. Even females living at houses don’t have any leisure time. They give fodder and water to cattle. Their ideas, thinking etc. become the same because they work with each other in fields.

3. More unity: One of the important features of rural family is that it has more unity. Rural families have more unity as compared to urban families. Like husband- wife, grand father-grand son, parents have more emotional relations. If we look at the rural areas then we will come to know that rural people like to live in groups and their unity can be seen at the time of function of the family. All the members of rural family have same feelings, views, wishes, activities. They do same type of works and think in the same way. Importance of personal life is less as compared to the family. All the members live their fives according to the ideals and traditions of the family.

4. More inter-dependency and discipline: Members of rural family depend more upon each other as compared to urban families. Humans in urban areas fulfil their needs out of the family. But the economic, social, psychological, religious needs of humans are fulfilled only in the family. It is so because except family, no other means can fulfil human needs in villages and person alone cannot fulfil all of his needs. For example, no boy or girl in village can marry itself but family arranges for their marriage. Because of this more dependency family and elders have full control on their members. Younger members of the family never say no to elders for any work.

5. More proudness of family: Another important feature of the rural family is the more proudness of family. Because members of the family are interdependent and united that’s why family takes the form of a unit in which family has more importance than the member. In simple words family has more importance in rural areas than any individual member. Any work done by the member can become the proudness or black spot of the family. It is expected from every member of the family that he should maintain respect of the family. We can see example of proudness of the family that sometimes two families start fighting with each other for the respect of the family.

6. More powers of father: The father has more powers in rural family. Father is the wholly incharge of the family. Many functions of the family are there which are being done by father with his will, like division of labour on the basis of sex and age, marriage of chifdren, taking care of income and house etc. Father has so much influence on the family that not even a single member can speak against him. Rural family is exactly opposite to the urban family where every member of the family has its own importance.

7. More participation in household affairs: Another important feature of the rural family is that all the members of family greatly participate in household affairs. Members spend more time with each other due to same occupation and that’s why members of the family take part in every activity of the house: They work together in fields during day time and at home during night and that’s why they are very close to each other.

Except for these characteristics, rural families have many other characteristics like :

1. Importance of religion
2. Lower status of women
3. Worship of ancestors
4. Dominance of joint family

In this way many characteristics of rural family are given.

Question 2.
What do you know about Rural Familism? Explain it.
Answer:
Family is a very important unit in the rural social structure. Every type of institution, which prevails in villages, is greatly influenced by rural family. That’s why family has more importance in rural society as compared to an individual. It is known as Familism. When the whole family is given importance as compared to one or two persons then it is known as familism. Some sociologists are of the view that in agriculturalist societies, social and political organizations has the features of the family because family is the basic and most important unit in rural society. Influence of familial traits over social organizations feel of rural society are made according to the and political organization is known as Familism.

According to Sorokin, “Because family is the basic social institution in rural society, that’s why it is naturally expected that feature of rural family and social institutions should have influence over agricultural groups. In other words it forms the basic social relations of all the rural familial relations. Word Familism is used for these social organizations.”
In this way when political and social institutions of the village are under the influence of religion then it is known as Familism. Familism has many features which are given below :

1. Family—in the form of an ideal. Family is considered as an ideal in the society. Family has some moral measurements, religious beliefs, social concept and if any one tries to break them or tries to destabilize the family then he is being criticised by others.

2. Family—a unit of social responsibility. Family is the basic unit of any rural society. That’s why it takes all the responsibilities and pays tax collectively. Any person in the village is known by his family. No one is known personally in the family.

3. Effect of family on political institutions. Forms of political institutions in agriculturalist societies are just like a rural family. Relation of ruler and general masses is just like as the relation of head of the family with other members of the family. Head of the family is the representative of the family in the political activities of the village. Even members give their vote to that party where head of the family says so.

4. Relations of co-operation. Relations in unban societies are not full of co-operation but are contractual. Person can disconnect his relation after the completion of his work. But relations in agriculturalist societies or in rural societies are not contractual but are full of co-operation, love and sympathy. Co-operative relations come forward due to living and working with each other by believing in same views and beliefs and with unity and integrity of the family.

5. Family—A unit of production, consumption and exchange. Economic system of rural society also has the features of rural family. Production and consumption is being done in the family. It means that production, in the family, is being done according to the needs of the family and family consumes that production. Exchange in villages is being done is a very simple way. People exchange things instead of exchange of money and things. Family is also the base of the exchange.

6. Many customs. All the process of rural life in agriculturalist societies moves around the customs of the family. Customs related to every aspect of life exists in rural society and they always affect every aspect of the life of the person.

7. Dominance of ancestral worship. Religion is of great importance in rural society. All the members of the family have to obey the customs and traditions of the family. Worship of ancestors is a very important part of rural society. People worship their ancestors with the worship of gods and godesses. In this way family has its own features in those societies where familism has its dominance.

Question 3.
What is Rural marriage? Explain its features.
Or
Explain the marriage system in rural society.
Answer:
Generally marriage is considered as necessary for every one because marriage is necessary for the continuation of the society. Children without marriage are not sanctioned by society and are considered as illegal. It is quite important in agricultural societies. Marriage of children is considered as necessary in rural society. Girl child is generally considered as burden on the parents. That’s why marriage of girl child is being done at very early age. In this way marriage is the relation between male and female whose aims are to make family, establish house, produce children and continuation of the society.

Marriage is the very important stage in human life. Indian society is basically a rural society because of which marriage is considered as a family affair. Two families make relations with each other with their help and boy and girl also make relations with each other. Marriage out of the clan and marriage within the caste is considered as necessary in rural society. We can come to know about the status of two families with marriage.

Marriage, in rural society, is not a contract but is instead considered as a religious sacrament. Marriage, in villages, is being done in traditional way and with complete > rituals and customs. Gods and Goddess are worshiped before marriage. Boy takes his Baraat to girls’ house and many rituals and customs are being performed related with marriage. With this marriage is completed. Yet these customs and rituals are decreasing in urban areas but rural societies used to perform marriage with all customs and rituals. We can’t see the great pomp and show of cities in rural marriage but it is being performed with complete traditions.

In this way whichever marriage, in rural society, is being performed with all , religious sacraments, customs, traditions etc. then it is known as rural marriage. With this marriage, not only religious customs are performed but the aims of marriage i.e. sexual satisfaction and procreation of children etc. are also fulfilled.

Characteristics of Rural Marriage:

1. Religious sacrament. Marriage is considered as a religious sacrament in rural society because its aim is religious. It has been written in religious books that person will do marriage to make his house, to produce children, for the continuation of society and to pay his debts. Person can pay his debts only by doing marriage and by producing children. Person in rural society has to go through many rituals from birth till death. That’s why it is considered as a religious sacrament.

2. Related with religion. Rural marriage is always related with religion because rural marriage is being performed with complete rituals and customs. Yet these religious rituals have been decreased to a great extent but they still exist in rural society. Person has to complete many religious rituals and that’s why he has to obey many duties like to pay many debts and to do many types of ‘yajnas’. It is necessary for a person to do marriage to do ‘yajnas’ because he cannot do yajna without marriage. In this way rural marriage is related with religion.

3. Marriage to be done with complete traditions. Marriage in rural society is performed after completing all the rituals and in a traditional way. Traditions, like boy goes to the girl’s house with Baraat, all the persons in Barat are dancing, after marriage boy takes the girl to his house in ‘Doli’ and then many religious customs are to be performed there with which marriage is performed. These traditions and customs not only exist in rural society but also prevail in Hindu marriage. That marriage is not considered as a complete marriage which is not performed with all the rituals and traditions.

4. Marriage cannot be broken. Marriage, in rural society, is not considered as a contract but is considered as a religious sacrament. If it is to be considered as a contract then it can be broken at any time like urban societies. But marriage is considered as a religious sacrament in rural society which cannot be broken at any time. Marriage is considered as a bond of seven births which cannot be broken.

5. Marriage is necessary. Marriage is considered necessary in rural society because unmarried children are considered as a burden on parents. It is necessary specially for girls because if the marriage of a girl is not performed then it is considered as the parents are unable to perform their duty. It has been believed in rural society that woman should bear a child and become a mother because it is necessary for the continuation of society. Marriage of girl is considered as necessary than that of boy because there is no fear of character losing of boy but if girl will go in a wrong direction then the status of the family will become lower.

6. Arranged marriage by parents. Marriage in rural societies is not a relation of one male and female but is considered as the relation of two families, groups or two villages. That’s why parents play an important role in finding mate for their children. Enough importance is given to the size, status, kinship and economic position of the family while selecting mate of the child. With this the personal traits of would be mate are also given enough importance. If the child has any personal problem then it would be very difficult to find his/her mate. Parents are doing marriage of their child and they always try to do marriage with great pomp and show.

7. Role of Priest. Brahmin or Priest has a tfery important role in marriage. Generally, in all societies, parents are matching the Janampatri (horoscope) of their children and this work is being done by astrologer. If Janampatri matches then they start the process of marriage but if Janampatri does not match then they stop the process at once. At the time of shagun, exchange of rings take place. In marriage he has a very important role to play because he performs the marriage after completing all the rituals of marriage. He reads many religious mantras to perform marriage. In this way religious person or priest has a very important role to play in marriage. With this one important thing is there in rural marriage and that is that boy and girl cannot meet each other during the time of mangni and marriage. Yet there is no restriction regarding this in urban areas. This short span of time is considered as very special because small things can create problems and marriage can also be broken.

Rules of Mate Selection:

Question 4.
Which types of rules are there in rural society regarding mate selection?
Answer:
The major question in front of parents, in any society, is to do marriage of their children. Mate is necessary for the marriage and selection of the mate is the biggest problem. Meaning of selection of mate is that finding life partner for their child. For selection of mate, it is necessary that the area of selection of marriage should be determined that where to do marriage and where not to do marriage. Some rules regarding selection of mate have been made in our societies that not to marry within clan or gotra but one has to marry within his caste or subcaste. Generally every society has its different rules and these rules are changing according to time and society. Selection of mate does not depend upon the wish of the person but is according to the rules made by society. That’s why selection of mate has been divided by Kapadia in three parts and these three parts are :

1. The field of selection
2. Parties for selection
3. Criteria of selection.

Now we will explain them in detail.

1. Field of Selection. Some rules in Hindu society have been made regarding marriage like Endogamy and Exogamy. Field of .selection becomes limited after accepting and’ following these rules. Rules of endogamy and exogamy are given below :

1. Endogamy. According to the rules of Endogamy one needs to marry within his own caste. Caste was again divided into sub-castes. In this way man had to marry in sub-caste. During the times of caste system, this rule was strictly applied. If any one was trying to break or was breaking this rule then the -caste was throwing him out of caste and they were breaking or severing all types of relations with him. According to religious books society was divided into four castes. These castes were again divided into sub-castes. Every person has to marry in his own sub-caste. In this form of marriage many changes have come due to the passage of time. According to K.M. Kapadia, “The Hindu community is divided into a number of castes which are endogamous groups and in practice the caste is again divided into a number of sub-castes, each of which is further divided into sub-sections as visa and dasa in terms of locality.”

According to Hoebel, “Endogamy is a social rule which demands that a person should marry within a group of which he is a member.” There are different forms of endogamy available in India and these are given below :

• Tribal Endogamy
• Caste Endogamy
• Class Endogamy
• Sub-caste Endogamy
• Racial Endogamy.

2. Exogamy. Institution of marriage is one of the important Social institutions. Any society cannot give permission to any couple to live as husband and wife without marriage. That’s why every society has made some rules to establish marriage in society. The most important function is the selection of the mate. Exogamy is also one of the rules of mate selection. In many societies the marital relations are forbidden between the persons who are related with each other by blood. According to Sumner, “Endogamy is conservative while exogamy is progressive.” In this way in exogamy marriage is prohibited within the group. Children of one parent are also forbidden to marry.

In Muslims marriage between the relatives of parents is permitted. In the Roman Catholic Church of England marriage with the sister-in-law, after the death of the wife, or Sororate marriage was not allowed. In Australia, boy can marry with the wife of his father if she is not his mother. According to the rule of Exogamy man is not permitted to marry in his caste, clan, Sapraver, Spinda etc. Some of its types are given below :

• Gotra Exogamy.
• Sapraver Exogamy
• Spinda Exogamy
• Village Exogamy
• Totem Exogamy

2. Parties for Selection. It is right that societies have made different rules of selection of mate regarding marriage but other party to do marriage is also necessary. Many ways are there to find other party. The first way is that selection of other party should be done by the relatives of the boy or girl. They should fix the marriage after finding the boy or girl and after looking at their house etc. It is known as arranged marriage. Second way of finding other party is the selecting mate for marriage with the advice of their friends, relatives etc, This type of marriage prevails in higher class of Indian society. Third way is that boy and girl should find their mate themselves and marry with their respective choice: It is known as love marriage.

Relatives and friends play an important role in selection of mate regarding marriage. Parents, in rural areas, even ask their relatives and mediator for marriage so that they could find right match for their child. Brahmins also play an important role at this time because they move from one village to another and they know about the unmarried children of the village. Males of the family take the final decision. If any mediator finds the right match then he is generally rewarded by both the parties. Marriage in one’s own village is not allowed in rural society that’s why match is generally selected out of the clan, village and sparvar. This process is going on for a long time. The importance of mediator has been reduced in modern times and parents are finding themselves the mate of their child in far off places with the help of means of communication and transport.

Generally, parents fix the marriage of their children after asking them for their choice. These days children like to marry with their own choice because of which the trend of love marriages is increasing day by day. Inter caste marriages are also increasing due to love marriages.

3. Criteria of Selection. It is right that there are some rules regarding the selection of the mates and parties are also there. But there are some criteria to determine parties. These criteria are related with other party like family of other party, personal traits, dowry, etc. Their description is given below :

1) Family. In ancient times, more importance was given to the family for marriage instead of boy and girl. It was seen that whether family is fulfilling its religious duties or not. If family was completing its religious duties then that family was considered as good for the family unless it was not considered as fit for the marriage. Status of the family was also considered for the fixation of marriage.

Marriage, in rural society, is not considered as the relation between boy and girl but it is considered as the relation between two families, groups and two villages. Elders of the family play a very important role in fixation of the marriage. Choice of the boy and girl is given very less importance in marriage. Marriage is being done to fulfill social and religious responsibilities. Social status, economic status, size of the family, kinship of the other family are also kept in mind while selecting mate for marriage. With this also kept in mind that how much land other party has.

2) Individual abilities of the mate. Personal traits of the mate are also kept in mind with family while selecting mate for the child. Children, in rural societies, are also getting education these days and that’s why people also give enough importance to the personal traits of the mate. These traits are like character of the mate, age, household works, educational level, income, colour, physique, beauty, nature etc. If people want to find boy for their girl then it is also kept in mind that whether he is drug addict or not or what type of friend circle he has? If boy and girl are not beautiful, are black in colour, are handicapped etc. then very less chances are there of finding mate for them.

3) Dowry. People give dowry to their girl at the time of marriage and this process has been going on from the ancient times. At the time of marriage, parents are giving some gifts to the bridegroom and his relatives while sending their daughter to boy’s house. These gifts are known as dowry. Every family give dowry according to the their economic status and according to the social status of the family of bridegroom. If the economic status of the family is good then they give good dowry but if the economic status of the family is weak then they give less dowry.

This custom is in great demand in modern times and it prevails equally in whole of the Indian society. Yet, according to the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961, giving and taking dowry is a punishable offence but still this process is going on in full swing. Selecuon of mate also becomes limited due to this process. It is so because every one wants to get more and more dowry and every one cannot give more dowry. That’s why around 6,000 girls every year die due to this. This custom also prevails in rural society. While selecting mate, it has been seen that which family can give how much dowry. In this way mate is selected on this given basis; Yet the importance of these rules is reduced due to many factors like increasing education, many laws made by government, effect of wasternization and intercaste marriages are increasing. But still these rules play an important role at the time of marriage.

Question 5.
What do you know about Rural economy? Explain.
Or
Explain the characteristics of Rural economy.
Answer:
If we want to study rural society then first of all we have to understand rural economy because economic base of relations has a great importance in rural society. Land has been given a great importance in rural society because the main base of rural economy is land. 70% of the total population in India is engaged in agriculture or agriculture based occupations and agriculture is directly related with land. Land has direct influence on economic and social structure of rural society.

Because most of the Indian population is engaged in agricultural works, that’s why the economy of our country generally depends upon agriculture. Around half of the total income of the country comes from agriculture related functions. Yet there are many other occupations in villages but they are directly or indirectly related with agriculture. Many castes of a village give their services to many other castes and they get compensation of their service either in the form of money or their share in agriculture production. If people in villages do physical work then they are also related with agriculture like agricultural labourers. In this way we can see that generally most of the occupations in villages are related with agriculture. That’s why features of rural economy are related with either agriculture or land. Features of rural economy are given below :

1. Main Occupation-Agriculture. Main occupation of people of rural society is agriculture and agriculture is the main difference between rural economy and urban economy. The means and way of living for rural people is also agriculture. Ways of living, ideas, habits, thinking etc. of rural people ^Lso depend upon agriculture. The most important means of production in rural society is agriculture and land is considered as the base of social status. Animals, with land, are also considered as the property of the person. Many other occupations like carpenter, blacksmith* artists etc. are also the part of economy of rural society.

2. Production and Method of Production. Agricultural work, in the ancient times in rural societies, was being done with ploughs and oxen but agricultural work, in modern times, is being done with tractors, threshers, combines etc. Farmers grow many types of things like wheat, rice, maize, cotton, sunflower etc. Not only this, they also produce many types of vegetables and fruits. People are also engaged in many other related functions like piggery, poultry, dairy, fishing etc. Rivers, wells, tubewells etc. are being used for irrigation. Generally most of the farmers are used to plough their fields themselves but many farmers also give their land to other farmers on rent for agricultural functions. Production, before green revolution, from land was very less but it has been increased to a great extent after green revolution with the usage of new seeds and fertilizers. *Now farmers are using new seeds and chemical fertilizers to a great extent.

3. Ownership of Land. Many types of systems like Zamindari, Rayotwari, Mahalwari etc. were there in India in ancient times. According to these systems, farmers were only used to do agricultural work on land. They were not the owners of land. But systems were abolished after independence and farmers were made the owners of land. Now farmer is the owner and cultivator of the land. Big farmers are very less in number who have too much land. Marginal or small farmers are more in number who have small pieces of land. But this land is divided in the children of farmers. Many farmers have small pieces of land that they are unable to meet their demands with this much piece of land. That’s why government has started many programmes so as to improve their economic condition.

4. More Population. Rural societies have more population. Around two third part of population of our country lives in villages. Our country has second position in the world after China from the point of view of population. Because most of the people live in rural societies and depends upon agriculture that’s why economy of the country also depends upon agriculture. Half of the total income of our country comes from agriculture or from its related occupations. We hardly can see development in many parts of rural society due to more population.

5. Indebtedness. Another important feature of economy of Indian rural society is the indebtedness of farmers. There are many reasons behind indebtedness of farmers. Rural families are large in size. Yet their income is less but their expenditure is more due to large family. They have to take loan on interest from money lenders to meet their needs because of which they come in the circle of indebtedness. Expenditure of agriculture has been increased to a great extent these days like rates of seeds and fertilizers has been increased, spending on diesel for pumps of irrigation due to unavailability, of electricity. More expenditure on agriculture due to less rain, bad quality of production which forces them to sell their produce on rates less than the minimum support price etc.

