Prasanna

Punjab State Board PSEB 10th Class English Book Solutions English Literature Book Chapter 3 One Thousand Dollars Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 10 English Literature Book Chapter 3 One Thousand Dollars

Question 1.
Who gave $ 1,000 to Robert Gillian ? Who did the money belong to ? Why was it given to him ?
Answer:
Lawyer Tolman gave the money to Robert Gillian. This money belonged to Gillian’s uncle. Robert was asked to spend the amount and then give an account of how he had spent it.

वकील टॉलमैन ने राबर्ट गिलियन को यह पैसे दिए। ये पैसे गिलियन के अंकल के थे। उससे कहा गया कि वह इस पैसे को खर्च करे और फिर इस बात का ब्योरा दे कि उसने ये पैसे कैसे खर्च किए थे।

Question 2.
Why was Bobby Gillian not happy with the money given to him ?
Answer:
Bobby Gillian was the only heir of his uncle’s property. This property was worth half a million dollars. But Bobby got only one thousand out of it. Naturally, he was not happy.

बॉबी गिलियन अपने अंकल की धन-दौलत का एकमात्र वारिस था। यह सम्पत्ति पांच लाख डॉलर की थी। परन्तु बॉबी को इसमें से केवल एक हज़ार मिले। स्वाभाविक रूप से वह खुश नहीं था।

Question 3.
What was the condition laid down by the lawyer ?
Answer:
The lawyer asked Bobby to spend the one thousand dollars and then give an account of how he had spent it. Only then the full contents of the will could be shown to him.

वकील ने बॉबी से कहा कि वह एक हज़ार डॉलर खर्च कर ले और फिर इस बात का ब्योरा दे कि उसने ये कैसे खर्च किए थे। केवल तभी वसीयत का पूरा ब्योरा उसे बताया जा सकता था।

Question 4.
Who else got the money and how much ?
Answer:
The others who got the money were the butler, the housekeeper and Miss Hayden who was the ward of Robert’s uncle. Each of them got ten dollars.

अन्य लोग जिन्हें पैसे मिले. वे थे – खानसामा, घर का नौकर और मिस हेडन जो राबर्ट के अंकल की एक आश्रिता थी। उनमें से प्रत्येक को दस डॉलर मिले।

Question 5.
Why was Old Bryson not serious in giving suggestions to Gillian ? What were the suggestions given ?
Answer:
Old Bryson did not like Gillian. Therefore, he was not serious in giving his suggestions. He suggested that Gillian could buy a house, provide milk for babies, spend in art galleries, spend for someone’s education, or buy a diamond pendant for Miss Lotta.

ओल्ड बायसन गिलियन को पसन्द नहीं करता था। इसलिए वह सुझाव देने के प्रति गम्भीर नहीं था। उसने सुझाव दिया कि गिलियन एक मकान खरीद सकता था, बच्चों के लिए दूध प्रदान कर सकता था, आर्ट गैलरियों में खर्च कर सकता था, किसी की शिक्षा पर खर्च कर सकता था, अथवा मिस लौटा के लिए हीरों का हार खरीद सकता था।

Question 6.
Which suggestion did Gillian accept? What did he do then ?
Answer:
Gillian accepted the suggestion to give a diamond pendant to Miss Lotta. He phoned for a cab, and asked the driver to take him to the Columbine Theatre.

गिलियन ने मिस लौटा को हीरों का हार देने का सुझाव स्वीकार कर लिया। उसने एक बग्घी के लिए फोन किया और चालक से कहा कि वह उसे कोलम्बाइन थियेटर ले चले।

Question 7.
Who was Miss Lotta Lauriere ? Did she welcome Gillian’s coming ? Was she happy with his offer ? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer:
Miss Lotta was an actress. She did not welcome Gillian’s coming. She was not happy with Gillian’s offer. She wanted a much costlier pendant.

मिस लौटा एक अभिनेत्री थी। उसने गिलियन के आने का स्वागत न किया। उसे गिलियन की पेशकश पर प्रसन्नता न हुई। वह इससे कहीं अधिक कीमत का हार चाहती थी।

Question 8.
What did Gillian ask the driver of the cab ? Did he like his answer ? How do you know ?
Answer:
Gillian asked the cab driver what he would do if he had a thousand dollars. The driver said that he would open a saloon. At this Gillian said, “Oh, no.” It shows that he did not like the cab driver’s answer.