Due to these factors farmers are unable to meet their expenditure on cultivation. That’s why they have to take loan either from banks or from money lenders. They are unable to repay their loans due to more rate of interest and slowly and slowly they come under the tjrap of indebtedness. In recent times, farmers are opting to do suicide in many areas of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana due to indebtedness. In this way indebtedness is a very important feature of rural economy.

6. Rural Industries. Another important aspect of rural economy is the availability of rural industries. These rural industries are small in size. Small industries, in ancient times, were- based on caste but rural industries, in modern times, are based on science and technology. Government is also encouraging people to establish small scale industries to give employment to the people Weaving of clothes, stitching, soap industry are some of the examples which are now the part and parcel of rural economy.

7. Production Relations. Institutional relations have a very specific place in agricultural production. Good relations can increase production and bad relations can decrease production. Yet, many changes are coming, in modern times, in institutional relations of agriculture, but still these relations have a great importance in Indian rural economy. Jajmani system is the most important among these relations.

Meaning of Jajman is that one who does service or who perform YAGYA’. With the passage of time, this word was started to be used for those people who accept services of other people. These ancestral relations of acceptance of service of giving service by different castes is known as Jajmani system. According to this system, generally priests, artisans and many other lower castes used to give their services to the people of higher castes, like any brahmin works as a priest for any specific caste, barber gives his service to that caste by cutting their hair and washerman washes their clothes. In this way all the members of that caste are the Jajmans of that brahmin, washerman and barber.

The whole rural economy in Jajmani system revolves around agriculture and farmer. Farmer has the most important place in rural economy and other castes have many related functions of agriculture. Farmer prepares the land for agriculture but other castes give their services for the completion of the whole agricultural process and they take their part from the produce of that land. Blacksmith makes the related tools of agriculture and cobler makes shoes for the farmer. The main feature of Jajmani system is that human needs of life are fulfilled only at the local level. In this way rural economy moves in a proper way with Jajmani system.

The relation of farmer and money lender also has a very important place in rural economy. If we look at the history then we will come to know that the Indian farmer is suppressed under the indebtedness of money lender right from the ancient times. Farmer needs money for many occasions like marriage, death, cultivation and this need is being fulfilled by money lender. It has been said that farmer takes birth under the indebtness of money lender, grows up and dies under it. In this way these relations are very important in rural economy.

Relations of farmer and labourer are also very important. In earlier times labourers used to work for their Jajmans under Jajmani system and farmers used to give some share of the product to these labourers. But now due to the decreasing effect of Jajmani system and increasing effect of money based economy it has brought many changes in these relations. Now contractual relations have come farward instead of Jajmani System. Rural economy also has a direct relationship with nature. If there is a good rain then production will be more but if less rain comes then production will also be less. Even science is unable to reduce the farmer’s dependency upon nature. In this way these relations have an important place in rural economy.

So after looking at these features we can conclude that the economy of rural society mainly depends upon agriculture and every type of relation of rural society is also related with agriculture.

Question 6.
What are the results of Indebtedness? How can we remove this problem?
Answer:
Results of Indebtedness. We can see many results of increasing indebtedness in many villages of India. Some of the results of ‘indebtedness’ are given below :

1. Slavery: The worst result of indebtedness can be seen in the increasing number of landless laborers. Moneylenders take advantage of the ignorance of illiteracy of helpless farmers and take away their land from them. In this way one farmer becomes a laborer and works as a laborer for money lender on his own land. Sometimes a person has to work for money lender to repay his debt and this position is not better than that of a servant. There is one tendency in some village that parents are sending their children to do work for money lenders to repay their loans were: Status of these children is just like slaves. In this way this problem of indebtedness has forced thousands of farmers to live a life of slavery.

2. Increase in Poverty: Another worst result of indebtedness can be seen in the increasing poverty because of which any person comes in the cycle of indebtedness. Then even with all of his efforts he cannot come out of that cycle and will remain poor for his whole life. It becomes very difficult for a person to repay his loan. Even sometimes grandson repays the loan of his grandfather.

3. Deterioration of Agriculture: Position of agriculture also deteriorates due to problem of indebtedness because farmer has to work for money lender on his own land. That’s why they hardly take care of agriculture which they were doing on their own land. Production also suffers with this and power of production of land also decreases with this.

4. Suicide: If any farmer comes under the cycle of indebtedness then he becomes weak day by day because he always remains in tension to repay his loan. Even some people try to do a lot of hard work but when they are unable to get the desired result then their mental condition becomes weak. In this way they commit suicide. Ways to Remove Indebtedness. Many suggestions have come forward to remove this problem and these suggestions are given below :

1. Governmental loan at low interest: Government should provide loans to farmers on a lower rate of interest so that they should be able to repay their loans at lower rate of interest. A system of small installments should be arranged for them to repay their governmental loans.

2. Co-operative societies and banks: Some cooperative societies and cooperative banks should be opened in villages to provide governmental loans at village level. With this farmers can get loans very easily and at very low rate of interest.

3. Arrangement for declaration of bankrupt: Sometimes the loan and interest on that loan become too much that it becomes impossible for the farmer to repay that loan with interest. That’s why arrangements should be made to declare him bankrupt and no one should take possession of his land and he should earn his bread .easily.

4. Laws for preventing dispossession of land: Government should make such laws that if any money lender tries to take possession of the land of the farmer then he should be prevented from doing this.

5. Control over the rate of interest. Money lenders take too much rate of interest from farmers. In some cases it becomes 5-10% per month. Government should fix the minimum and maximum rate of interest to be charged from farmers in villages. If any one tries to charge more then he should be strictly dealt.

6. Checking the accounts of the money lenders. Government should make some laws for money lenders to keep their records properly. These records and registers should be checked time to time. If any discrepancy would be found in the accounts then he should be punished. In this way we can keep a strict check on the problem of indebtedness to a great extent with these measures.

Question 7.
What do you know the concept of Panchayati Raj? Write in detail.
Answer:
There are two ways of developing local areas in our country. Local governments are there for the development of urban areas and panchayati raj institutions are there for the development of rural areas. Institutions of local government are based upon the concept of division of labour because functions here are divided in government and local groups. 70% of the population in our country lives in rural areas. The institution of local government which administers the rural areas is known as Panchayat. Panchayati Raj expresses only the institutional structure of rural area.

When British Empire was established in our country then the whole country was under the control of landlords and Zamindars. In 1935, Indian government passed a law which has given the complete sovereignity to states and the panchayati laws were given a new form. In Punjab, one Panchayat Act was passed in 1939 whose aim was to give some powers to the democratically elected institutions with which they would be able to work at a unit of local administration. On 2nd October 1961 the three-tier structure of Panchayati Raj was applied in the whole country. 73rd constitutional amendment was done in 1992 in which powers were decentralized upto the local level. With this the panchayati raj institutions were given many financial and other types of powers.

Many changes have taken place in Indian rural community during last 66 years. Most of the powers of Indian panchayats were taken away by Britishers. They wanted to run these panchayats according to their own way because of which they applied a new and common legal System in all the villages. Present panchayats are the result of the laws made after the independence.

1. According to A.S. Altekar, an authority on Indian polity, “The village panchayats in ancient India were responsible for various functions such as defence, collection of revenue, imposition of taxes, implementation of programme of public welfare and so on. They are very important institutions of decentralized administration.”

2. According to K. M. Panikar, “These Panchayats are the only permanent basis of ancient Indian history. These institutions have provided a solid base to the prosperity of the country.”

3. According to 4th part of Article 30 of the Constitution, “Organization of village Panchayats, the state shall take steps to organize panchayats, and endow them with such power and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self government.”
Village Panchayats are doing many functions for the development of villages and that’s why there are certain aims of panchayats and these aims are given below :

• The first aim for the establishment of panchayats is to solve the problems of people at local level. These panchayats are finding solutions of problems and quarrels of the people.
• Village Panchayats create the sense of cooperation, love and sympathy among the people so that every member of a village should contribute towards its progress.
• Another aim of establishment of panchayats is to determine the members of panchayats for the smooth functioning of panchayats so that everyone should contribute towards the solution of the problems of the village. Function of public welfare is also completed with this.

Organization Of Village Panchayats:

There are two types of panchayats in the village. First type of panchayats which are elected according to the laws made by government and are formal in nature. Second type of panchayats are informal and they are known as caste panchayats. They don’t have any legal status but they play a very important role in keeping social control. Three types of organization of panchayats exist in our country and these are :

1. GRAM SABHA
All the adult persons of total population, of the village, are the members of Gram Sabha and it is the complete unit of the whole population of the village. This is the basic unit on which the whole structure of our democracy rests. Gram Sabha can be made in that village whose population is more than 250. If population of one village is less than 250 then two villages can jointly make the Gram Sabha. Every adult of the village is the member of Gram Sabha, who has the right to vote. There is one chairman and some members of every Gram Sabha. It is elected for 5 years. Functions of Gram Sabha. Gram Sabha approves the annual budget and the functions to be done for the development of the village and helps in applying these functions. It also helps in doing the functions of social welfare, programmes of adult education and of family’welfare. It also plays an important role in keeping unity in the village.

2. Village Panchayat Or Gram Panchayat

Every Gram Sabha elects one Gram Panchayat from its area. In this way Gram Sabha is an executive institution which elects members for Gram Panchayat. It has one Sarpanch and 5-13 panches. There are certain places in Panchayats which are reserved for backward classes and females. It is generally elected for 5 years but state government can dissolve them even before 5 years if it tries to misuse its powers. If any Gram Sabha is dissolved before completion of its term then all of its position will also come to an end. Village is generally divided in different parts to elect Panches and Gram Panchayat. Then the Panches and Sarpanch are elected by the members of Gram Sabha. One third of the total seats in Gram Panchayat are reserved for women and the seats are also reserved for backward classes according to the ratio of their population in that area. Any governmental official and mentally ill person cannot be elected for panchayat. Gram Panchayat works for the sanitation, recreation, development of industries and means of communication. It also solves the problems of the village.

Functions Of Panchayats:

Gram Panchayat does many functions for the village which are given below :

1. The first important function of Gram Panchayat is to raise the economic and social standard of the people. There are many social evils in villages. Panchayat motivates the people to remove those evils and tries to change their traditional point of view.

2. For allround development of any area, it is necessary that illiteracy should be eradicated from that area and it is the main reason of backwardness of Indian Society. Indian villages are also backward due to this reason. Panchayat tries to open schools in village and motivates the people to send their children in the school. It also arranges the adult education centre to teach the adults of the village.

3. Panchayat of a village also works for the welfare of the women and children of the village. It also arranges for giving education to females. The function of arrangement of good food and entertainment facilities is also of Panchayat.

4. There are no means of recreation in rural areas. That’s why Panchayat also arranges to provide recreational means in village. Panchayat arranges for. films, organizing fairs and the opening up of library in the village.

5. Increase in production is necessary in the agriculture based country. Panchayat tells the people about new techniques of agriculture, arranges for the new seeds and developed fertilizers for them so that their agricultural production could be increased.

6. It is very much necessary to establish small scale industries in villages for its allround development. That’s why Panchayat tries to establish small scale industries in villages with the help of governmental help. It helps in economic progress of the village and people get employment in their villages.

7. Means of irrigation are of great importance in good production of agriculture. Gram Panchayat arranges the wells and tubewells in Gram Panchayat. It also arranges for river water so that the people are able to irrigate their fields.

8. Generally people are fighting in villages. Panchayat tries to solve their problems in village.

9. Except these Panchayat also does many other functions like :

• Function related to dairy, animal rearing, poultry.
• Establishment of small scale industries.
• Arrangement of means of transport and communication.
• Arrangement of informal and formal education.
• Arrangement of cultural activities etc.

Panchayati Raj Act was implemented in India on 21st April 1994. Three-tier structure of Panchayati Raj was implemented with this Act. This Act brought many changes in rural community. Village economy was also’improved with this. Panchayat does every type of function for welfare of village.

3. Nyaya Panchayat
The nature of two persons is not the same all the times. That’s why problems are arising among them. In this way problems between villagers are arising in and they fight with each other. Nyaya Panchayat stops and solves these problem. One Nyaya Panchayat is generally formed for 5-10 Gram Sabhas. Its members are elected and Sarpanch makes one Committee of 5 members. They have the right to ask questions to Panchayat.

4. Panchayat Samiti
Panchayats coming in one block are the members of Panchayat Samiti and Sarpanches of these Panchayats are the members of Panchayat Samiti. Members of Panchayat Samiti are also elected. Panchayat Samiti takes care of the functions of the Panchayats which are coming in its area. It checks the developmental functions of the village and directs the Panchayat for the welfare of the village. It is the second level of Panchayati Raj.

5. Zila Parishad
The highest level of Panchayati Raj is Zila Parishad which takes care of the functions of the Panchayats which are coming in the district. It is an executive institution. Chairman’s of Panchayat Samiti, elected members, members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and Legislative Assemblies are the members of Zila Parishad. All these take care of the developmental functions done in the villages of the district. Zila Parishad does many functions like improvement of agriculture, improvement of land, irrigation, rural electrification, arrangement of seeds and fertilizers, education, industries etc.

Question 8.
Explain the characteristics of Panchayati Raj according to 73rd Constitutional Amendment.
Answer:
73rd Constitutional Amendment was passed by Parliament in December 1992 and was sanctioned by President in April 1993. Panchayati Raj system was established through this constitutional amendment and its characteristics are given below :

1. There was no system of self-administration in Constitution for the local level before 73rd constitutional amendment. A new schedule and new part was added in Constitution through this Amendment. All the arrangements in this schedule and part are related with the Panchayati Raj system that which types of arrangements are there in this new system.

2. Definition of Gram Sabha is given in Constitution with this amendment according to which all the adults of the village, who have the right to vote, will be the members of Gram Sabha. State Legislative Assemblies can arrange Gram Sabha through law and can give them some functions. In this way Gram Sabha . will be established through a law passed by the State Legislative Assembly and it will determine its functions.

3. The definition of Panchayat is also given with the definition of Gram Sabha according to which Panchayat is an institution based on self rule which is established by state governments in rural areas.

4. One system in Constitution is established through this Constitutional amendment that the three-tier Panchayati Raj system will be established of self rule in rural areas. Panchayat will be at village level, Block Samiti at block level and the highest position will be of Zila Parishad at district level but state government can give them any other name.

5. This constitutional amendment says that the district will be divided at Panchayat level through this system and the members of Panchayat, Block Samiti and Zila Parishad will be directly elected by the people through the right of voting by adults of that area.

6. The responsibility of election at different levels, counting of votes and making of voters’ list will be of State Election Commission. This State Election Commission will be nominated by the Governor of that State. Its term, terms and conditions of ervice etc. will be determined according to the rules made by Governor. State Election Commission can be removed in that same way in which Judge of the high court is removed.

7. According to 73rd constitutional amendment the Sarpanch of the village Panchayat will be directly elected by the people.

8. Sarpanch of the village Panchayat can also be removed from his post even before the end of his term and the right of his removal is given to Gram Sabha. Gram Sabha can remove Sarpanch from his post if the Panchayat of that area gives its approval. There should be a majority behind this approval. For this one special meeting should be called and the presence of 50% members of Gram Sabha is necessary for this. If the Gram Sabha will pass the approval of removing Sarpanch from his post then the Sarpanch can be removed from his post.

9. In the same way members of Block Samiti and Zila Parishad will be elected by the people and their Chairman will be elected by the members themselves. Their Chairman can also be removed in that same way the Sarpanch can be removed. Chairman can be removed by two-thirds majority.

10. Some seats on these three tiers will be kept reserved.

• Seats for Scheduled Castes and Tribes will be kept reserved in Panchayats. The number of reserved seats will be according to their ratio in the whole population.
• One-third seats will be kept reserved for women.
• One-third seats in Panchayats, Block Samitis and Zila Parishad will also be kept reserved. With this the l/3rd seats of Chairmen will also be kept reserved for women.

11. The term of these institutions is kept at 5 years. The term of any institution cannot exceed more than 5 years. If the state government comes to know about the misuse of powers by Panchayats then it can dissolve -it even before 5 years. But it should be elected again within 6 months. New elected Panchayat will complete the term of earlier Panchayat.

12. If any person cannot contest an election according to the law of state then he also cannot contest the election. But here is a difference in age. The age of 25 years is necessary to contest the election of state legislative assembly but the age of 21 years is fixed to contest the election of Panchayat.

13. Panchayats have been given some rights and duties according to the law of state legislative assembly. Panchayats have been given some rights to make and apply plans of economic development and social justice.

14. With this State Legislative Assembly can give them some powers to levy small taxes so that they can increase their income. With this state govt, will also give some share of the taxes, imposed by it, to these Panchayats. Grants will also be given as help for the development of the village.

In this way we can see that many important arrangements are kept by 73rd constitutional amendment through Panchayati Raj with which the importance of Panchayati Raj has been increased. Many steps have been taken to make this arrangement more effective.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 4 Caste Inequalities Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Chapter 4 Caste Inequalities

Sociology Guide for Class 12 PSEB Caste Inequalities Textbook Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which is not the features of caste:
(a) Achieved status
(b) IJereditary occupation
(c) Profane sacred distinction
(d) Endogamy
Answer:
(a) Achieved status

2. Traditional theory of caste is based upon the idea.of:
(a) G.S. Ghurye
(b) D.N. Majumdar
(c) Louis Dumont
(d) J.H. Hutton
Answer:
(b) D.N. Majumdar

3. Which caste is not considered as twice born:
(a) Brahmin
(b) Kshatriya
(c) Vaishya
(d) Shudra
Answer:
(d) Shudra

4. According to Bottomore which one is not the feature of social stratification:
(a) Slavery
(b) Caste
(c) Class
(d) Gender
Answer:
(d) Gender

5. The Samskar that makes person twice born:
(a) Jatakaram
(b) Janam Samskar
(c) Upnayan Samskar
(d) Nama-karna
Answer:
(c) Upnayan Samskar

6. The term ‘Antyaj’ refers to:
(a) Touchable Shudras
(b) Untouchable Shudras
(c) Landless agriculturist
(d) Tribals
Answer:
(b) Untouchable Shudras

7. Which section of the society is linked with protective discrimination policy:
(a) Upper castes
(b) Middle Castes
(c) Scheduled castes
(d) Dominant castes
Answer:
(c) Scheduled castes

Fill in the Blanks:

1. ……………… refers to deeper understanding of own caste identity.
Answer:
Caste consciousness

2. Caste is an ……………. status.
Answer:
ascribed

3. In caste system there are ……………….. and ………………… types of marriage.
Answer:
Endogamy, Exogamy

4. The term twice-born express ……………… birth.
Answer:
two times

5. Occupational theory is associated with the idea of ……………
Answer:
Nesfield

True/False:

1. In Varna system, individual could not have possibility of mobility.
Answer:
False

2. The untouchable castes are also known as Antyaj.
Answer:
True

3. Caste is a dominant social system of Indian society.
Answer:
True

4. Caste is an endogamous group.
Answer:
True

5. Civil and religious disabilities do not lead to untouchability.
Answer:
False

Match the Columns:

Column A	Column B
Vaishyas	Based upon a philosophical understanding of supernatural
Brahmins	Marrying outside the caste
Exogamy	The Red
Rakta Varna	Trade and business
Traditional Theory	Performance of religious rites, rituals.