गिलियन ने बग्घी-चालक से पूछा कि यदि उसके पास एक हजार डॉलर होते तो वह क्या करता। चालक ने उत्तर दिया कि वह एक शराबखाना खोल लेता। इस पर गिलियन ने कहा, “अरे, नहीं।” इससे पता चलता है कि उसे बग्घी-चालक का उत्तर पसन्द न आया।

Question 9.
Who did Gillian talk to next ? Why ?
Answer:
Gillian next talked to a blind man, who was selling pencils. He wanted to know from him what he would do if he had a thousand dollars.

इसके बाद गिलियन ने एक अन्धे आदमी से बात की जो पेन्सिलें बेच रहा था। वह उससे जानना चाहता था कि वह क्या करता यदि उसके पास एक हज़ार डॉलर होते।

Question 10.
Why did Gillian give his money to Miss Hayden ? What did he ask her to give him and why ?
Answer:
Gillian gave his money to Miss Hayden because he wanted to spend the money in a lump and save himself the trouble of keeping accounts. He asked Miss Hayden to give him a piece of paper to write a note.

गिलियन ने अपने पैसे मिस हेडेन को इसलिए दे दिए क्योंकि वह पूरे पैसे एक ही बार में खर्च करना चाहता था और स्वयं को हिसाब रखने की मुसीबत से बचाना चाहता था। उसने मिस हेडन से कागज़ का एक टुकड़ा कुछ लिखने के लिए मांगा।

Question 11.
What did Gillian write in his note ?
Answer:
He wrote that he had paid one thousand dollars to the best and dearest woman on earth. He added that it would give him eternal happiness.

उसने लिखा कि उसने एक हजार डॉलर धरती पर की सबसे बढ़िया और प्यारी औरत को दे दिए थे। उसने यह भी लिखा कि इससे उसे अनन्त प्रसन्नता प्राप्त होगी।

Question 12.
Why did Gillian go to the lawyers again ?
Answer:
He went to the lawyers to give them the account of how he had spent the one thousand dollars.

वह वकीलों के पास यह हिसाब देने गया कि उसने एक हजार डॉलर कैसे खर्च किए थे।

Question 13.
What had Gillian’s uncle written in the postscript of his will ?
Answer:
He had written that if Robert had spent the money wisely, he would get another five thousand dollars. Or else, this amount would go to Miss Hayden.

उसने लिखा था कि यदि राबर्ट ने पैसे समझदारी से खर्च किए तो उसे पाँच हजार डॉलर और मिल जाएंगे। अन्यथा ये पैसे मिस हेडन को मिल जाएंगे।

Question 14.
Why did Gillian not get the rest of the money ? Was he sorry for his action ?
Answer:
Gillian told the lawyers falsely that he had lost the thousand dollars on the races. Thus he lost his right to the other five thousand dollars. But he was not at all sorry for it. Rather he was happy that the money would go to the lady he loved so much.

गिलियन ने वकीलों को झूठ ही कह दिया कि वह एक हज़ार डॉलर घुड़दौड़ों में हार गया था। इस प्रकार वह अन्य पांच हज़ार डॉलर पर अपना अधिकार खो बैठा। किन्तु उसे उस बात का बिल्कुल कोई खेद नहीं था। इसके विपरीत उसे तो खुशी थी कि पैसे उस औरत को मिल जाएंगे जिसे वह इतना प्यार करता था।

Objective Type Questions

Question 1.
Robert lost the money on races.(True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 2.
To whom did Bobby Gillian give his one thousand dollars ?
(i) Butler
(ii) Miss Hayden
(iii) Lawyers
(iv) Miss Lotta Lauriere.
Answer:
(ii) Miss Hayden

Question 3.
Robert Gillian offered a ……………. to Miss Lotta Lauriere.
Answer:
pendant worth one thousand dollars

Question 4.
Robert Gillian received one million dollars from his uncle’s will. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 5.
The blind man was selling …………. on the walkside.
(i) books
(ii) pencils
(iii) pens
(iv) notebooks.
Answer:
(ii) pencils

Question 6.
Who was Miss Lotta Lauriere ?
Answer:
She was an actress.

Answer each of the following in one word / phrase / sentence :

Question 1.
Who wrote the story, ‘One Thousand Dollars’?
Answer:
O’Henry.

Question 2.
From where did Robert Gillian receive one thousand dollars ?
Answer:
From his uncle’s will.

Question 3.
What was the condition with the money which Gillian had received from his uncle’s will ?
Answer:
He had to spend that money sensibly.

Question 4.
Who was Miss Lotta Lauriere ?
Answer:
She was an actress.

Question 5.
What did Robert Gillian offer Miss Lotta ?
Answer:
He offered her a pendant worth one thousand dollars.

Question 6.
What did Gillian ask the cab driver ?
Answer:
He asked the cab driver what he would do if he had a thousand dollars.

Question 7.
What did Gillian want to ask the blind man who was selling pencils ?
Answer:
He wanted to ask the blind man what he would do if he had a thousand dollars.

Question 8.
What did Gillian ask Miss Hayden to give him ?
Answer:
A piece of paper to write a note.

Question 9.
Why did Robert Gillian go to the lawyers again ?
Answer:
To give them the account of how he had spent one thousand dollars.

Question 10.
Who got the rest of the money, i.e. five thousand dollars ?
Answer:
Miss Hayden.

Complete the following :

1. Robert Gillian was the only heir of …………..
2. …….. was the ward of Robert’s uncle.
3. Gillian asked the cab driver to take him to
4. The property of Gillian’s uncle was worth ……………..
5. Gillian accepted the suggestion to give ……………….. to Miss Lotta.
6. ….. said that he would open a saloon if he had one thousand dollars.
Answer:
1. his uncle’s property
2. Miss Hayden
3. the Columbine Theatre
4. half a million dollars
5. a diamond pendant
6. The cab driver.

Write True or False against each statement :

1. Gillian told the lawyers that he had lost the thousand dollars on the races.
Answer:
True

2. Miss Lotta was happy with Gillian’s offer.
Answer:
False

3. Miss Hayden worked at the Columbine Theatre as an actress.
Answer:
False

4. Gillian lost his right to other five thousand dollars.
Answer:
True

5. Robert’s uncle had a ward named Miss Lotta.
Answer:
False

6. Bobby was the only heir of his father’s property.
Answer:
False

Choose the correct option for each of the following :

Question 1.
Who gave ten thousand dollars to Robert Gillian ?
(a) Lawyer Tolman.
(b) Miss Heydan.
(c) Old Bryson.
(d) Miss Lotta.
Answer:
(a) Lawyer Tolman.

Question 2.
Miss Hayden was ……….
(a) Gillian’s beloved
(b) Miss Lotta’s sister
(c) Bryson’s wife
(d) Tolman’s client.
Answer:
(a) Gillian’s beloved

Question 3.
What was Robert’s nickname ?
(a) Tony.
(b) Robin.
(c) Harry.
(d) Bobby
Answer:
(d) Bobby

Question 4.
Old Bryson did not like ……
(a) Robert’s uncle
(b) Robert Gillian
(c) Lawyer Tolman
(d) Miss Hayden.
Answer:
(b) Robert Gillian

Question 5.
Old Bryson suggested that Gillian could
(a) buy a house
(b) spend in art galleries
(c) spend for someone’s education
(d) all of these three.
Answer:
(d) all of these three.

One Thousand Dollars Summary & Translation in English

One Thousand Dollars Introduction:
Robert Gillian receives one thousand dollars from his uncle’s will. But there is also a condition. He has to spend this money sensibly. He goes to Old Bryson for his advice. But Bryson is in no mood of giving him any advice. He talks to Gillian in a satirical tone. Robert offers Miss Lotta Lauriere to buy her a pendant worth one thousand dollars.

But she wants a much more expensive one. He asks a cab driver what he would do with a thousand dollars. He replies that he will open a saloon with it. Robert’s uncle had a ward, Miss Hayden. Perhaps Robert loves her. He gives the entire amount to her and makes a detail about it. Then he goes to the office of his uncle’s lawyers. He tells them that he has spent the money.