Answer:

Column A	Column B
Vaishyas	Trade and business
Brahmins	Performance of religious rites, rituals.
Exogamy	Marrying outside the caste
Rakta Varna	The Red
Traditional Theory	Based upon a philosophical understanding of supernatural

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
A social division of labour based on achievement is called:
Answer:
Class system.

Question 2.
Who were associated with defence services?
Answer:
Kshatriyas.

Question 3.
The practice of marrying within one’s caste/group is known as:
Answer:
Endogamy.

Question 4.
Caste system is based upon which model of hierarchy?
Answer:
Varna system.

Question 5.
Second birth of religio-cultural nature is based on which samskar?
Answer:
Upanayana Samaskar.

Question 6.
What is Varna?
Answer:
Varna is one of the groups of social hierarchy which means to select.

Question 7.
What is purity pollution principle?
Answer:
In caste system, upper three castes were considered the pure one and the fourth caste was considered the polluted caste.

Question 8.
Identify that term from which caste has originated.
Answer:
The term caste has originated from the Portugneese word ‘CASTA’.

Question 9.
Name that Varna which is considered outcaste.
Answer:
Shudra Varna.

Question 10.
Define varna model of hierarchy.
Answer:
There were 4 varnas in varna model of hierarchy—Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is caste system?
Answer:
According to Risley, “Caste is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from mythical ancestor, human or divine. Professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”

Question 2.
What is ascriptive status?
Answer:
That status which one gets without any hard work and on the basis of his family, age, caste etc. is known as ascriptive status. In Caste system, upper three castes had higher status and lower caste was given the lower status.

Question 3.
Mention those occupations which are traditionally associated with varna.
Or
Duties of Varna Brahmin.
Answer:

• Brahmin Varna. Teaching and to complete religions customs.
• Kshatriya Varna. Fighting and to rule the state
• Vaishya Varna. Trade and agriculture
• Shudra Varna. To serve the upper three varnas.

Question 4.
What is caste mobility?
Answer:
The meaning of caste mobility is to adopt other caste by abandoning parent caste. Traditionally it was not possible but in modern times, due to the processes of sanskritisation and westernization, lower caste people are adopting upper class people’s ways of living to help in caste mobility.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Describe the characteristics of caste mentioned by G.S. Ghurye.
Answer:

• Segmental Division of Society
• Hierarchical division
• Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse.
• Civil and religious disabilities and privileges.
• Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation.
• Restriction on marriage.

Question 2.
What is traditional theory of caste origin?
Or
Write the traditional theory of caste origin.
Answer:
This theory is based on the writings of origin of caste in religious scriptures. According to the Purushsukta Shloka of Rigveda, Brahmins were born from the mouth of Brahma, Kshatriyas from arms, Vaishyas from legs and fourth varna was born from the feet of Brahma. The same thing also has been written in Vrihadayathak Upnishda. The same thing is written in Vrihadayathak Upnishda, Shantiparva of Mahabhartha and Manusmriti. In this way the origin of Varnas is considered as from Brahma. Critics of this view say in its opposition that Varna and caste are twb different concepts. Varna is based on Karma or function but the base of caste is birth. Actually Varna is the main base of caste which has taken the form of caste in its evolution. Question 3. What is Occupational theory of caste origin?
Or
Explain the occupational theory of origin of caste.
Answer:
Nesfield has given the occupational theory of caste system. According to him, occupation and only occupation is responsible for the origin of caste system. All the occupations are not the same. Persons with higher occupation got higher status in society and persons, who adopted lower occupations were considered as of lower castes.

Question 4.
Identify those factors which have led to dynamics of caste.
Answer:

• Socio-religious movements brought great changes in caste system.
• Due to the efforts of Indian government and with the making of many laws, caste system is changing.
• The British started many processes in India which completely changed the caste system.
• With the spread of industries, people started working with each other which loosened the bonds of caste system.
• Caste system also weakened with development in the means of transport and communication.

Very Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you understand by caste? Explain the differences between Caste and Varna?
Or
What do you mean by caste?
Or
Describe caste as form of social stratification.
Or
Explain caste as form of social stratification.
Or
Define caste.
Or
What do you understand by caste? Explain the difference between caste and varna.
Or
Explain caste as a form of social stratification.
Answer:
Caste System is one of the most important social institutions which is coming on from ancient times. It was one of the important bases of social stratification on the basis of which status and role of a person was determined in society. It has been believed that caste system was originated from Varna System. Person was free to adopt any one of the occupations in Varna system because he used to adopt that occupation which he had been able to do in a proper way. But later on rigidity of occupation came into being among humans and this rigidity was related to caste system.

Occupation of the person was related to his birth. Person had to adopt the occupation of that family in which he had taken birth. In this way Varna system was completely changed into caste system. Slowly and slowly caste system started to keep control over society in such a way that the life of the person was determined, right after his birth, that how he was to live his life. It has not only affected the social progress of our society but it also came into being as a social evil of the society. But if any one wants to get knowledge of Indian society then certainly he needs to take help of caste system.

Meaning of Caste System. The word ‘caste’ originated from the Portuguese word ‘Casta’ whose meaning is Race. It is also closely related with the Latin word ‘Castus’ which means Pure race. Actually, caste system is based upon birth. The caste in which the person takes birth, he needs to live with that caste only for the whole life. With the birth of the child, his ways of living life are determined. It keeps some restrictions on its members which are necessarily to be obeyed by the person.

This caste system was one of the main bases of Indian social system and all the aspects of Hindu social life were affected by this system. Its effect was so powerful that it affected every group and community living in India. Word caste has been taken from the Sanskrit word ‘Jana’ whose meaning is birth. Yet this system prevailed in other societies also but its developed form was available in India.

Definitions of Caste System:

To know the better meaning of Caste it is necessary for us to look at the definitions of Caste System given by different sociologists and psychologists.

• According to Risley, “Caste is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from mythical ancestor, human or divine. Professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”
• According to Robert Bierstdt, “When a class system is a closed group on one or more than one issue then it is known as caste system.”
• According to Blunt, “A caste is an endogamous group or collection of endogamous groups, bearing a common name, membership of which is hereditary, imposing on its members certain restrictions in the matter of social intercourse, either following a common traditional occupation or claiming a common origin and generally regarded as forming a single homogeneous community.”
• According to Ketkar, “Caste is a social group having two characteristics:
• Membership is confined to those who are born as members and includes all persons so bom.
• The members are forbidden by a social law to marry outside the group.”
• According to Martindale and Mona Chesi, “A caste is aggregate of persons whose share of obligations and privileges is fixed by birth, sanctioned and supported by magic and religion.

Difference Between Varna and Caste:

Generally Varna and Caste are considered as the same and their meaning is also taken as same. A layman consideres both of them as same. But if we look at them carefully then both of these are different concepts and a number of differences are their in them. These differences are given below:

Varna	Caste
1. Functions in Varna system are given enough importance and person can change his Varna with his Karma or function.	1. Birth in Caste system has been given more importance. Person i8 not allowed to change his caste in which he is born.
2. There were only four Varnas in society in Varna system and society was divided only in four Varnas.	2. Society, in Caste system was not divided only in four castes but was divided in a number of castes and sub castes.
3. Varna system was not strict in sense but was a flexible system.	3. Caste system was not flexible but was a very rigid system.
4. No restrictions were there on person in Varna system. He was free to establish relations with any Varna.	4. There were strict restrictions on person in Caste system. Person was free to establish relations only with the persons of his caste but not with persons of other castes.
5. Varna system was based on equality and all the Varnas were given equal importance.	5. Caste system was not based upon equality but was based upon the stratification of higher-lower castes.
6. There was no restriction on person in Varna system. He was free to marry in any of the four Varnas.	6. There were strict restrictions in keeping marital relations in Caste system and person was free to marry only in his own caste.

Question 2.
Traditional and Occuptional theories of caste origin do not explain the total facts of its origin. How?
Answer:
Actually there are many other theories about the origin of caste system except traditional and occupational theories. That’s why these both theories of caste origin do not explain the total picture of caste origin. The complete explanation of all these theories is given below:

• Traditional Theory
• Racial Theory
• Geographical Theory
• Occupational Theory
• Evolutionary Theory
• Religious Theory
• Mana Theory

The description of these theories is given below:

1. Traditional Theory. Traditional theory related to the origin of caste system is written in Hindu religious books. The most ancient explanation in Vedic literature about caste system is based upon one Mantra of‘Purush Sakta’ of ‘Rigveda’. According to this Mantra all the four Varna’s were originated from the different parts of the body of Brahma. Brahmins were originated from the mouth of Brahma, Kshatriyas ^.from arms, Vaishya’s from legs and lower castes were originated from the feet of Brahma. In Manu Smriti, Manu has also given the functions of all four Varnas. Brahmin will give education because he came from mouth, Kshatriya will use weapons and will protect the people because he came from arms. Vaishya will do the work of business, agriculture and rearing animals. In the end lower caste people will serve the higher three Varnas because they came from the feet of Brahma.

In ‘Mahabhartha’ it is also written that how different castes and sub castes were originated. In Vedic age there was no existence of Pratiloma marriage, only Anuloma marriages were there. Because Pratiloma marriage was not sanctioned by society that is why the children produced by this marriage were not given any Varna and they were differentiated from Hindu society. Later on they became lower castes and sub-castes.

But this traditional theory has been criticised because the explanation of Varna System is there in this theory but there is no name of caste system in it and caste and Varna both are different from each other. Critics also disagree upon the fact that all the castes and sub castes were originated due to Anuloma and Pratiloma type of marriage. While criticisng Manu, many scholars say that the division of castes was not originated due to Varna system. If it could have happened then the number of sub-castes would have been lesser than that of main castes but it is actually opposite to it.

2. Racial Theory. Many scholars have given the racial theory about the origin of caste system. According to Risley, Maclever, Weber, Crober etc. racial element is very important in the origin of caste system. Ghurye, Dutt and Majumdar also gave support to it. According to Risley three factors are responsible for the origin of caste system—(i) Racial exchange (ii) Interrelation due to exchange and (Hi) Sense of class difference.

Caste system in India was started after the arrival of Indo-Aryan people. The society of this race was’divided in 4 parts and they also applied this concept on India after their arrival to India First of all Aryans had defeated the original inhabitants of India and then they had established one sided marital relations with them because females in Aryans were less in number. From here the custom of Anuloma marriage was started. Pratiloma marriage was not given sanction because Aryans refused to marry their daughters with Indian people. When the’ needs of Aryans were fulfilled then they stopped the custom of Anuloma marriage. Racial mixture was increased due to Anuloma marriage and different castes ceyne into being.

According to Ghurye, Aryan people had given themselves higher status than original inhabitants of India. They started the policy of living away from original inhabitants to maintain racial purity. They kept themselves, in higher three varnas and had given the status of slave or shudra to the original people of India. With the passage of time society was divided in the groups of higher or lower status. That is why, according to Ghurye, caste system is the contribution of Brahmins and Aryan Culture.

Majumdar was of the view that cultural conflict and racial exchange has originated the groups of higher and lower status in India. Many reasons were there of racial mixture like less number of females in India, developed Dravidian culture, their matrilineal system, worship of gods and goddesses, wish to live life at one place, different customs etc. After the conquest of Aryan people over Dravidian people mutual exchange and cultural conflict was started among them. That is why many social groups came into being who became endogamous. From here the status of every group or caste was determined according to the racial purity and on the basis of living away from other groups.
Racial theory has been criticised because it has explained about the restrictions of marital relations but has not explained about the rules of feeding. Muslims and Christians are unable to take the form of a caste, even they have cultural differences. In this way caste system came into being because of many reasons, not because one reason.

3. Geographical Theory. Gilbart gave the geographical theory about the origin of caste system. According to him caste system came into being due to living of different groups in different parts of the country. This view is also given in Tamil Literature. This view can be explained on the basis of many examples. For example Brahmins living near to the bank of Sarswati river were known as ‘Sarswat Brahmins’ and people living in Kannouj were known as Kannoujias. In this way names of many other castes were kept on the basis of their living place. But this theory has been criticised by most of the scholars because many castes exist in one geographical area and the names of all these castes are not related with that geographical area.

4. Occupational Theory. Nesfield and Dahlman gave the occupational theory about the origin of caste system. According to Nesfield, different castes were originated on the basis of different occupations and he completely disagrees with racial factors. Racial mixture was at its advanced level even before the origin of caste system. According to him caste system has not been originated due to religion because religion cannot give that fundamentalist base which is necessary for caste system. In this way, according to Nesfield, only occupation is responsible for the origin of caste system.

According to Dahlman earlier Indian Society was divided in three parts-priests, King or ruler and Botirgouisee. Occupations of all the three classes were related with religious, political and economic activities. Then with the passage of time these groups were divided into small-small groups on the basis of occupation and relations. Earlier they had taken the form of business enterprises and then were changed into business federals. Later on these federals were developed into castes.

This theory has also been criticised. It is not correct to tell the direct relation between religion and caste. This theory is away from racial theory because there is some racial difference between higher and lower groups. With this if caste system was originated from business enterprises then why it originated only in India and not in any other country. This theory is unable to give answers of these questions.

5. Evolutionary Theory. This theory was given by Denzil Ibbetson. According to him, caste system was not originated on the basis of four varnas but was originated by the organizations which were formed on economic basis. According to him, earlier people lived like wanderers and there was no existence of caste system. Blood relations were there among people and there was no feeling of higher or lower among them. But slowly and slowly and by living with each other economic development was started and people started to do agricultural work. With the passage of time economic life became complex and a need was felt of divison of labour.

It became the duty of the king to make such a policy which could be based on division of labour and occupational differences. With this many new classes came into being. Community feeling was developed due to living with each other. With time these groups had made their unions to secure their interests. Every union had adopted the policy of endogamy to save its occupational secrets. In this way due to endogamy caste system came into being. Slowly and slowly these groups had made their place in social hierarchy.

This theory has also been criticised because unions on the basis of occupations are available in all the societies. Then why the caste system developed in India. Economic factor can be taken as one of the factors of origin but cannot be taken as the alone factor.

6. The Religious Theory. This theory was given by Hokart and Senart. According to Hokart, caste system’s origin and division of Indian society was happened due to religious customs and theories. In ancient Indian society religion was very important and any animal was also sacrificed to gods. In the custom of sacrifice, reading of mantras and worship was also involved in which many persons were required. Slowly and slowly people, who were doing religious work, were organized and it took the form of caste system. According to Hokart, occupation of every caste goes on from generation to generation. The main base of occupation is not economic but was religious.

According to Senart, restrictions related to feeding came due to religious factors and people were divided into castes and sub-castes. But some sociologists are of the view that caste system is a not a religious institution but is a social institution. That is why this theory is not correct. Caste system is very complex and this theory related to its origin is very simple which is not correct.

7. Mana Theory. Hutton was of the view that the elements of caste system were there in India even before the arrival of the Aryans in India. When Aryans came to India then they strengthened these elements to secure their interests. Social divison in India was not very much clear before them but the Aryans had differentiated it and kept themselves at the top of the system. According to Hutton, this was at an early stage. It had accepted the restrictions of Caste System and clarified it with the help of Taboo. In ancient times, Mana was considered as invisible divine force which exists in every person and can move from one person to another just by touching each other. Tribal people believe that difference among humans is because of Mana power. People stay away from foreigners because they are afraid of Mana. Even they never touch those people in their tribe, which are considered as evils. In this way tribe keeps some restrictions on its members on some things which are known as Taboo.

According to Hutton, even Hindu, Muslim, Parsis and Buddhist people also believe in Mana and Taboo. Discrimination related to Mana and Taboo were there even before the Aryans came to India. That is why restrictions among different groups related to marriage, feeding, occupation etc. were there: When caste system was started then it kept many restrictions over its members.

This theory has also been criticised by scholars. They say that yet Mana and Taboo also exist in tribes of other countries of the world but we cannot find caste system anywhere else. With this the culture of tribes never represents the whole Indian culture. Hutton has also not given any proof on the basis of which one can accept that Mana and Taboo were there in pre-Aryans period.

Question 3.
Identify those changes which raise the possibility of India as casteless society.
Answer:
1. End to the Discrimination and Untouchability. In 1955, Indian government passed a law ‘Untouchability Offence Act’ and tried to eradicate untouchability. Now if any one says ‘Untouchable’ to any person of lower caste then he will be considered as criminal. Government adopted the policy of reservation in government institutions to uplift the lower castes. On the basis of this policy, special provision is kept to give jobs to lower caste people. In modern times person of every caste is doing every type of work. Government gave scholarships to the people of backward classes so that they should be able to get any status in society with some hard work. In this way the discrimination of untouchability has been reduced to a great extent.

2. Change in Caste Hierarchy. The hierarchy which was determind by the caste system in Indian society, has been changed completely. Lower castes have been uplifted in society by a number of processes like urbanization, industrialization, sanskritization etc. In modern times, no caste considers inferior itself than the other castes. Even people of higher castes are ready to marry in the lower castes. Some want to obtain the facilities given to lower castes by the government and some want to marry in them after looking at their richness. In this way social mobility came into being in Indian society and now we cannot find the hierarchy of castes anywhere.

3. Changes in Restrictions of Food and Drink. In ancient times, feeding of the caste was determined by the caste. Food was divided into two parts and feeding relations of a caste were pre-determined. But in modern times it was very difficult to adopt these restrictions. When people of different c&stes came in contact with each other in cities then these restrictions slowly and slowly came to an end. Cooks in hotels belong to different castes and people eat jp hotels by sitting with each other and without asking each other’s caste. In cities people work with each other and that is why they started to eat with each other. In this way a number of changes came in the feeding restrictions of a caste. ,

4. Decline in the Status of Brahmins. Changes in caste system were started even under the rule of Britishers on Indian society. First of all British government started to behave equally with all .the people of different castes. According to them all of them are IndiAnswer: They started to give western education to Indian people instead of religious education. Every one was free to get education in these educational institutions. In this way there was no question of superiority of brahmins because humans started to attain social status according to their ability and not on the basis of their caste.

Lower castes have taken their status upwards by doing progress in economic sector. After Independence, Indian government tried to remove the superiority of upper castes by making some laws. Now every one can get higher status in society by getting higher education. In this way the importance of the birth of the person has come to an end. Importance of money has reduced the superiority of upper castes. Now one rich person gets more respect and prestige in society.

5. Freedom in Selection of Occupation. In ancient Indian society, occupation of person was determined right after his birth and it was according to his caste. Person had to adopt the occupation of his caste, even against his wish. He was not allowed to adopt any other occupation except his pre-determined occupation. But because of many reasons, society started to give importance to personal ability. Now humans are free to adopt occupation of their choice. It means that person can select the occupation according to his ability. Even the concept of profit has been tied with this. No occupation is higher or lower in their eyes. Now they adopt that occupation in which they see more profit. In this way the freedom, which person has got in selection of occupation, has brought changes in caste system.

6. Change in Status of Woman. Status of woman was not good under the influence of caste system. She used to spend her life only by living in the four walls of the house. She was neither free to get education nor she was free to speak on any subject. In this way she had to spend her life in a suppressed way. But in modern times, she has got freedom in all sectors of life and she is now no more under the control of males. Now she is economically self-dependent. Status of females has been completely changed. Now people feel happy in case of birth of a baby child. Now there is no difference in boy or girl child. Even government has given reservation to females for their upliftment. Now every female is free to marry anywhere she wants. Even her parents are not interfering in her decisions.

7. Change in the Marriage System. During the ancient times, caste system has made many tough rules related to marriage. No one was free to marry out of his sub-caste. But in modern times people have started to work with each other with which they come closer to each other. Inter caste marriage got sanctions of society. Now person can marry anywhere with his wish.

Second change which came in the sector of marriage is that earlier child marriage was very popular. Widow had to live as a widow for the whole life and she was not allowed to remarry. But government has banned child marriage and has set the age for mariage i.e. 18 years for girl and 21 years for boy. Widow -remarriage was also given sanction by society and governments.

Question 4.
Mention those examples which reveal that caste is still a dominant system of Indian society.
Answer:
Caste system is an integral part of Indian society from ancient times. Even in today’s modern age, caste system exists in Indian rural society. But when we are talking about the interface of caste then two things generally come in front of us.

• Caste system is changing
• Caste is restrengthening

Now we will see them one by one.

1. Is caste system being replaced by class system? Many scholars are of the view that after looking at the changes coming in caste system we can say that caste is changing in class. According to them, because of modernization, urbanization, westernization, industrialization etc. many changes have taken place in the structure of the caste. Importance of birth has been decreased and the feature of caste related to occupation has been changed. Now one caste has been changed into many classes and persons of different castes are taking form of one class. Caste is adopting the features of class. For example many trade unions have been made in factories which protect the interests of labourers.

Members of these trade unions belong to different castes. They come together because their occupation is same, class consciousness comes in them and they fight collectively to meet their demands. People from lower castes collectively are making their organization. At one time caste system was a closed group but now it is opening up like class. This situation comes in industries as well as in agricultural sector. Because of industrialization household rural industries and traditional occupations have been destroyed because of which people are doing agriculture. Farmers who don’t have land are doing labour. Indian government has passed a number of laws. They have been given a number of economic, political and social rights.

Reservation is given to the people of lower castes in every section. They have been given political rights and all the castes are collectively forming a class. Many changes are coming in castes. That’s why caste is getting features of class. In this way on the basis of given description we can say that caste is getting features of class and is taking the form of class. In this way caste is changing.

2. Caste is restrengthening. Yet many scholars are of the view that caste is changing into class and reasons are given above. But many scholars are also of the view that caste is not changing but is restrengthening. We cannot say that really the caste is changing. Base of caste is social and the base of class is economic. These scholars are of the view that because of number of changes are there in their nature and form, that is why they are strengthening. They are giving following reasons for that:

• Members of one caste are using modern means of communication, press to spread their message to the other members of caste.
• Educational institutions based upon caste have been opened up which are
  propagating in the favour of their own caste and which give support to their candidates in elections.
• During elections, selection of the candidate is being done on the basis of population of any particular caste. Candidate is generally selected from the most populated caste that city.
• Different castes are joining hands with each other, while keeping in mind their interests, so that their interests could be secured.
• Many political parties based on caste came into existence.
• Even today people are choosing boy or girl of their own caste to marry. Number of intercaste marriages are very less.
• Government has given reservation to different castes in jobs and in educational institutions. That is why hatredness between different castes is increasing and caste consciousness is increasing day by day.
•  Caste consciousness is increasing because of facilities given to different castes about jobs and education. After looking at this we can say that yet many changes are coming in caste and it is changing in caste but still it exists quite firmly in rural society. Our democratic system has also given strength to it due to reservations.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 3 Urban Society Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 3 Urban Society

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which of these is the base of urban areas?
(a) Large in size
(b) More population density
(c) Individualism
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

2. Which of these features does not match with urban society?
(a) Less population density
(b) Open organisation
(c) Comlex life
(d) Secondary relations.
Answer:
(a) Less population density

3. How much of Indian population lives in cities?
(a) 68% (b) 32%
(c) 70%
(d) 30%
Answer:
(b) 32%

4. Indian population is:
(a) 102 crore
(b) 112 crore
(c) 121 crore
(d) 131 crore
Answer:
(c) 121 crore

5. The density of urban population should be minimum of ………………. persons per square km.
(a) 200
(b) 300
(c) 100
(d) 400
Answer:
(d) 400

6. ……………… expresses the urban ways of living.
(a) Urbanism
(b) Urbanisation
(c) Sanskritisation
(d) Modernisation
Answer:
(a) Urbanism

Fill in the Blanks:

1. In 2011, around ……………………. people lived in cities.
Answer:
37.7 crore

2. In …………………. societies, all the modern facilities of social hfe are easily available.
Answer:
urban

3. There is ………………. mobility available in urban society.
Answer:
more

4. There is more ……………….. in urban society.
Answer:
individualism

5. …………….. means of social control are available in urban areas.
Answer:
Formal

6. ………………. families are there in cities.
Answer:
Nuclear

True/False:

1. Around 30% of urban population is engaged in non-agricultural occupations.
Answer:
False

2. There is lack of specialisation and division of labour in cities.
Answer:
False

3. Urban societies have heterogeneity of population.
Answer:
True

4. Urban society is large in size.
Answer:
True

5. In place of joint family, nuclear families are coming forward in urban areas.
Answer:
False

6. One of the major problems of cities is the existence of slums.
Answer:
True

One Word/One Line Questions Answers:

Question 1.
What is meant by Urbanisation?
Answer:
When rural people migrate to urban areas and adopt their ways of living, it is known as urbanisation.

Question 2. What is Urbanism?
Answer:
Urbanism is the urban way of living adopted by the people who come over there. ^

Question 3.
What is a City?
Answer:
That geographical area where more than 75% of population is engaged in non-agricultural occupations is known as a city.

Question 4.
Give one feature of the urban society.
Answer:
Specialization and division of labour exist in- urban society.

Question 5.
What is a town?
Answer:
That area which is larger than a village but smaller, than a city is known as a town.

Question 6.
How much of the Indian population lives in urban areas?
Answer:
32% or 37.7 crore people.

Question 7.
What should be the minimum population in a city?
Answer:
It should be minimum 5000 persons.

Question 8.
What should be the minimum density of population in urban areas?
Answer:
Minimum of 400 persons per square km.

Question 9.
Who is known as the Father of urban sociology?
Answer:
George Simmel is known as the Father of urban sociology.

Question 10.
What is the size of urban society?
Answer:
Urban society is large in size because of its more population.

Question 11.
Which means of social control are there in urban, society?
Answer:
Formal or secondary means of social Control are there in urban society such as police, courts, laws etc.

Question 12.
Which type of family is available in urban society?
Answer:
Urban societies have nuclear families which are small in size.

Question 13.
On which occupations, urban economy is based?
Answer:
Urban economy is based on non-agricultural occupations.

Question 14.
Name the major issues faced by the urban societies.
Answer:
The problem of housing and slums.

Question 15.
Give one reason of the problem of housing.
Answer:
Too much of population is one of the reasons of housing problem.

Question 16.
What are the different names of slums?
Answer:
Jhugi Jhopadi, Chaal, Dhata, Jhoparpatti etc.

Question 17.
Give one major feature of slums.
Answer:
Poverty and unemployment.

Question 18.
According to Census Survey 2011, What is a City?
Answer:
All the areas which have features of Municipal Committee, Corporation, Military Cantonment Board, Town etc. come under Notified Area.

Question 19.
On what the Urban economy is based?
Answer:
Urban economy is mainly based on non-agricultural occupations.

Question 20.
How many people in 1991, lived in slums in India?
Answer:
Around 46.78 million Indian people lived in slums in 1991.

Question 21.
Give one feature of urban society.
Answer:
People don’t have direct relations with each other. Instead, they have formal.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Which area is known as an urban area?
Answer:
That area where

• minimum population is 5000 persons.
• 75% of the total population is engaged in non-agricultural occupations.
• Density of population should be minimum of 400 persons per sQuestion km.

Question 2.
Who is known as the Father of urban sociology and why’?
Answer:
George Simmel is known as the father of urban sociology. It is so because he gave great contribution in the field of urban sociology. Especially for his book ‘The Metropolis and Mental Life’ printed in 1903 A.D.

Question 3.
What is urbanisation?
Answer:
When rural people start to migrate to urban areas, it is known as urbanisation. It is a two way process. In this, not only rural people migrate to urban area but change also comes in their occupation, habits, behaviour, values etc.

Question 4.
What is urbanism?
Answer:
Urbanism is one of the important elements of urban society which differentiates urban identity and personality from rural and urban societies. It expresses an urban way of living. It also tells us about the expansion of urban culture and evolution of urban society.

Question 5.
Social heterogeneity in urban society.
Answer:
In urban society people of different religions, castes, groups, cultures, live with each other. Due to their interaction, a new culture develops among them. They come from different places to live there and to earn their livelihood. This is known as social heterogeneity of urban society.

Question 6.
Division of labour.
Answer:
Division of labour is one of the key features of urban society. Every one cannot do all of his functions and that’s way the work is divided among many. One who can do any work in the best possible way, is given to do work. This is known as division of labour. Specialisation is one of its important aspects.

Question 7.
Urban family.
Answer:
Urban family is not joint but is nuclear in nature in which parents and their unmarried children live. Such families have less cooperation and control over its members. Parents have very less time to spend with their children.

Question 8.
Slums.
Answer:
Slums are the colonies established by those migrated labourers who are so poor that they cannot afford to purchase a house. People living in slums live in poor conditions because they lack better means of livelihood. Slums are one of the important aspects of urban life.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Literal Meaning of City.
Answer:
In simple words city is a living in any specific area and on the basis of urban characteristics. Word ‘CITY is an English word. Word CITY has come out of the word of Latin language.‘Cr^TTAS’ whose meaning is citizenship. In the same way the English word ‘URBAN’ has come out of Latin word TJRBS’ whose meaning is also city.

Question 2.
Two definitions of CITY.
Answer:
1. According to Willcox, “The cities included all districts in which the density of population per square mile is more than 1,000 and where there is practically no agriculture.
2. According to Bergal, “City is an institution whose most of the citizens are engaged in other industries except agriculture.”
3. According to Anand Kumar, “Urban community is a complex community of secondary relation with more population, based primarily on occupational and environment differences.”

Question 3.
Urbanization.
Answer:
Urbanization is a process in which people are leaving their rural areas and moving towards urban areas. Population of cities is increasing due to this process of urbanization. City cannot develop at once and very quickly but rural communities are changing into urban areas slowly and slowly. In this way the first stage of city is the village. In this way when the features of cities develop in rural communities due to slow changes then these canges are known as urbanization. According to Bergal, “ We shall call urbanization, the process of transforming rural areas into urban areas.”

Question 4.
Urban Society—Large Population.
Answer:
The most important feature of urban society is the large number of people living over there are more density of population. Meaning of density of population is that how many people are lving in per square kilometre. Cities can be divided in different classes on the basis of more or less population like small cities, medium cities and metropolitan cities. Population of the metropolitan cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata etc. is more than one crore but the population of 13 states of India is less than one crore. Industrial houses, educational institutions, business centres are commerce centres are more in cities because of which the density of population is more in cities. Because of more population, many problems arise in cities like poverty, unemployment, crime, starvation, slums etc.

Question 5.
Urban Society—Secondary and Formal Relations.
Answer:
The most important feature of urban society is the large number of population. People don’t have direct or face to face relations due to this large number of population. People in cities have formal relations with each other. These relations are temporary. Person establishes relations with other persons whenever any need arises and these relations come to an end when person’s need also comes to an end or fulfilled. In this way secondary and formal relations are the basis of urban society.

Question 6.
Urban Society—A number of Occupations.
Answer:
Cities are developed on the basis of different occupations. Many industries, occupations and institutions exist in cities because of which different people are used to engage in different types of occupations. Doctors, Managers, Engineers, Specialised labourers, non-specialised labourers etc. type thousands occupations exist in urban areas. More population is necessary for the needs of these different occupations.

Question 7.
Urban Society—Division in Classes.
Answer:
Not much importance is given to the caste, religion and occupation of the person in urban areas. But population in cities is divided in economic classes on economic basis. Population, in cities, is not divided only in two classes of capitalists and labourers but many other small classes and sub-classes exist in cities on the basis of their economic status. The difference ofJiigher and lower classes also exists in cities. –

Question 8.
Urban Society—More Social Mobility.
Answer:
More social mobility exists in urban areas as compared to rural areas. People in cities are always ready to leave one place and to go to another place for more profit or in search of good job. We can see local mobility as well as social mobility among the urban people. It means that person’s social status in society changes to higher or lower according to his ability.

Question 9.
Difference in Rural and Urban Societies.
Answer:

• Joint families exist in rural societies in which all the members of family living with each other but nuclear families exist in urban society in which husband, wife and their unmarried children are living.
• Neighbourhood is of very less importance in cities and people hardly know about their neighbours but neighbourhood is of great importance in rural areas and even children are living there all the times.
• Marriage is considered as a contract in urban areas which could be broken at any time but marriage is a religious sacrament which cannot be broken at any time.
• A number of occupations are there in urban areas but very less number of occupations are there in villages.

Question 10.
Urbanism.
Answer: Urbanism is one of the forms of urbanisation. Urbanisation is a process which actually expresses the change from rural economy towards urban economy. But in the process of urbanism, interest of people starts to incline toward cities from rural areas. They want to leave village and want to migrate towards urban areas and this interest of theirs gives strength to the process of urbanism.

Question 11.
Urban Family.
Answer:
Urban family is exactly opposite to rural family. Urban family is not joint family but is nuclear family in which husband, wife and their unmarried children are living. Relations between the members of urban family are not full of love and sympathy. Most of the functions of urban family are taken away by other institutions. Urban family is unable to fullfill all the needs of its members. Urban family can be broken at any time with divorce.

Question 12.
Urban family—Limited size.
Answer:
Size of the urban family is very small because they are nuclear families. Husband, wife and their unmarried children are living in nuclear family. Children make their new house after the marriage. We cannot see big families in cities. Any rare family can be seen as joint family. In this way due to nuclear family, Urban family is small in size.

Question 13.
Changes coming in Urban Family.
Answer:

• Urban families are changing to nuclear families from Joint families.
• Educational functions of the family remain no more and this function has been taken away by schools, colleges etc.
• Effect of religious functions on family has been .reduced and now people don’t have enough time for religious activities.
• Individualism is spreading in urban family. Now every one thinks about himself in the family.
• Status of female in urban family is also changed. Now she enjoys higher status in the family.

Question 14.
Reasons of breaking up of Urban Family.
Answer:

• Families started to disintegrate due to increasing importance of money.
• Mentality of the people is changing under the effect of western education and that’s why families are breaking.
• Ideals of freedom and equality are coming forward because of which conflicts are increasing and families are disintegrating.
• Social mobility in the cities has been increasing. People are leaving even their families for jobs and that’s why families are disintegrating.

Question 15.
Marriage now is no longer a religious sacrament.
Answer:
In ancient times marriage was considered as a religious sacrament because it was believed that person is doing marriage for the sake of religion. Getting a son, to perform yagyas and to pay the debts are necessary for person according to religion. So person was doing marriage because of these reasons. It was not possible for the person to break relationship with that female with which he has done marriage according to religious rituals. But these days people are used to do love marriage, doing marriage in the courts. Now marriage is not considered as a religious sacrament but is considered as a contract which can be broken at any time. Now the importance of religion and religious sacrament like feeling remains no more in the marriage. Now marriage is considered as a mean to live a good life.

Question 16.
Urban Economy.
Or
Write a short note on economic system of Urban Society.
Answer:
First of all Europe was affected by the industrial revolution and then it had affected the Asian countries. With this people started to move towards cities by leaving their villages and the mutual relations of the people completely changed. Society started to develop very quickly. Industries started to establish. Markets developed very quickly. That’s why urban economy was developed. In this way urban economy is that economy in which production is being done on large scale, big industries ard there, money is of great importance, division of labour and specialization are there, people have individual point of view and occupational diversity is there.

Question 17.
Industrial Economy.
Answer:
Urban economy can also be called as industrial economy because urban economy depends upon industries. Very big-big industries are there in cities where thousands of people are working with each other. Production is also on large scale due to large scale industries. Owners of these larger industries are different individuals. Production is being done for market. These markets are not only internal markets of the country but are foreign markets as well. Even in some cases, production is being done only for foreign markets. Owners of these big industries produce things only for their profit > and they exploit the labourers as well.

Question 18.
Division of labour and specialization.
Answer:
We can find a number of occupations and occupational diversity in urban societies. Family, in earlier times, was the unit of productions. All the functions were being done only in the family. But due to advent of urban areas, thousands of occupations and industries were developed. For exanjple we confined many types of functions in a factory and we need specialised person to do any specific type of work. Only the skilled person can do that specific work. In this way functions in cities are divided among different people because of which division of labour prevails in urban society. People are specialised in their work and that’s why specialisation is of great importance. In this way division of labour and specialisation are two important aspects of urban economy.

Question 19.
Occupational Diversity.
Answer:
The main feature of any urban society or industrial society is the availability of a number of occupations. Thousands of occupations are available in cities. Any one is officer, any one is peon, teacher, carpenter, blacksmith, labourer, rickshaw puller, shopkeepers, fruit sellers, vegetable sellers etc. like thousands of occupations are available in cities. We can find hundreds of occupations in one industry. In this way directly we can see that a number of occupations are there in cities.

Question 20.
Classes exist in urban society on the basis of occupational diversity.
Answer:
Three types of classes exist in urban society on the basis of occupational diversity and these are:

• Lower class
• Middle class
• Higher class

Question 21.
Lower class.
Answer:
The people working in industrial sector, labourers, labourers working in the rural sectors, Rickshaw and rehri pullers in cities etc. are the part of this class. Their living standard is low because they are working with their own hands and they have nothing except selling their labour. Their income is also low because of which these people are unable to educate their children and they hardly know about the legal security. They are related with the different castes and religions and even are working differently. They are living in slums. This class is also known as unorganized class.

Question 22.
Middle class.
Answer:
There is one class between lower and higher class and this class is known as middle class.. The members of this class belongs generally to job oriented people, petty shopkeepers and small businessmen. This class works either for people of higher class or are doing government jobs. Small big businessmen, big small shopkeepers, peons, clerks, big small officers, small big farmers, contractors, property dealers, artists etc. come in this category. Higher class dominates the lower class with the help of this class.

Question 23. Higher class.
Answer:
Very rich people are coming in this class. Big industrialists, leaders come in this category. Industrialists have the money. They invest their money and establish their industries and they give jobs to middle and lower class people. The main aim of industrialist is to invest the money to earn money. Power of the country is in the hands of leaders because of which they come in higher class. Their living standard is very high and way of living is also very high. They are the part of higher class because they have lot of money and power of country in their hands.

Question 24.
Slums.
Answer:
Slums can be defined as the group of buildings or bad houses where more than required people are living in non living conditions, where people have to live in unhygienic environment due to non-arrangement of sanitation or due to lack of facilities and with which a wrong effect is there on the health and morality of the people living in those groups.