They tell him if he has spent the money sensibly, he would get another 5,000 dollars otherwise this amount will go to Miss Hayden. Hearing this, Robert Gillian tears the account of spending money. He tells the lawyers that he has lost the entire money on races. Saying this he leaves the office.

One Thousand Dollars Summary & Translation in Hindi

One Thousand Dollars Introduction:

राबर्ट गिलियन को अपने अंकल की वसीयत से एक हजार डॉलर मिलते हैं। परन्तु वहां एक शर्त भी है। उसे यह पैसे समझदारी से खर्च करने हैं। वह ओल्ड बायसन के पास उसकी सलाह लेने के लिए जाता है। परन्तु ब्रायसन कोई सलाह देने के मूड में नहीं है। वह गिलियन से व्यंग्यात्मक ढंग से बात करता है। राबर्ट मिस लौटा लौरियर को एक हजार डॉलर का एक हार खरीद कर देने की पेशकश करता है। परन्तु वह इससे काफ़ी अधिक महंगा चाहती है। वह एक बग्घी-चालक से पूछता है कि वह एक हजार डॉलर से क्या करेगा। वह कहता है कि वह इससे एक शराबखाना खरीदेगा।

राबर्ट के अंकल पर आश्रित एक लड़की थी, मिस हेडन। शायद राबर्ट उससे प्यार करता है। वह सारा पैसा उसे दे देता है और इसका विवरण बना देता है। इसके बाद वह अपने अंकल के वकीलों के दफ्तर में जाता है। वह उन्हें बताता है कि उसने पैसे खर्च कर दिए हैं। वे उसे बताते हैं कि यदि उसने पैसे समझदारी से खर्च किए हैं तो उसे और भी 5,000 डॉलर मिलेंगे अन्यथा यह पैसे मिस हेडन को मिल जाएंगे। यह सुन कर राबर्ट गिलियन पैसे खर्च करने वाला लेखा फाड़ डालता है। वह कहता है कि वह सारे पैसे घुड़दौड़ों में हार गया है। यह कह कर वह दफ्तर छोड़कर चला जाता है। कठिन शब्दार्थ तथा सम्पूर्ण कहानी का हिन्दी अनुवाद

One Thousand Dollars Summary & Translation in Hindi:

(Page 18-19)
“One thousand dollars,” ……………. a thousand dollars pour

Word-meanings :
1. solemnly-गम्भीरतापूर्वक; 2. severely-कठोरता से, रूखे ढंग से; 3. details –ब्यौरा; 4. comply with-का पालन करना; 5. thrust-घुसा देना, ठूसना; 6. calm-शांत स्वभाव वाला; 7. sighed-लंबी सांस ली; 8. laid down-रख दी; 9. wake up-ध्यान से सुनो। 10. usual—सामान्य, साधारण।

अनुवाद- “एक हज़ार डॉलर,” वकील टॉलमैन ने गम्भीरतापूर्वक और रूखे ढंग से दोहराया, “और यह रही रकम।” __ युवा गिलियन हंस दिया जब उसने एक डॉलर वाले नोटों की गड्डी को छुआ। “यह तो इतनी छोटी-सी रकम है,” उसने वकील से कहा।

“तुमने अपने चाचा की वसीयत पढ़ने के वक्त सब-कुछ सुना था,” वकील टॉलमैन ने एक रूखे स्वर में कहना जारी रखा। “मैं नहीं जानता कि तुमने वसीयत की छोटी-छोटी बातों पर गौर किया था या नहीं। मैं तुम्हें बता दूं कि तुम्हें इन एक हज़ार डॉलरों के खर्च करने के तरीके का पूरा ब्यौरा देना होगा, जैसे ही तुम उन्हें खर्च कर · चुके होगे। मुझे विश्वास है कि तुम स्वर्गीय मिस्टर गिलियन की इच्छाओं का पालन करोगे।” ___ “आप भरोसा रखिए,” उस जवान आदमी ने नम्रतापूर्वक कहा, “परन्तु मुझे शायद एक सेक्रेटरी रखना पड़े। मैं हिसाब-किताब में कभी भी कुशल नहीं था।” गिलियन ने नोटों की गड्डी को अपनी जेब में ढूंसा और क्लब चला गया। वहां वह उस व्यक्ति को ढूंढने लगा जिसे वह ओल्ड ब्राइसन कह कर बुलाता था।