Question 25.
Characteristics of Slums.
Answer:

• There is a problem of living in slums because a number of people are living over here.
• Slums are full of crimes because the behaviour of the people living over here is generally disintegrative.
• People lack facilities living over here because these are made illegally.
• Population of these slums is too much because people of lower class are coming to cities in search of work and they have to live over here in the absence of money.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is urbanization? What are its determinants?
Answer:
Urbanization. Urbanization is the process in which people leave their rural areas and move towards urban areas. Population of cities is increasing due to this process of urbanization. City cannot develop at once and very quickly but rural communities are changing into urban areas. In this way the first stage of city is the village. In this way when the features of cities develop in rural communities due to slow changes then the process of these changes is known as urbanization. According to Bergal, “We shall call urbanization, the process of transforming rural areas into urban areas.”

According to Anderson, “Urbanization is not a one way process but is a two way process. It not only includes moving towards cities from villages and changes in occupation, business, services from agriculture but it also includes change in nature, beliefs, values and behavioural patterns.”

Generally urbanization is a process which actually shows change from rural economy to urban economy. When industrial occupations, educational institutions and trade centres develops slowly and slowly in rural areas then people of different castes, classes, religions etc. start to live there, population increases and different means of employment develop over there. Production starts on a large scale, means of communication and transport develop to a great extent. Structure of relations also changes with this and secondary relations develop over there. Then this process can be called as the process of urbanization. This process has not been developed in a , great deal in India as compared to western countries because here rural communities are more in number and their main occupation in agriculture.

Determinants Of Urbanization:

There are many elements which determine the urbanization and their description | is given below:

1. Favourable Geographical Environment. Favourable geographical environment is necessary for the development of any city. Cities develop at those places whereever geographical conditions are good enough. If the geographical condition is good then person can fulfill all of his daily needs. Many ancient cities, in our country India, were developed along the banks of many rivers like Ganga, Yamuna, Sindhu etc. More than 100 cities or towns were developed along the banks of river Ganga.

2. Invention of the means of Transport, During ancient times, wheels, animals, boats etc. were used to send surplus food from rural areas to urban areas. Slowly and slowly with passage of time, other means of transport were developed and cities also started to develop. In this way means of transport and communications played an important role in the development of cities.

3. Surplus Food Products. The main occupation of people of villages is agriculture. When people started to produce food more than their needs then people started to live over there. Slowly and slowly population was increased at those places and new industries and markets started to develop. That’s why villages started to develop into cities.

4. Attraction of Cities. People are attracted by many facilities which prevail in urban areas like educational institutions, more means of employment, higher standard of living etc. That’s why cities started to develop. Patliputra city in ancient India was established due to Nalanda University.

5. Religious Importance* Many places in India are there which are considered as sacred from religious point of view. So due to religious importance, many cities were developed. Haridwar, Mathura, Kashi, Prayag, Anandpur Sahib etc. and many other cities are there which were developed due to their religious importance.

6. Cultural and Economic Importance. Cultural and economic facilities of any area play an important role in the development of any city. Many cities in our country are there which were developed due to their cultural and economic importance. For example, Patliputra or today’s Patna was developed due to Nalanda University and Dhaka was developed due to trade or economic reasons. In the same way Muradabad, Bareily etc. were developed due to these reasons. Many cities in ancient India were developed because those places were famous for any specific type of art or any industry.

7. Establishment of Army Camps. During ancient times, generally the winner kings were used to establish army camps around villages to control them. Slowly and slowly these camps around villages took the form of cities. Cities like Delhi, Kolkata, Agra etc. were developed due to this reason.

Question 2.
Explain the different factors which promote the process of urbanization.
Answer:
Development of cities in ancient times is generally considered in between the middle of 5000-4000 B.C. These cities were small in size because of which they were not more than the’towns. There was no development in cities from 3000 B.C. upto 2000 B.C. After this cities started to develop in Greek-Roman age. Ancient cities came to an end and new cities in different states started to develop. After this the cities in the countries like Mesopotamia, Rome, India, Greece started to be destroyed. On contrary to this cities were continuously increasing in western Europe. Cities started to develop very quickly around 1800 A.D. The process of urbanization has taken a great speed in 19th and 20th century. The elements which have „ encouraged the process of urbanization are given below:

1. Industrialization and Commercialization. Cities started to develop very quickly after Industrial revolution. Large industries were established due to new machines in industries, invention of machines and too much investment of money in industries. Rural people started to move towards industrial areas to earn more money by leaving their traditional occupations. In this way industrial centres like Jamshedpur, Liverpool, Chicago were developed as industrial cities. In earlier times, people used to make their house in good atmosphere but now they started to live in cities due to their occupations.

Commercialization, with industrialization, also has played an important role in the development of urban areas. Cities in ancient times were developed at those places where things can be easily distributed. Later on cities were developed due to development of trade. In this way industrialization and commercialization has given a great contribution in the development of this process.

2. Development of means of Transport and Communication. Development of means of transport and communication has also encouraged the process of urbanization. Industries depend upon means of transport for raw material and to distribute final product in the market. Means of transport and communication are very much necessary in industrial cities. When industries started to develop in the country then means of transport were not fully developed. That’s why labourers, working in industries, had to live near the factories. In this way large slums came into being around these factories. So the development of means of transport has encouraged the urbanization.

3. More or Surplus Resources. When any society starts to produce more resources then its needs in cities also start to develop very quickly. Humans, in ancient times, were used to fulfill their needs but man’s production power has been increased in modern age due to his win over nature. Now less number of persons can produce much more than their ability due to the development of technology, science and knowledge. Man’s control over nature is also one of the reasons of development of cities.

4. Educational Facilities. Educational facilities have also given a great contribution in the development of cities. Main educational institutions, in ancient times, were only in cities. Main training centres, university, technical educational centre, agricultural university etc. were all existing in cities. Library, art centres etc. were also in cities. Rural people are moving towards cities to achieve these facilities with which the process of urbanization is increasing.

5. Recreational Facilities. There are a number of recreational facilities in urban areas. Many types of recreational clubs, cinema, theatres etc. have developed in cities. These institutions attract people living in other areas towards them. In this way these also play an important role in the development of cities.

6. Economic Attraction of Urban Areas. Individual progress can happen only in cities. People get good pay in cities and get help in increasing business. Humans get good occupation and good pay for their needs while living in cities and that’s why they like to live in cities. People get good, better and more facilities in cities. Businessmen get more profits in cities. Standard of living of people becomes higher in cities and that’s why people are moving towards cities.

In this way after looking at these elements, we can say that these elements plays an important role in the development of cities or in the process of urbanization.

Question 3.
What are the features of urban family?
Answer:
1. Nuclear Family. Joint families exist in rural society in which grand father-grand mother, father-mother, married and unmarried children, uncle-aunt and their children are living. This type of family can also be called as extended family. But urban families are not this much big. They are very much small in size and are nuclear families in which husband wife and their unmarried children live. Children make their new house after marriage. In this way family remains nuclear. This type of family is very common in metropolitan and big cities.

2. Less Number of Children. Less number of children are there in urban family. Urban parents are generally literate persons and they are aware about their duties and responsibilities urban families are conscious about their functions. With this urban families have to bear a number of expenses and parents are conscious about the fact they cannot give good education to more children. That’s why they restrict themselves to less number of children (one or two) so that they could be given a better future and they can become the good citizens of the country.

3. Small in Size. Size of the urban family is very small because they are nuclear families. Husband, wife and their unmarried children live in nuclear family. Children make their new house after the marriage. We cannot see large families in cities. Any rare family can be seen as joint family. In this way due to nuclear family, Urban family is small in size.

4. Individualism. The point of view of members of urban family is quite individualistic. They only think about themselves. Every member of a family, in ancient times, was thinking about the welfare of family. Even they were suppressing their wish in front of the wish of family. In other words collectivity was important than the individualism. But in today’s urban families, person never likes to leave his wish in front of wish of the family. Infact he does everything what he can do to fulfill his wish. Today individualism is important than the collectivity. Even sometimes family has to surrender in front of wish of any member. Point of view of person, in today’s practical society, is individualistic.

5. Less Control. Urban families have very less control over its members. In rural societies collectivity is heavier then the wish of an individual and family has enough control on its members. Every one has to obey the orders given by elders of the family. But urban families are exactly opposite to it. Every one works in his own way and is free from any burden. He just takes the advice of the members of the family but does what he wants. No one can suppress his wish. In this way urban family has very less control omits members.

6. Equal Status of Women. Status of male and female is equal in urban society but the status of female is very low in rural family. Urban female is well educated and is aware about her rights. With this most of the urban women are working somewhere else except their home. They are working in the offices, factories, schools, colleges etc. and are earning equal money with that of “males. Even in some cases she earns more than the males. She helps the family from economic point of view and that’s why she wants that she should be given equal rights with males. If male tries to oppose this then she can take divorce from him. In this way urban female has got equal status with that of males due to her education and economic status.

7. Formal Relations. Relations between members of urban families are formal and impersonal. Very less control is there of one member over the other because they don’t have close relations. Point of view of the people is individualistic and that’s why they just talk with each other when any need arises. Even they hardly take care about each other’s problems. Just husband and wife take care of each other. Relations between them are formal and impersonal.

8. Decreasing Impact of Religion. Effect of religion in urban family has been reduced to a great extent. Religion has a great impact in rural family and the impact of the religion can be seen in every activity of the family. Religious rituals are being performed with proper care at the time of birth, marriage and death. But the impact of religions has been reduced to a great extent in urban family. Urban people are generally literate and want to do every activity on the basis of reason. They want to know everything about what they have to do but we cannot tell anything about religion. Religious activities have been reduced in urban families. Very less religious rituals are being performed at the time of birth, marriage and death. Priest takes only 1-1- hours to perform marriage or he needs very less time to perform rituals at the time of death.

Question 4.
Why are urban families breaking down? Explain.
Answer:
The urban family is disintegrating. This disintegration has not come in last one or two years but is the result of many changes which came in many years. All these changes came because of many reasons and these reasons became the causes of disintegration of urban family. Most of these reasons are given below:

1. Importance of Money. In modern society, man has changed his life style by getting education because of which he needed a lot of money. So he started to earn a lot of money by using his capabilities so that he was able to take his status and living standard high. His this thinking has encouraged him to separate from urban family.

2. Impact of Westernization. The British empire brought many changes in India. They promoted the western culture. Western education helped the people to form independent views. That’s why people started to live separately. Individualistic interests also started to’ develop. When females started to get education then the values of joint family started to change. She moved out of her house for job and urban family started to disintegrate.

3. Industrialization. Modern society is also known as industrial society. Industries came into being. Production of things was gone to industries. Machines can do a lot of work with less expenditure. Artisans started to move towards industries. In this way they started to separate from the family. Now there was no need to adopt their traditional occupation. That’s why people started to move towards cities for jobs and urban families started to disintegrate. –

4. Social Mobility. In modern societies, man can achieve status according to his capabilities. That’s why he has to do a lot of hard work. Every, person wants to move upwards in the society. In joint family, status of the person is ascribed and that’s why there is no need to work hard. There is lot of socal mobility in the society and that’s why joint family started to disintegrate. Now everyone thinks about his own family. The sense of individualism has been developed. He wants to make his personality himself. In this way social mobility has encouraged the disintegration of urban family.

5. Development in the means of Transportation. Means of transport have been developed. In earlier times man was unable to move from one place to another due to lack of means of communication. That’s why they have to live in the joint family. But with the development of means of transport this problem was solved. Now they can live at different places and even then they can contact each other very easily. That’s why urban family started disintegrating.

6. Increase in Population. Population in India is increasing with great pace. With this a situation comes in family, within a short span of time, when land and property of the family become insufficient for the needs of all the members. In this condition any one member of the family has to leave his house in search of job or an occupation. Urban family is also disintegrating because of this.

7. Problem of Urbanization and Immigration. One of the important reasons of disintegration of joint family is the rapidly increasing urbanization because of which people of village are moving towards cities for jobs or for better living. On the other side, houses in urban areas are very less in number. Houses in cities are not only less in numbers but are small as well. That’s why the urban families are disintegrating even because of problem of houses in cities.

8. Ideals of Independence and Equality. Joint family is just like a dictator’s monarchy in which the head of the family is just like a dictator. Every one has to obey his orders and no one is allowed to speak in front of him. This is totally against the modern ideology. Under the influence of modern education in young generation and under the influence of ideology of independence and equality, urban families are disintegrating.

9. Legislative Reasons. In the British rule, many legislations were passed with which joint families started to disintegrate. Under the influence of The Hindu Law of Inheritance Amendment Act 1929 and Hindu Women’s Right of Property Act of 1937, the disintegration of joint family was encouraged because it helped in the division of family property. So, the property of the joint family started to divide which resulted in the disintegration of urban family.

Question 5.
Explain different characteristics of Economy of urban society.
Answer:
If we compare economy of rural society with economy of urban society then we will come to know that the urban economy has come out of the rural economy. Before its advent, cities were in the form of villages. But gradually the population of villages was increased. Size of village became larger with the increase in population. Due of larger size, many new occupations came into being. Firstly small scale industries were established and then later on large industries also come into being. Production, in these industries, started on larger scale instead of small scale. Villages then changed into towns and later on these towns became cities. When population increased then these cities changed into metropolitan cities. People in earlier times, were producing things only to fulfill their needs. But later on, with the increase in population and demand, they started to produce things for market. Cities became the larger markets. Modern cities are of same type where thousands of occupations are available. People today are producing things not for themselves but for market.

If production, in cities, was started on a larger scale then Industrial revolution also played an important role in it. Industrial revolution was started in 2nd half of 18th century in Europe. First of all Europe was influenced by it and then later on due to imperialism, it spread in the countries of Asia in 19th century. Mutual relations of the people were changed due to industrial revolution. Society started to develop very quickly. New industries, on a larger scale, came into being. Markets started to develop. That’s why urban economy was also developed. In this way very quick changes came in urban economy after 19th century. Present urban economy also depends upon this where production is on large scale, lage industries are there, enough importance of money is there, division of labour and specialization are there, individualistic point of view of people is there and occupational diversity is there. After looking at that we can say that there are certain characteristics of urban economy which are given ahead:

1. Industrial Economy. Urban economy can also be called as industrial economy because urban economy depends upon industries. Very large industries are there in cities where thousands of people work with each other. Production is also on large scale due to large scale industries. Owners of these larger industries are different individuals. Production is being done for market. They produce not only for internal markets of the country but for foreign markets as well. Even in some cases, production is being done only for foreign markets. Owners of these big industries produce things only for their profit and they exploit the labourers as well.

2. Division of Labour and Specialization. We can find a number of occupations and occupational diversity in urban societies. Family, in earlier times, was the unit of productions. All the functions were done only in the family. But due to advent of urban areas, thousands of occupations arid industries were developed. For example we confine many types of functions in a factory and we need specialised person to do any specific type of work. Only a skilled person can do that specific work. In this way functions in cities are divided among different people because division of labour prevails in urban society. People are specialised in their work and that’s why specialisation is of great importance. In this way division of labour and specialisation are two important aspects of urban economy.

3. Production on a Large Scale. Production, in urban economy is being done on a larger scale. Very large industries are there in cities where thousands of labourers, clerks, officers work. Large amount of money is also, invested in these industries. Owner can earn profit only if the production will be done on a large scale. This production is not only for internal market but is for foreign market as well. Some industrial units produce only for foreign markets. Produced thing is being sold in the market with full profit so that every one could be able to get some profit out of it. These industrial units are working day and night to produce on a large scale.

4. Occupational Diversity. The main feature of any urban society or industrial society is the availability of a number of occupations. Thousands of occupations are available in cities. Any one is officer, any one is peon, teacher, carpenter, black smith, labourer, rickshaw puller, shopkeepers, fruit sellers, vegetable sellers etc. like thousands of occupations are available in cities. We can find hundreds of occupations in one industry. In this way directly we can see that a number of occupations are there in cities.

5. Nature of Getting more Profit. One of the another important feature of urban economy is that the people have the tendency to earn more and more profit. Industrialists want to produce things by spending less amount of money and want to sell their produced things with more and more profit. Shopkeeper wants to sell things to customer with big margin of profit. Even in many occupations, profit goes upto the range of 100% to 200%. Every one wants to earn more and more money because of which they try to earn in any right or wrong way. Labourer wants to earn more and more money. In this way every one wants to become rich because of which they have the tendency to earn more and more profit.

6. Social Mobility. The meaning of social mobility is by leaving the present social status and moving towards other social status. Too much social mobility is there in cities. A number of people are doing job in cities. If any one gets better pay and better position in any other job then he leaves first job very quickly. Small shopkeepers are doing progress and making big shops. People leave their house to live in another house. This is mobility. With this too much specialization and division of labour is there in cities. Specialised persons are in great demand in cities. Some specialised persons are changing their jobs even after one or two years. That’s why their area of social contracts also increases because of which person raises his standard of living and this is also mobility. In this way mobility is also an essential part of urban economy. .

7. Competition. We can see lot of competition in urban economy. Urban people are getting education, doing different types of courses and are getting training in many fields. 15-20 people are there to take only one job. With this, competition is also there in big industries to sell more and more of their things. Even they try to sell their product by reducing rates with which consumer gets profit. In the same way big and small shopkeepers are also competing with each other to sell their things more of than their competitors. Even they reduce the rates of things. Sometimes this reduction of things goes upto the range of 50%, 60% or even upto 70% of actual cost so that more and more things could be sold. Other companies also reduce their rates by looking at the rates of its competitors. Actual beneficiary from this price war is actually the consumer. In this way we can see too much competition in urban economy.

8. More Population. One of another important feature of urban economy is the availability of more population in urban society. Wherever industries were established, cities were also established around those industries. People are moving towards cities by leaving their rural households^ work in these industries. If they will be able to get any work in these industries then it’s fine unless they adopt any one of other occupations in cities. Slowly and slowly the population of the city increases. Needs of the people also increase, with the increase in population. So to fulfill their needs shops and markets develop, government and private offices come into being, schools, colleges etc. come forward for the education of children. Police system also comes forward to control the increased population. In this way slowly and slowly small city changes into big city. Kolkata, Mumbai, Delhi etc. are this type of cities.

9. Crimes. If city spreads then crimes also increases with this. Some people, out of the whole population, are there who love to snatch things from others instead of earning by hardwork. Thiefs, dacoits, burglars etc. come under this category. People are unable to get good place to live because of which slums come into being. These slums are the centres of most of the crimes. Theft, decoity, rape, beating up, snatching etc. are very common in cities.

10. More Capital Investment. More investment of capital is very much necessary for urban economy. Large industries are there in cities and hundreds of crores are required to establish such industries. That person invests the whole money who runs the whole industry. A very big network is required to bring raw material, for production, to sell produced things, to collect money etc. Lot of money is required to make this type of big network. That’s why more investment of capital is there. That person earns more profit who invests this much amount of money.

11. Importance of Money. Money is of great importance in an urban economy because every type of function is being done with money in today’s age. Even person gets social status with the help of money. Rich persons, who have more money, have higher social status and the poor people, who don’t have money, have lower social status. Status of rich people and politicians is very much higher because they have a lot of money but one hardly bothers about poor people.

Question 6.
What are the reasons behind coming up of slums? How can their condition be improved?
Or
What are the causes for the growth of slums?
Answer:
If we look carefully then we will come to know that slums came up due to modern societies. Many processesjike modernization, industrialization, westernization came forward to make societies modern. New industries were established due to industrialization and many cities came into being around industries. People came to these areas from their village in search of work and started to live over here. They had to live in slums due Jto very low income. There were no facilities in these slums with which their atmosphere started to deteriorate and they became the slums. In this way slums came into being. Not only one or two factors were responsible for the existence of these slums but many factors were responsible which are given below:

1. Economic Reasons. If we look at slums carefully then we will come to know that the main reason for the existence of slums is economic. People are moving towards cities due to poverty and in search of good income and start to live over here. It becomes necessary for them to save money for their needs as well as to send money to their families in the villages. Income is less but expenditure is more. That’s why they can’t afford to live in expensive houses and have to live in slums. They have to accept the unhygienic atmosphere of slums. Atmosphere deteriorates with the increase in population. Thus, they are forced to live in slums due to less expenses.

2. Industrialization. Industrialization has played a very important role in the establishment of slums. Generally it has been seen that people start to live around that area where any industry has been established. People are coming to cities to find any job in these industries by leaving their villages. They get job but income is very low because of which they cannot afford to live in expensive houses. That’s why they have to live in slums where 8-10 persons are living in one room. Atmosphere and place of living in these slums is very unhygienic because of which they have to face many problems and diseases. That’s why due to industrialization slums came into being.

3. Political Reasons. Our country is democratic and political parties are the main reasons in our country for the existence of slums. These political parties are fighting with each other to get power. They have their own programmes and ideology to uplift the poor people. But there is no place of poverty in their own lives and they are very much away from the problem of poverty. Yet these parties are making many programmes to uplift the poor people but actually they hardly do any thing for them. They make these programmes only to get their votes. Very less steps they take to improve their condition. Political parties want to keep them at their own place to save their vote bank. In this way our political system is responsible for these slums.

4. Social System. The present social system of our society is also responsible for the establishment of slums. There is no place of poor and weak people in our social system. Poor people live at those places in cities where even animals don’t want to live. They have to live in unhygienic environment without any option except to live over here. They are considered as unnecessary by society, government and industrialists. Government and industrialists take work from them but never let them to come up in social strata. If they are uplifted then they will become a danger for higher class. In this way our social system is also responsible for this.

5. Administrative Causes. Local administration is also responsible for the existence of slums. Local administration is always considered as corrupt and inefficient because they are unable to make good economic, social and administrative policies for the people. They make one master plan for the development of the city. But due ,to any reason they hardly care about the development of slums and upliftment of poor people. Less economic sources are also responsible for this. But even if less economic resources are utilized in a proper way then the condition of even slums can also be improved. But it never happens because of which slums increase and remain unhygienic to live over here.

Ways of Improvement:

No problem in ’this world is there which cannot be solved. In this way if our government, leaders and officers work in a proper way then the problem of slums can also be solved. There are certain ways to improve slums which are given below:

1. The biggest problem of these slums is of drinking water. People hardly get clean water to drink because of which they have to drink unhygienic water. Government should arrange for clean drinking water for them for 24 hours.

2. In this way there is another big problem of sanitation or polluted water. If proper facilities of sanitation will be there then the diseases of these slums can also be removed. Government should arrange for proper facilities of sanitation, sewerage, bathrooms etc. so that the diseases can be kept away from these slums.

3. They have another problem of non-electricity. Government should also arrange electricity for slums.

4. Industrialists should also come forward to improve the condition of these places. Industrialists should also arrange for good houses for their workers so that the population of slums should not be increased.

5. Our leaders, officers and government should leave the politics and try to do some welfare works for them and should leave their political interests for their betterment. They should work honestly for the upliftment of these people so that they can live a better life in society.

6. The government should arrange for concrete and better houses for them so that they should come out of these slums to live a better life. In this way if government, leaders and officers work in a proper way then most of the problems of these slums can be solved and these people can live a better life.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 3 Urban Society Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Chapter 3 Urban Society

Sociology Guide for Class 12 PSEB Urban Society Textbook Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which are the causes of homelessness in urban society?
(a) Shortage of housing
(b) Entitlement of housing
(c) Entitlement of Land
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

2. The movement of the people from rural areas to urban areas is called:
(a) Urban society
(b) Rural society
(c) Urbanism
(d) Urbanisation
Answer:
(d) Urbanisation

3. Which are the causes for the growth of slums?
(a) Poverty
(b) Poor housing planning
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Both (a) and (b)

4. Which is not the feature of slum area:
(a) Acute overcrowding
(b) Inadequate lighting
(c) Urbanism
(d) No sanitation system
Answer:
(c) Urbanism

5. Which is the cause of homelessness?
(a) Shortage of housing
(b) Self-sufficiency
(c) Development
(d) Market-oriented
Answer:
(a) Shortage of housing

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Urban society is ………………. in size and …………….. in nature.
Answer:
small, complex

2. …………….. means of social control found in urban society.
Answer:
Formal

3. An urban community is known for its ……………. division of labour.
Answer:
specialised

4. Housing problem is also known as ……………
Answer:
Homelessness

5. ………………. represents an urban way of living.
Answer:
Urbanism

6. …………… and …………….. are the issues of urban society.
Answer:
Housing, slums

True/False:

1. Urban society is small in size.
Answer:
False

2. Trade, industry and commerce are the chief marks of the urban economy.
Answer:
True

3. The chances for social mobility are less in urban society.
Answer:
False

4. Megacities are suffering from acute housing problems.
Answer:
True

5. Slums are part of rural life.
Answer:
False

Match the Columns:

Column A	Column B
Formal relation	Homelessness
Shortage of housing	Slum
The urban way of living	Urban society
Informal housing structure	Heterogeneity
Inter mixture of people from different backgrounds	Urbanism

Answer:

Column A	Column B
Formal relation	Urban society
Shortage of housing	Homelessness
The urban way of living	Urbanism
Informal housing structure	Slum
Inter mixture of people from different backgrounds	Heterogeneity

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is a district of a city marked by poverty and inferior living conditions called?
Answer:
Slums.

Question 2.
Poor ventilation, acute overcrowding, faulty alignment of streets and inadequate lighting are the features of which type of society?
Answer:
Urban society.

Question 3.
Large-scale division of labour and specialisation are found in which society-urban or rural?
Answer:
Urban society.

Question 4.
An attitude in which the interests of the individual take precedence over the interests of the group is called?
Answer:
Individualism.

Question 5.
The state of being unknown to most people is called:
Answer:
Anonymity.

Question 6.
Urban society is dominated by which relations?
Answer:
Secondary and formal relations.

Question 7.
Which type of economy is found in a tribal society?
Answer:
Subsistence economy.

Question 8.
What is the size of the urban population?
Answer:
The urban population constitutes 37.7 crores or 32% of the total Indian population.

Question 9.
As per the census of India, what is urban society?
Answer:
The areas which have municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee.

Question 10.
The housing problem is also known as:
Answer:
Homelessness.

Question 11.
Slums are known in India by which different names?
Answer:
Katras, Gallis, Jhuggi-Jhopadpatti, Chawls, Bustees, Jhopadpatti etc.

Question 12.
Name two types of deviant behaviours existing in slum areas.
Answer:
Crime, Juvenile delinquency, prostitution, drug addiction etc.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you mean by Urban Society?
Or
Write a short note on urban society.
Answer:
Urban society is the society in which people have formal relations, where people of different religions and cultures live with each other, which is large in size and where 75% or more population is engaged in non-agricultural occupations.

Question 2.
What is a non-agricultural occupation?
Answer:
Those occupations which are not directly attached to agriculture are known as non-agricultural occupations. Such occupations are available in urban areas where 75% population is engaged in non-agricultural occupations such as jobs, industries etc.

Question 3.
What is Individualism?
Or
Individualism.
Answer:
When an individual only thinks about himself and his own facilities then this process is known as individualism. In this, one never cares about society or someone else. He only thinks about himself and works for his own profit.

Question 4.
What do you mean by Housing?
Answer:
Housing is a building in which people live. It is the physical structure that gives us protection from sunlight, rain etc. The level of housing depends upon a few things such as the size of family, income, level of living life etc.

Question 5. What is Congestion?
Answer:
The meaning of congestion is over-crowding of urban areas. Many households in urban areas are unable to cope up with the increasing population. That’s why many individuals are forced to live in a tiny room and this is congestion.

Question 6.
What is a Slum?
Answer:
The slum is a colony in which labourers, poor people live in unhygienic conditions and without any facilities. Due to lack of means of living, people are forced to live in slums which adversely affects their health.

Question 7.
What do you mean by urbanisation?
Answer:
Urbanisation is a process in which rural people migrate to urban areas, settle there and develop the areas. People not only leave their areas but they even change their views, ideals, habits etc.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Explain two characteristics of urban society.
Or
Briefly discuss two characteristics of urban society.
Answer:

• Size of population: Urban society is large in size as it has a lot of population. Availability of more employment, education, health and entertainment facilities attract rural people to urban areas.
• Non-Agricultural Occupations: One of the major features of urban society is that 75% or more of its population is engaged in non-agricultural occupations. There is the existence of specialisation and division of labour. Many opportunities to earn money are available in urban areas.

Question 2.
Write down the three causes of housing.
Answer:

• Lack of Houses: There is a lack of houses in urban areas and that’s why there is always a problem of housing in urban areas.
• Poverty: There is too much of the urban population out of which many are poor who cannot afford to buy a house. That’s why there is a problem with housing in cities.
• More Population: The way in which urban population is increasing, housing is not increasing with that pace. That’s why people face the problem of housing.

Question 3.
Write the three causes responsible for slum areas in urban society.
Or
Slums are the social problem of urban society. Discuss.
Answer:

• Rural-Urban Migration: Rural people migrate to urban areas in search of employment but they do not find any place of living. That’s why they have to live in slums.
• Urbanisation: Many facilities are available in cities and rural people get attracted to them. They do not have any place of living and they are forced to live in slums.
• Poverty: Urban poverty is quite helpful in increasing slums in cities. People don’t have money to buy a house. So they have to live in slums.

Question 4.
Write any two social changes in urban society.
Answer:

• Occupations in urban areas are increasing. During earlier times, there were very few occupations available but occupations are increasing due to industrialisation and education. People are adopting them and are removing unemployment.
• Individualism is increasing in urban areas. Now people don’t know about their neighbours. They only know about their own interests and they are ready to do anything for their interests.

Question 5.
Write a short note on urban society.
Answer:
See Question 1. of very long answer type questions (V).

Question 6.
What do you mean by urban society? Discuss its characteristics in detail.
Answer:
See Question 1. of very long answer type questions (V).

Very Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Write a detailed note on urban society.
Or
Define urban society. Discuss the major characteristics of urban society in detail.
Answer:
Urban areas and people living in urban areas are rapidly increasing. More .than 5,000 cities and towns are there in our country. Life of the urban people has been greatly affected due to increase in population. People of the middle class and higher class are able to fulfill their needs but it becomes very difficult for people of lower classes to fulfill their needs.

In simple words city is a formally spread community that is determined on the basis of living standard of the people living in any specific area and on the basis of urban characteristics. Word ‘CITY’ is an English word. Word CITY has come out of the word of Latin language ‘CIVITAS’ whose meaning is citizenship. In the same way the English word ‘URBAN’ has come out of Lastin word ‘URBS’ whose meaning is also city.

Definition on the basis of population. According to the Census Bureau of America, a city is that place whose population is 25,000 or more than it. In the same way Egypt has the limit of 11,000 and France has the limit of 2,000 for any place to be called as a city. In our country India, community of population more than 5,000 is known as Urban area where the density of population is 400 or more than 400 and where 75% or more than 75% of people are engaged in non-agricultural occupations. Definitions on the basis of occupations. That area is considered as Urban area where the main occupation of the people is not the agriculture but is any one else.

1. According to Willcox, “The cities include all districts in which the density of population per square mile is more than 1,000 and where there is practically no agriculture.”
2. According to Bergal, “City is an institution whose most of the citizens are engaged in other industries except agriculture.”
3. According to Anand Kumar, “Urban community is a complex community of secondary relation with more population, based primarily on occupational and environmental differences.”
4. According to Lewis Mumford, “City is that centre where more and more power of community and concentration of culture is there.”
5. According to Louis Wirth, “In city, people with many social differences are living in an area with more concentration of population.”

So on the basis of these definitions, we can say that the urban communities are large in size, where secondary relations are of great importance, where a number of occupations are there and where the features like division of labour, specialization and social mobility are there.

Characteristics: 1. Large Population. Most important feature of urban society is the large number of people living over there and more density of pupulation. Meaning of density of population is that how many people live in one square kilometre. Cities can be divided in different classes on the basis of more or less population like small cities, medium cities and metropolitan cities. Population of the metropolitan cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata etc., is more than one crore but the population of 13 states of India is less than one crore. Industrial houses, educational institutions, trade centres and commerce centres are more in cities because of which the density of population is more in cities. Because of more population, many problems arise in cities like poverty, unemployment, crime, starvation, slums etc.

2. Less Places of Living. Another important feature of cities is the lack of place of living. It is so because of the more population of cities. It is a very serious problem in big cities. Many poor people live on roadsides or under the trees or in slums. Middle class families live in small houses in cities where there is no place to play for children and where ,there is no separate room for children to sleep and to study. That’s why many times children are able to see those things which should not be seen by them. In this way very less place of living is there in cities.

3. Secondary and Formal Relations. The most important feature of urban society is the large number of population. Peoplg don’t have direct or face to face relations due to this large number of population. People in cities have formal relations with each other. These relations are temporary. Person makes relation with other persons whenever any need arises and these relations come to an end when person’s need is fulfilled. In this way secondary and formal relations are the base of urban society.

4. Different Occupations. Cities are developed on the basis of different occupations. Many industries, occupations and institutions exist in cities because of which different people are engaged in different types of occupations. Doctors, Managers, Engineers, Specialised labourers, non-specialised labourers etc. Thousands of occupations exist in urban areas. More population is necessary for the needs of these different occupations.

5. Division in Economic Classes. Not much importance is given to caste, religion and occupation of the person in urban areas. But population in cities is divided in economic classes on economic basis. Population, in cities, is not divided only in two classes of capitalists and labourers but many other small classes and sub-classes exist in cities on the basis of their economic status. The difference of higher and lower classes also exists in cities.

6. Competition. Every person, in cities, gets enough chances to progress in every sector. We can find literate and able persons, in cities, in large number. That’s why too much competition is there in cities to get admission in educational institutions, to get job and to get promotion in job. Competition has been increased to a great extent due to the development of industrialization.

7. Individualism. The equality of individualism can be seen among the people of urban areas. We can see the sense of individualism instead of community feeling among the urban people. People in cities just consider about their interests. Person has just one aim of his life and that is to collect more and more money with the help of which he can buy all the things of leisure. This feature of individualism is not limited among persons only in economic and political sector but it has reached the familial and cultural sector as well.

8. Social Mobility. More social mobility exists in urban areas as compared to rural areas. People in cities are always ready to leave one place and to go to another place for more profit or in search of good job. We can see local mobility as well as social mobility among the urban people. It means that person’s social status in society changes to higher or lower according to his ability.

9. Higher Status of Women. Status of woman is higher in urban society as compared to rural society. We can see urban women working in any sector without any restriction and she works like males. Many social evils like purdah system, child marriage, no education to females, restrictions on female are either very less in number or are negligible. That’s why the urban woman gets more chances to develop her prsonality. We can see urban females working like males in every field and in every sector.

10. Less Family Control. Very less primary relations are there in urban societies and it also lacks community feelings. Person in cities gets the facilities like making food, washing cloths, creches for taking care of children etc. That’s why there is no need for the person to depend upon other members of the family to fulfill his needs. That’s why females are going out of their houses to do job in any office. It is so because the responsibilities of females for family and children have been taken away by many other institutions. In this way the place of family relations is taken away by money. That’s why the control of the family over its members has been reduced to a great extent.

11. Centre of Social Problems. Urban society has played an important role in increasing many social problems. Many types of social problems, which exists in present societies, are because of urban areas. City is the main centre of many problems like crime, corruption, alcoholism, poverty, unemployment, family disorganization, conflict in different classes, lack of moral values etc. Population and size of cities are increasing day by day and that’s why all the problems are also increasing.

12. Technology and Invention. Many types of developed techniques, education and different types of training exist in urban societies. Urban people have to face new problem daily and that’s why many new inventions daily take place in their areas. We can see many forms of science, better technology, higher education etc. in urban areas.

13. Decreasing Effect of Religion. Number of literate persons are too much in cities. That’s why they never spend their life based on superstitions, mores, beliefs etc. Person understands everything on the basis of reason and science. That’s why they want to understand religious functions on the basis of reason. But no one can prove these religious functions on the basis of reason and that’s why the faith and effect of religion on person is decreasing day by day.

14. Changing Social Classes. Different classes play an important role in maintaining any society. These classes have fulfilled many needs of the society right from the ancient times till today. But in today’s modern times, social classes are very much changeable and flexible. Old classes of cities are coming to an end and they are being replaced by new classes. There is too much difference in working culture of ancient classes and modern classes and that’s why they seem like new classes.

Question 2.
What is housing? What are the causes responsible for housing problems?
Answer:
The meaning of housing is that building in which people live. It means that physical structure which protects us from sun, cold, rain etc. If there is no housing, people will have to live under open sky and they will not be able to protect them in any way. The level of housing of any one depends upon many factors such as family income is less or more, family is of small size (nuclear family) or of large size (joint family) what is their life style and what is the level of education in the family.

Our country India still is not in a position to provide the basic facility of having a home to millions of its citizens. Having a home is a basic need of an individual. Even after 69 years of independence, our country is having a severe shortage of housing, especially for the poor. This problem is further increased by the increasing population of urban India. The rural migration to urban areas in search of employment has exerted a great pressure on urban housing and basic facilities. That’s why the gap between demand and supply increases in urban areas and that’s why there is a great lack of housing over there.

During last few decades, the urban population is increasing quite rapidly and it’s almost impossible to provide a house to every individual. That’s why the problem of housing, which is also known as homelessness, is becoming a major problem in urban areas. The places of living in urban areas are under such pressure that many persons are forced to live on roads, bus stand, railway station and slums. It has been said that around half of the urban population fives in slums or they pay 20% of their total income as rent of their house. Major cities such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai are facing this problem.

There are many reasons of the problem of housing such as:

• Lack of houses
• Entitlement of land
• Individual status of homeless persons
• Entitlement of houses.

Question 3.
What do you mean by slums? Write a detailed note on it.
Or
Define Slum.
Answer:
Population of our country is increasing very quickly. Due to this increasing population of the country, many problems are also increasing in the cities Out of these problems, one problem which is creating lot of trouble to us is the p’-obkin of living in the cities. People hardly get houses to five in cities and if they are available then their rent and rates are very high that one common person or poor people cannot afford it, but they have to live in cities because of their occupations. That’s why they have to live in slums. In this way slums have come forward in cities as a very important and serious problem. Tliey are also known as Jhugis, Chawls, Jhopar patti, ‘Bastis’ etc.

In this way we can define slums in this way that, “group of buildings or bad houses where more than required people are living in non-living conditions, where people have to live in unhygienic environment due to non-arrangement of sanitation or due to lack of facilities and with Which a wrong effect is there on the health and morality of the people living in those groups.”

In this way slum is that area in a city where place of living is not good for a better life. Slums can be seen as a social fact. In this way the following things can be seen very early in slums:

• More density of population
• Crowd of people
• Lack of sanitation facility
• Sub-standard houses
• Crimes
• Poverty

In this way, people in slums, live with each other in the non-living and hell-like atmosphere, where too much poverty, temporary houses are there and where is no facility of sanitation: These are those areas where a person cannot live and the atmosphere is not conducive for the people to live a good life. According to census of 2001, Slum is that

• Which is declared as slum by State Government, Local Government and Union Centered Administration.
• That narrow place where minimum of 300 people are living or where 60-70 houses are made in a bad way, where atmosphere is not healthy, whose infrastructure is very bad and where there is a problem of drinking water and sanitation.

Characteristics of Slums:

On the basis of given description we can give certain characteristics of slums which are given below:

1. Problem of place of living. First and the most important feature of slums is that they have the problem of place of living. People are coming to cities, by leaving their villages, in search of any work. They get job in cities but are unable to get house to live. If they find any house then that house is in slums. In these slums, 8¬10 people are living only in one room in non-hygienic conditions and even make their food over there. In this way there is a problem of place of living in slums.

2. Full of crimes. Slums are always full of crimes. The behaviour of most of the people living here is disintegrative. We can include crimes, prostitution, child deliquency, suicide, family disorganization, Alcoholism, drug abuse etc. in disintegrative behaviour. There is no place of thing called morality in these slums. Most the people living here are illiterate and are open to criminal behaviour. In other words persons are very much open to move towards crimes living in slums.

3. Lack of facilities. There is very much lack of facilities in slums. These slums are generally illegal and are made on the illegal occupation on any one else’s land. Because they are illegal that’s why they never get the facilities provided by government like electricity, water, sanitation, roads etc. So due to unavailability of facilities people lack facilities over here and that’s why they have to live life like hell. Atmosphere over here is not conducive for any one to live here. Lack of water and electricity are the main features of these slums. Children are used to die due to many diseases. Even children are open to be suffered by diseases. No facilities of sanitation and no health facilities are there in slums.

4. Over populated. Most of the slums are there in metropolitan cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata etc. People move towards urban areas, by leaving villages, in search of good occupations. They get any work in cities but hardly get any good place to live. Good places of living like flats are very expensive to live and a common person cannot give this much of rent. That’s why he has to find any cheap place of living and cheap place to live is always available in slums. People, in large number, start to live over here and in this way the population of slums increases. Even 8-10 persons are living and cooking in one room.

5. Away from civilized society. People living in slums live in very bad atmosphere and very much away from civilized society. There is no means of contact in slums with civilized society. People living over here know that this place of living is not good for their health and its atmosphere is very bad to live but they don’t have any other option except to live over here. For the whole life they fight with the poverty, unemployment, crimes and feel themselves as helpless. Good facilities are very much away from them.

6. Full of problems. We can find every type ef social problem in these slums. Problems like poverty, Unemployment, prostitution, crimes, child deliquency, violence, drug abuse, bad habits, disintegrative behaviour etc. exist in every slum. Daily workers, rickshaw pullers, thiefs, criminals etc. live over here. Parents and children are living in one room. They observe every thing which should not be seen by them. They feeT attracted towards these things and move towards crimes even in younger age.

In this way we can say that slums are those places, which exist in metropolitan cities, where thousands of people are living in small area and worse environment. These slums are full of crimes and problems and its environment is not conducive and good to live life.

Question 4.
Write down about social changes which occur in urban society.
Answer:
Many changes are coming in the urban society’s every aspect in modern times because the way in which changes are coming in our social structure, in that same way our urban society system is also changing. New circumstances have exerted a lot of effect on the structure and functions of the urban family. Now we will see that how changes have come in the functions and structure of the cities and other urban institutions.

1. Change in Familial Structure: In earlier societies joint family was of great importance and in those societies joint families exist everywhere. But in modern times a very big change has come in the structure of the family and that change is this that now joint family system is coming to an end. Instead of joint family, nuclear families came into being. With the advent of Nuclear family some changes have also come in the family like:

• Individualistic point of view and outlook
• Change in the relations of male and female
• Limited Size
• Breaking of families
• Higher standard of living
• Instability in the family
• Equal division of property
• Good upbringing of children.

Because of these reasons stability of family has decreased. We can break family at any time with divorce.

2. Breaking up of Families: In ancient times birth of girl baby was known as curse updn the family. She was deprived of education. Slowly and slowly with the change in society, female started to get education. In earlier times female was dependent upon husband after marriage but today she is independent economically and she is very less dependent upon husband. Even in same cases wife earns more than husband. In these conditions family can disintegrate at any time. Except this the position of husband and wife is equal these days. They are proud of themselves because of which fights, conflicts, quarrels start in the family and even children are affected by this. In this way many other reasons are there because of which existence of families is in danger and the future of children and family is not safe.

3. Change in Educational-Functions: With the change in society, changes are also coming in the functions of all urban institutions. Functions of the family, which family was doing for its members, have been changed’completely. In ancient times, child was getting education in the family and the education was generally related with the traditional occupation of the family. It was so because joint family’system was there and whatever function father was doing, child had to adopt same occupation.

Under the guidance of the father-child was getting training. But slowly and slowly with modernization child started to go to educational institutions to get education and because of this he started to go away from the traditional occupation of the family. He started to adopt any other occupation. In this way the traditional function of the family has been changed and goes in the hands of educational institutions.

4. Change in the Economic Functions: In earlier times the family was the centre of economic activities. Every work related to earning was being done by family. In this way all the means of living were available in the family. But with the advent of industrialization all those functions of production were taken away by the big industries like now cloth is made in any textile mill. In this way economic functions of the family have been taken by industries. So the responsibility of family of economic production has been taken away by other institutions.

5. Change in Religious Functions: In earlier times one of the main functions of family was to give religious education to its members. Family was telling its members about religion and morality. But with the advent of new scientific inventions and discoveries outlook of people has been changed from religious to scientific. In earlier societies religion was of utmost importance but today religion has very less importance as compared to earlier time. In earlier times people were used to spend a lot of time for religious functions and religious rituals were performed for a number of days.

But these days people don’t have spare time for religious functions and rituals. Instead of religious functions people are celebrating festivals. Everyone tries to spend more and more money on these festivals. Because of the importance of money, importance of religious actions has been decreased. In this way the religious functions of the family have been reduced.

6. Change is Social Functions: Social function of the family has been reduced. In earlier times husband was just like a God for wife. It was the duty of the husband to keep his wife happy. Except this family was doing an important function of controlling the behaviour of its members but now this function of social control has been taken away by many agencies like police, court, military etc. With this another function of the family was upbringing of children. Child was developing in the family and all the members of the family love the child. But slowly and slowly with modernization, females started to go out of the house and started to go out for job. So for the upbringing of children creches came into being where children are taken care by other females. In this way this function of the family has been reduced.

Except this in earlier times elders of the family were protected by the family and were fully respected by the members of the family. But today husband and wife both are working and they are so busy that they don’t have the time to take care of their elders. Today old age homes have come into being where they are taken care of. In this way social function of the family has been reduced.

7. Decreasing Family Unity: In earlier times joint .families were there but today the unity and system of joint family has come to an end. Every one has its own ideals. No one tolerates any one’s interference. They are living with each other, eating, drinking with each other but hardly bother about them. Clearly they lack unity.

8. Individualistic Approach: Approaches of members of modern societies have been changed to individualistic. Every member-only thinks about his own interests. In ancient time and in rural societies, person has to suppress his wish if it clashes with the interest of the family. Collectivity was heavier then the individualism. There was no value of person’s personal wish. But these things have been changed completely in modern urban societies. Person never likes to leave his wish for the interests of the society. There is no value for a person of society’s wish. He just knows about his own wish.

9. Change in the Status of Women: The status of males and female is equal in urban society but the status of female is very low in rural family. The urban female is well educated and is aware about her rights. With this most of the urban women are working somewhere else except their home. They are working in offices, factories, schools, colleges etc. and are earning equal money with that of males. Even in some cases she earns more then the males.

She helps the family from economic point of view and that’s why she wants that she should be given equal rights with males. If male tries to oppose this then she can take divorce from him. In this way urban female has got equal status with that of males due to her education and economic status. If her in-laws try to exploit the girl or try to commit atrocities on girl then girl can seek justice by going to police or court and can send her husband and in-laws to jail. That’s why the numbers of divorce are increasing and families are breaking.

10. Higher Standard of Living: The standard of living of urban people have become higher. Urban family is small in size in which husband, wife and their unmarried children are living. That’s why it is known as Nuclear family. Income of person in rural society is generally spent on the family. Even unemployed people are also eating by sitting only at home because of which the standard of living of rural people is very low. But urban families are small in size because of which they save some money from their total income. With this wife also works anywhere because of which economic status of the family becomes higher. They buy all the things of leisure with that saved money because of which standard of living of people becomes higher.

Question 5.
Differentiate between tribal, rural, and urban societies.
Answer:

Urban Society	Rural Society	Tribal Society
1. Urban society is large in size.	1. Rural society is small in size.	1. Tribal Society is small in size.
2. Urban society is full of diversities.	2. There is homogeneity in 2. People have similarities rural society and people and unity with each are quite similar to each other.	2. People have similarities and unity with each other.
3. Urban societies are full of seconaary relations.	3. Rural societies have primary relations.	3. Blood relations are quite important in tribal societies.
4. There are formal means of social control in urban society.	4. Informal means of social control are there in rural society.	4. Informal means of social control are there in tribal society.
5. Urban society 18 full of non-agricultural occupations.	5. Major occupation of the rural people is agriculture.	5. Hunting, collecting and rearing animal8 is the major occupation of tribal people.
6. Urban society is very much away from nature.	6. Rural society is  quite close to nature.	6. They have direct and close relation with nature.
7. Urban people are very well educated.	7. Rural people do not lay much stress on education.	7. Most of the tribal people are uneducated
8. Urban people are progressive in nature and that’s why they are ready to take risk.	8. Rural people are traditional in nature. So, they don’t like change.	8. Tribal people are traditional and full of superstitions.
9. Specialisatîon and division of labour on a large scale is available in urban areas.	9. Simple division of labour is available in rural society.	9. Division of labour is based on sex.

 

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 2 Rural Society Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Chapter 2 Rural Society

Sociology Guide for Class 12 PSEB Rural Society Textbook Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Rural society can be divided into two classes :
(а) Master and slaves
(b) The exploiting class and the exploited class
(c) Upper class and lower class
(d) Capitalists and workers.
Answer:
(b) The exploiting class and the exploited class.

2. The introduction of new techniques leading to greater crop yields is called :
(a) White Revolution
(b) Blue Revolution
(c) Yellow Revolution
(d) Green Revolution
Answer:
(d) Green Revolution

3. The mate selection within the group is called :
(a) Exogamy
(b) Endogamy
(c) Group Marriage
(d) Monogamy
Answer:
(b) Endogamy

4. Jajmani system is based upon the relationship of:
(a) Jajmanis
(b) Kammens
(c) Jajman and Kammen
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) Jajman and Kammen

5. The reason for indebtedness in rural society is:
(a) Development
(b) Poverty and deficit economy
(c) Self-sufficiency
(d) Subsistence economy
Answer:
(b) Poverty and deficit economy

6. The new agricultural technology has made the farmers :
(a) Market-oriented
(b) Labour class
(c) Self-sufficient
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Market-oriented

Fill in the Blanks:

1. The head of the village was known as ……………….
Answer:
Gramini

2. Rural society is …………….. in size.
Answer:
small

3. ……………… system was based on the exploitation of the Kammen.
Answer:
Jajmani

4. Social control in rural communities is …………….. in nature.
Answer:
informal

5. ……………….. and …………………. are used to look into the instances of social disobedience in rural society.
Answer:
Caste panchayat, village panchayat

True/False:

1. The village is the unit of social and political organization of India.
Answer:
True

2. Rural indebtedness is an indicator of the weak financial infrastructure.
Answer:
True

3. In agriculture, resources like fertilisers, pesticides, agricultural machinery etc. are used.
Answer:
True

4. With the establishment of panchayats in the villages, political consciousness has increased.
Answer:
True

5. The adoption of new technology has also given a boost to agricultural employment.
Answer:
False

Match the Columns:

Column A	Column B
Face to face relations	Indebtedness
Head of the household	High yielding variety of seeds
Marriage without group numbers	Intimate relations
Litigation	Karta
Wheat, rice and crops	Endogamqus

Answer:

Column A	Column B
Face to face relations	Intimate relations
Head of the household	Karta
Marriage without group numbers	Endogamqus
Litigation	Indebtedness
Wheat, rice and crops	High yielding variety of seeds

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1. Who quoted, “Real India lives in its villages.”?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi.

Question 2.
Which revolution helped the growth of capitalistic farming in India?
Answer:
Green Revolution.

Question 3.
The HYVPS revolutionised the agricultural production is called:
Answer:
Green Revolution.

Question 4.
Marriage outside one’s own group is called :
Answer:
Exogamy.

Question 5.
During ancient times the head of the village was known as?
Answer:
Gramini.

Question 6.
Which kind of family system exists in rural society – Joint or Nuclear family?
Answer:
Joint family.

Question 7.
Jajmani system is based on the relationship between whom?
Answer:
Jajman and Kammen.

Question 8.
What is the full form of HYVS?
Answer:
High Yielding Variety Seeds.

Question 9.
Is poverty one of the major reasons for indebtedness?
Answer:
Yes, poverty is one of the major reasons for indebtedness.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is joint family?
Or
Joint Family.
Answer:
Joint family is a type of family in which a minimum of three generations live together under a sihgle roof. They eat in a common kitchen and do the same occupation i.e. agriculture. They use common property and obey the orders given by the head of family.

Question 2.
What is indebtedness?
Answer:
When an individual takes some money as a loan from others on interest to do some work, it is known as debt. When he is unable to pay back his debt and the loan increases by adding the interest, it is called indebtedness.

Question 3.
Write down two causes of rural indebtedness.
Answer:

• Indebtedness increases with poverty. Due to less rain, the crop gets damaged and farmer needs to take loan to get the new crop ready.
• Farmers are always engaged in litigation with their relatives for land and that’s why they have to take loan from the moneylenders.

Question 4.
What do you mean by Litigation?
Answer:
Rural people are always engaged in any issue such as a family dispute, theft of crops, division of land etc. and that’s why, they have to fight cases in the legal court. It is known as litigation. This leads to the increase in the problem of indebtedness.

Question 5.
What is Green Revolution?
Answer:
During the decade of 1960’s, a program was started to increase agricultural production which is known as green revolution. This programme included the use of HYV seeds, use of pesticides and new fertilizers, use of modern machines and modern means of irrigation etc.

Question 6.
Write down two changes in rural society.
Answer:

• Now there are no more joint families in rural societies which are replaced by nuclear families.
• Now rural children are getting the education and are migrating towards urban areas.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Discuss rural society.
Or
Rural society.
Answer:
Rural society is that area where there is less use of technology, the importance of primary relations, small in size and most of the population is engaged in agriculture. In this way rural community is the community that lives at a particular place, small in size and has primary and close relations. People know each other very well and their occupation is either agriculture or agriculture-related occupation.

Question 2.
Write three features of rural society.
Answer:

• The main occupation of rural society is agriculture or other related occupation because rural society is closely related to nature. Most of the population is engaged in agriculture or other related work.
• The life of the rural people is quite simple because their life is deeply attached to nature.
• There is the very little population in the rural areas as compared to urban areas. People live in groups and these groups are called villages.

Question 3.
Write the three causes responsible for the indebtedness.
Answer:

• Poverty: Rural people are poor and they will have to take loans to purchase seeds, machines, cattle, etc. That’s why they come into debt.
• Parental debt: Many people are forced to pay back the loan taken by their parents or grandparents. That’s why they remain in debt.
• The backwardness of agriculture: Indian .agr culture is based on monsoon and still, old methods of agriculture are used in many areas. That’s why agricultural production is quite low and farmers are unable to earn more.

Question 4.
Write a short note on Green Revolution in Punjab.
Or
What is Green Revolution?
Or
Write a short note on Green Revolution.
Answer:
In the field of agricultural development in India, Punjab made huge progress. The development of agriculture in Punjab is mainly related to Green Revolution. In this, high yielding variety seeds were used to increase the production of wheat, rice and other crops. This is the reason that the production of rice and wheat was increased in Punjab after 1966. This unbelievable progress in Punjab was made possible due to many factors such as the use of HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, tube-wells, diesel pumps, tractors, combines, threshers, etc.

Question 5.
Write two positive as well as negative impacts of the Green Revolution.
Or
Write any two impacts of the Green Revolution.
Answer:
Positive impact.

• The major impact of the green revolution was that there was great progress in the production of rice and wheat,
• The green revolution led to an increase in the demand for laborers and that’s why many persons got employment in the agricultural field.

Negative impact.

• Only rich farmers took advantage of the green revolution who used their money to purchase modern technology. Poor farmers were unable to take advantage.
• The green revolution increased the gap between the income of people. Rich people earned more money and the poor remained poor.

Very Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you mean by rutal society? Discuss its characteristics in detail.
Or
Define rural society. Describe features of rural society.
Or
Define Rural Society.
Answer:
India is a rural country in which most of the people live in villages. Rural area is that area where technique is scarcely used, importance is given to primary relations, which is small in size and where most of the people depend upon agriculture. Rural culture is very much different from urban culture. Yet the rural and urban cultures are not the same but they both are very much interrelated. It is very much different from urban society due to many factors yet it is a part of the whole society. Many of its factors like economic, geographical, social etc. differentiate it from urban society.

Definitions:

1. According to A.R. Desai, “The village is the unit of rural society. It is the theatre in the quantum of rural life where the ruraf society unfolds itself and functions.

2. According to R.N. Mukherji, “A village is that community which is characterized by relative homogenity, informality, prominence of primary groups, lesser density of population and agriculture as the main occupation.”

3. According to Peake, “The village community consists of a group of the related or unrealted persons larger than a single family occupying a large house or a number of dwellings placed closed together, sometimes irregularly, sometimes in a street and cultivating originally in common a number of fields, dividing the available meadow land between them and pasturing their cattle upon surrounding waste land over which the community claims rights as far as the boundaries of adjacent community.”

In this way after looking at these definitions, we can say that the rural community is that community which lives at a definite place, is small in size, which has very close relations and in which primary relations exist. People know each other with great proximity and their main occupation is either agriculture or agriculture related work.

Characteristics of Rural Society:

1. Agriculture main Occupation. The main occupation of the tribal society is either agriculture or any of the related work because they are very much closely related with nature. Because they are closely related with nature, that’s why their views towards life are very much different. Yet many other occupations, like carpenter, blacksmith etc. are there in villages but they also make tools related to agriculture. Land is considered as a very important thing in tribal society and people like to live here because their life depends upon the land. Even the economic system and development of people and villages depend upon agriculture.

2. Simple Life. Life of the rural people is very simple. People in ancient rural societies used to do a lot of hard work to fulfil their needs and they were very much away from leisures of life due to this hard work. People also like to engage their children in agricultural works because they don’t like to get education. They don’t have any mental conflicts and problems. They are always ready to help each other in each other’s problems. Any one’s daughter is considered as the daughter of the village. Needs of the people are very much limited because their income is very limited. People like to live a simple life.

3. Scarcity of Population and Homogenity. Population of villages is very less as compared to urban areas. People live in small groups and very much away from each other and these groups are known as villages. There are very less occupations in rural areas except agriculture because of which people like to go to cities to earn money and that’s why populatation in villages is very less. People have close relations with each other and their views are also same due to same occupation of agriculture. Customs, rituals, traditions etc. of rural people are common and there is hardly any difference in their economic, moral and religious life. People in village come to live in cities from far off places but they are the original inhabitants of villages or are living in the nearby areas. That’s why people have homogeneity among themselves.

4. Importance of Neighbourhood. Neighbourhood has great importance in rural society. Main occupation of the people is agriculture’in which they get enough pleasure time. This occupation of agriculture hardly needs much time. That’s why people meet each other, talk with each other and co-operate with each other. People have very close relations with their neighbours. Neighbours generally are of same caste because of which their status is also same. People generally like to give respect to their neighbour. They come very quickly in each other’s problems. That’s why neighbourhood is of great importance in rural society.

5. Control of Family. One person is in complete control of the family in rural societies. Generally patriarchal families are there in villages and every type of decision of family is being taken by the head of the family. Division of labour in villages is being done on the basis of sex. Males are either doing agricutlture or are going out of the house to earn some money and females are taking care of the house by living in the house. Joint family system is there in villages and person adopts the traditional occupation of the family. Every member of the family works with each other and that’s why they have community feeling among them. Family is known as primary group. Younger ones like to give respect to elders.They have a great sense of co¬operation due to same occupation. All the members of the family take part in all the festivals and religious activities. Person always takes advice of family before doing anything. In this way family has complete control on its members.

6. Common Culture. People of a village are not the outsiders who come toTive in the village but are the original inhabitants of the village and that’s why their culture is common. Their culture, rituals, traditions, customs etc. are also common. That’s why they live with each other in a peaceful atmosphere. They have unity among themselves.

7. Community Feeling. Mutual relations of the people in rural societies are based upon co-operation because of which they have community feeling among them. All the members of the village like to help each other at the time of any problem. People have unity among themselves because they have direct and close relations with each other. If any problem comes on any person or the village then the whole village jointly face that problem. All the members of the village respect the customs, rituals etc. of the village and take part in each other’s sorrows and happiness.

8. Stability. Rural society is a stable society because mobility in rural society is very less. Rural society has many geographical or other reasons because of which it is very much different from other societies. These are stable societies because they are self dependent among themselves.

9. Speed of Social Change. Very less mobility is there in rural society because of which speed of social change is very less. Rural people never like to leave their houses to achieve higher status and like to adopt their traditional occupations. That’s why the main occupation of rural people is agriculture from ancient times. Because of the occupation of agriculture they don’t like to move from one place to another and that’s why speed of social change is very less in rural society as compared to urban societies.

10. Isolation. There was a lot of difference between villages and cities during ancient times because of which rural societies had their own world. Means of transport were not developed at that time and it was not possible for the people to move towards cities on bullock carts. Roads were also <«ot good enough and that’s why it was not possible for them to move toward cities. Even today, thousands of villages are there in our country which are very much far off from cities- and are very much backward. Education and means of transport have not yet reached these village. That’s why these people consider themselves different from urban areas. People of backward villages hardly know that what is going on in cities.

Question 2.
What is Indebtedness? What are the causes responsible for Indebtedness?
Or
What is Rural Indebtedness? What are the causes responsible for rural indebtedness?
Answer:
A money lender has a very important place in rural economy. In most of the areas the word ‘SHAHUKAR’ is used for that person who gives money as loan on interest. He is known by different names at different places. The system of giving and taking loans, in ancient Indian society, was not based upon laws. This system was based upon the traditional and personal relations of both the parties. In this way the relations of both the parties generally were very good. When new laws of agreements were made with the advent of Britishers then the money lenders got a great chance to become rich very quickly. Now the relations between both the parties were not personal and started to be based upon money.

Yet the condition of farmers, in ancient Indian society was very good but their economic condition in British empire became very weak. Generally Indian farmers are poor people. But with this they also want to maintain status and respect in the society and that’s why they hardly care to do more expenditure at the time of many functions like marriage. In this way indebtedness remains in Indian society necessarily. Lakhs of farmers in Indian society are there who are suppressed under the pressure of indebtedness right from the ages. Their expenditure is also increasing day by day. Every increase of population increases pressure on land. Generally people take loan for the marriage of their daughter and most of them are unable to repay their loans; Agriculture in India depends upon rain. If rain is less then their situation also worsens because less rain will result in less production. That’s why farmer has to take loan and he comes under the cycle of indebtedness.

Problem of Indebtedness. Generally loans are given on the basis of individual relations. But now loan is given on the basis of land of the farmer. Indian Agreement Act and Civil Procedure Act has strengthened the hands of money lenders. With this the money lender not only got the right of taking possession of lands of indebted farmer and he also got the right to take possession of the things of the farmer. Money lender can send farmer to jail in case of non payment of loan. In this way the Registration of Document Act of 1864 and the Transfer of Property Act of 1882 has greatly helped the money lenders. With these laws money lenders became richer and richer and the land of farmers started to go in the hands of money lenders.

The number of money lenders and the amount of total loan to farmers was also increased due to this. In 1911 the rural indebtedness was around 300 crore rupees. According to Sir M.L. Darling, this was around 600 crores in 1924 and was around 900 crores in 1930. According to Dr. Radha Kamal Mukherjee, this was around 1200 crore in 1955. So from these statistics it is clear that this was increased rapidly during British rule and even it was increased very quickly after this.

Causes of Indebtedness:

There are many reasons of this indebtedness and these reasons are given below :

1. Absence of Necessary Laws:
The biggest reason of indebtedness is the absence of necessary laws for the security of debted person. Moneylenders never let the indebted person to go out of their clutches due to their higher status. If a person takes loan once from money lenders in the village then he is unable to repay that loan even during whole of his life.

2. Neglect by Government:
The British government had hardly done any effort to save farmers from the hands of money lenders, yet many social reformers had tried to bring the attention of the British Government toward this thing. After independence, Indian government had made many laws to save farmers from the clutches of money lenders. But money lenders have adopted new ways of exploitation of farmers due to loopholes of these laws. Even today lakhs of farmers are under the clutches of money lenders.

3. Economic Disturbances:
In 1929 economic disturbances came because of which condition of farmers became more worse and they remained under the indebtedness of money lenders. After that they never came out of this indebtedness. After independence, many other factors had increased indebtedness like increased expenditure on agriculture, inflation, dependency on diesel in the absence of electricity and that’s why they remain under the indebtedness of money lenders.

4. More Expenditure:
Most of the farmers are poor and they are not in a position to buy things of leisure but they still try to buy things of leisure. Except this rural people have the tendency to spend more than their pocket. They spend more especially at the time of the marriage of their daughter and even try to give more dowry. That’s why they have to take loan. In this way their loan also increases with this.

5. Facility in taking loans:
Rural people are motivated to take more and more loan due to the easy availability of loans to them. If we want to take loan from the bank then we have to complete a number of formalities for the bank. But there is no problem of completing formality with a money lender. Farmer can get a loan from money lender just with personal know-how. In this way easiness of taking loan also encourages them to take loan from the money lender.

6. Tricks of money lenders:
Tricks of money lenders of our country have also increased the process of indebtedness. Generally, money lenders charge too much interest on loan because of which a person is unable to pay even interest of that loan. Sometimes money lenders give money by cutting interest before giving an amount to the person because of which farmer gets very less amount. In this way loan becomes double, triple even within a short span of time. With this there is another tendency in rural society that people are used to pay the loan which was taken by their parents.

In this way, this loan moves on from one generation to another. The illiteracy of rural people is also another reason of indebtedness. Moneylenders are giving less amount to the related person but are writing more amount in their books and taking advantage of their illiteracy. They even give their signatures a blank paper with which money lenders take possession of everything of the related person. Generally, money lenders in villages belong to a higher caste, and lower caste people don’t have enough power to oppose them. In this way due to these causes problem of indebtedness increases.

Question 3.
Define Green Revolution. Write down its components in detail.
Answer:
The green revolution is the planned and scientific method to increase agricultural production. After the analysis of Five Year Plans, it became clear that if we want to become self-dependent in the field of crop production, we will have to use modern means of production. While keeping in mind this objective, in 1966-67, technical changes started coming in agriculture. In this, high yielding variety seeds, modern means of irrigation, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides were used. The use of developed means in agriculture is given the name of the green revolution. Here the word ‘Green’ was used for green fields of rural areas and the word ‘Revolution’ was used to show allround change. During the first phase of the green revolution “Intensive Agriculture District Programme” was launched in which initially three districts and later on 16 districts were included. In the selected districts, modern methods of agriculture, urea, seeds, means of irrigation were used.

In 1967-68, this program was launched in the other parts of the country. In this program, farmers were informed about the modern methods of agriculture, skill, and new methods of production. The government gave complete help to this program and it became successful. The country became self-dependent in the field of wheat and rice.
Major elements of the Green Revolution. Major elements of the green revolution are given below :

• With the use of high-yielding variety seeds, agricultural production increased.
• Chemical fertilizers, urea also played an important role in increasing production.
• Modern machines of agriculture such as tractor, thresher, combine, pump set, sprayer etc. also contributed in increasing production.
• Modern methods of agriculture, including the Japanese method, helped to increase production.
• Farmers were made aware of modern means of irrigation which helped in increasing production.
• The process of taking two or more crops in one year also contributes to the cause.
• Many institutions were established to provide loans to farmers at low-rate of interest which includes cooperative society, Grameen bank, etc. They gave farmers easy loans to purchase modern machines.
• The government assured the farmers to give ‘Minimum Support Price’ (MSP) for their crops which encouraged the farmers to increase production.
• Programs such as ‘Soil conservation’ also helped the farmers to increase productivity from their land.
• To sell the crops, market committees, cooperative marketing societies were established.
• The government also implemented land reforms such as the end of intermediaries,
  protection of labor, consolidation of land, the legal right to the farmer over land, etc. It also helped in increasing production.
• The government also started many programs to increase agricultural production.

Question 4.
What is Green Revolution? Discuss in detail its impact.
Answer:
Green Revolution. Refer to Question 3.
Impact of Green Revolution. We can divide the impact of the green revolution into two parts—positive and negative. Their description is given below :

Positive Impact. 1. Increase in cereals production. A major achievement of the green revolution was that it increased cereal production in the country especially wheat and rice. The production of rice was quite good but wheat’s production was increased to a great extent. Maize, Jwar, Bazar, Rabi, and other crops were not included in it.

2. Increase in the production of the commercial crop. The major objective of the green revolution was to increase crop production. Initially, there was no increase in the production of commercial crops such as sugarcane, cotton, jute, oilseeds, and potato. But after 1973, there was a great increase in the production of sugarcane. In the same way, later on, the production of oil seeds and potatoes was also increased.

3. Changes in crop pattern. Due to green revolution, there was a great change in the pattern of sowing of crops. First of all, the cereal production started increasing with the rate of 3% – 4% per annum. But there was no change in the production of pulses. Secondly the share of rice in cereals decreased and the share of wheat was increased.

4. Encouragement to Employment. With the use of new technology, agriculture-related employment increased to a great extent. When farmers started producing many crops in one year, it led to increase in employment in an agricultural area. Negative

Impact. 1. Advent of capitalist farming in India. In the program of new agriculture, there was a great need of capital investment such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, means of irrigation etc. Such investment was beyond the reach of small and marginal farmers. It led to the advent of capital farming in India and money started accumulating in the hands of 6% rural population. Poor and marginal farmers were unable to take advantage of green revolution.

2. Side tracking the need for institutional reforms in Indian agriculture. In the program of new agriculture, no stress was given on the institutional reforms of agriculture. Large number of farmers had no landholding. Land was evacuated on large scale. That’s why farmers had to accept the situation of share croper.

3. Widening disparities in income. The advent of technological changes in agriculture increased the income disparity among the rural people. Rich farmers used new technology and increased their income but poor farmers were unable to do so. The condition of labourers further deteriorated.

4. Problem of Labour displacement. Along with green revolution, stress was also given on establishing industries in the country; Industries were established on agricultural land and agricultural labourers became unemployed. This unemployment further gave birth to many other problems. Naxalite movement in the different parts of country was a result of this system.

Question 5.
Define rural society. Discuss various changes taking place in rural society.
Or
Describe the changes taking place in rural society.
Or
Discuss various changes taking place in rural society.
Answer:
Definition of rural society. See question no. 1.
Changes in rural society. Change is law of nature. No one can change it. Change always comes in every thing of the world. In this way rural society is also going through the process of change. Modern society and technique have brought change in every aspect of the rural society. These changes are given below :

1. Decreasing rural-urban differences. There were a number of differences in rural and urban societies during earlier times. But these differences between both the societies are decreasing day by day. It is not so because rural people imitate the styles of urban people but it is so because the relations of rural and urban people are increasing due to open market economy. They sell their produce in the city and adopt new occupations. That’s why their relations with outsiders are increasing and their ways of living, eating, wearing, thinking etc. are changing according to the urban people. Rural people are getting every type of urban facility due to developed means of transport. Atmosphere like urban areas is increasing due to mobility of occupation and rural-urban differences are decreasing.

2. Decreasing difference of area. The most important change which came in the rural society is that the difference between village and the city is decreasing. Cities are moving towards villages and villages are coming closer to cities. Means of transport, good roads, spread of education and means of communication have brought villages closer to the urban areas. Now rural people are also moving very quickly towards cities. Just within one day they are doing their work and coming back to their villages.

3. Changes in the structure of agriculture and marketization of agriculture. If we look at the ancient times then we will observe that the agricultural production in our country was being done to fulfil the needs. Means of production were very simple and were close to the nature. Agricultural work was being done with oxen and with hands. Even digging of rivers and wells was being done with forced labour. Poeple used to fulfil their needs at local level and exchange of things and services was there.

But with the advent of technology and science and with the opening up of agricultural instituions, structure of agriculture has been completely changed. With the advent of new machines like tractors, threshers etc., increased facilities of irrigation, development of irrigation through rivers and drips, advent of new seeds and with the development of markets, agriculture has reached the market level from subsistence level. Now agriculture is not being done to fulfill the needs but is being done to earn profit. Now exchange of things with money has taken place of exchange of things.

Now people produce crop four times in a year. Production has been increased to a great extent. Now India exports food grains instead of importing food grains. Agricultural work has become easy with the help of science. Now agricultural work is being done with machines not with physical force. The institutional structures of agriculture like Zamindari, Rayotwari, Mahalwari etc. came to an end. Many other occupations related to agriculture have been opened up like dairy, piggery, poultry, fishing etc.

4. Decreasing effect of religion. Religion had great influence on rural people in ancient times. Every acitivity of agriculture was according to the religion which cannot be seen in present age. In earlier times, many trees, animals etc. were considered as sacred but now this influence has been reduced. Religious beliefs, customs of rural people have been completely changed. Rural society, in present mechanical age, is going away from temples, gurudwaras.

5. Change in rural social structure. Karl Marx was of the view that social change comes with the change in economic structure. With the commercialization and mechanization of agriculture not only people become economically better but changes are also coming in old relations. Joint families are disintegrating, respect of parents is decreasing, changes are coming in divison of labour, social values are deteriorating, mental tension is increasing, changes are coming in the status of women etc. There are many aspects in which we can see many changes.

Time of rituals at the time of birth, marriage, death etc. is decreasing, Jajmani system no more prevails, effect of social kinship is decreasing, importance of primary group is also decreasing. People are running towards materialistic happiness instead of relations. Caste relations also have been changed. The supremacy of Brahmins is no more. People are leaving their occupations and are adopting new occupations. Untouchability no more prevails in society. Mobility of occupations is increasing due to reducing effect of caste. Now a person can adopt any occupation of his wish.

6. Increasing effect of science. Atmosphere, beliefs related to atmosphere were dependent upon nature in ancient times and these were the basis of rural life. Land was considered as sacred. Agriculture was being done while keeping in mind the time of sowing. But now old beliefs are no more. Farmer is not a scientist but is using the new scientific methods and leaving the ancient beliefs. Earlier people were afraid of using chemical manures to their land but now they are using more and more fertilizers and machines so that the production could be increased.

7. Decreasing dependency on nature. Farmer, during ancient times, was dependent upon nature for agricultural works. For example in the absence of rain it was impossible for any one to produce anything on the land. Except this it was impossible for a person to do struggle with natural forces. But today it’s not so. Today people are using rivers, tubewells etc. for irrigation instead of rain. Cultivation is being done with new techniques. Now people are capable of securing themselves from hot, cold, flood etc. Now metereological department predicts in advance about rain, hail storms, less rain etc. with which farmer prepares himself in advance to face any such problem.

8. Change in the level of rural life. One of the most important changes which can be seen in rural society is the improvement in the level of rural life. Statistics show that, except some classes, generally whole of the rural life has been improved. Spread of education, advent of education, medical facilities etc. has increased the life expectancy of the person. Severe diseases no more prevail. Place of living has been improved. Good houses, proper sanitation, roads, street lights, schools, dispensaries etc. can be seen in all the villages. Means of recreation are increasing and facilities of games are also increasing. Illiteracy is decreasing day by day. All these positive changes have come in rural life.

9. Change in feeding and wearing. During ancient times, some cases were not used to use many things under the effect of the caste system. They used to wear many simple dresses and of a specific type. But the feeding and wearing habits of the people are changing today due to the decreasing effect of the caste system. Today upper casts are also using meat and alcohol. People are using artificial food in place of simple food like burgers, Pizza, Noodles, Hot dogs etc. Now people are wearing pants, jeans, shirts etc. in place of Dhoti and Kurta. Now females are wearing modern ornaments. Parda Pratha no more prevails in society.

10. Change in the rural political and educational structure. In ancient times, panchayats at the local level were elected which were generally based on the hierarchy of castes. Different castes were sending their representatives to panchayats. But now rural political structure is running according to the national political process. Now members of panchayats are not nominated but are elected by-elections. The judicial system has taken the form of courts. Education in ancient times was generally given in temples, gurudwaras, and madrasas, and education was also based on caste and religion. People of lower castes were not allowed to get an education. But now this structure has been completely changed. Now education is not based on religion but is based on science. Now everyone can get an education. Now education is not in the clutches of caste.

11. Increasing population, planning, and change in occupations. Now the population of villages has been increased to a great extent. The occupational structure has also been changed due to the increasing population, decreasing means of employment in agriculture, and the spread of education. Now agriculture is not considered a profitable occupation. The government is making new plans daily for the upliftment of rural people so that the poor people could get employment. That’s why new occupations, like small industries, dairy, piggery, poultry, electrician, automobile, etc. are increasing in the rural sector. In this way, after looking at the given description we can say that many changes have taken place in the rural sector and many other changes are coming in rural society.

Question 6.
Write an essay on rural society.
Answer:
India is a rural country in which most of the people live in villages. The rural area is that area where technique is scarcely used, importance is given to primary relations, which are small in size and where most of the people depend upon agriculture. Rural culture is very much different from urban culture. Yet the rural and urban cultures are not the same but they both are very much interrelated. It is very much different from urban society due to many factors yet it is a part of the whole society. Many of its factors like economic, geographical, social, etc. differentiate it from urban society.