ओल्ड ब्राइसन एक शांत स्वभाव वाला चालीस वर्ष का व्यक्ति था। वह एक कोने में बैठा हुआ एक किताब पढ़ रहा था और जब उसने गिलियन को आते देखा तो उसने लम्बी सांस ली, अपनी किताब नीचे रख दी और अपना चश्मा उतार दिया।
“ओल्ड ब्राइसन, ध्यान से सुनो,’ गिलियन बोला, “मेरे पास तुम्हें सुनाने के लिए एक हास्य-जनक कहानी है।”
“मेरी इच्छा है कि तुम अपनी कहानी बिलियर्ड रूम में किसी को सुनाओ, गिलियन,” ओल्ड ब्राइसन ने कहा।
“यह कहानी उन सामान्य कहानियों से बेहतर है,” गिलियन कागज़ से एक सिगरेट बनाते हुए बोला, “और मैं तुम्हें ही सुनाने जा रहा हूं। यह इतनी दुःखदायी और (साथ में) हास्यजनक है कि खेलते हुए इसे नहीं सुना जा सकता। मैं अभी-अभी अपने चाचा के वकीलों के कार्यालय से आया हूं। मेरे चाचा ने (वसीयत में) मेरे लिए एक हजार डॉलर छोड़े हैं। अब, कोई व्यक्ति केवल एक हजार डॉलरों से संभवतया क्या कर सकता है?”

(Page 19-20)
thought;” ………….. in a ranch.”

Word-meanings : 1. was worth-की हैसियत थी; 2. microbe – जीवाणु; 3. bacillus – जीवाणु; 4. rest-बाकी बचा; 5. doing away—मार डालने के लिए; 6. butler-खानसामा, रसोइया; 7. housekeeper-घर की देखरेख करने वाला; 8. seal ring – मोहर लगाने वाली अंगूठी; 9. fairy godmother – बहुत कृपालु और खुले दिल वाला व्यक्ति; 10. allowance खर्चे के लिए दिया गया पैसा; 11. heir-उत्तराधिकारी, वारिस; 12. frowned-भौंहें टेढ़ीं की; 13. ward-ऐसा व्यक्ति जो किसी के संरक्षण में हो; 14. offensive अपमान करने वाला; 15. art gallery-कला दीर्घा; 16. ambitious – महत्त्वाकांक्षी; 17. moralise-उपदेश देना; 18. gentle laugh-हल्की हंसी; 19. sensible-समझदारी वाली; 20. pendant- (हार की) लटकन; 21. ranch-एक बड़ा फार्म जहां गाएं-भैंसें, भेड़ें, इत्यादि पाले जाते हैं।

अनुवाद- “मैं तो सोचता था,” ओल्ड ब्राइसन बोला, “कि स्वर्गीय सैप्टिमस गिलियन की हैसियत लगभग पांच लाख डॉलरों की थी।” “बिल्कुल थी,” गिलियन ने प्रसन्न स्वर में कहा, “और यहीं वह हास्य-जनक बात आती है। वह अपनी लगभग सारी दौलत को एक जीवाणु के लिए छोड़ गया है। मतलब यह कि उसकी वसीयत का कुछ हिस्सा उसे मिलेगा जो एक नया जीवाणु खोजेगा और बाकी का सारा धन उस अस्पताल को जाएगा जो उस जीवाणु को मारने में समर्थ होगा। खानसामा और घर की देखभाल करने वाले को एक-एक मोहर लगाने वाली अंगूठी और दस डॉलर मिलेंगे। उसके भतीजे को (केवल) एक हज़ार डॉलर मिले हैं।”

“तुम्हारे पास तो हमेशा ही खर्च करने के लिए बहुत सारे पैसे रहे हैं,” ओल्ड ब्राइसन ने कहा।
“हां, हां, कई टन,” गिलियन बोला। “चाचा जी बहुत कृपालु और खुले दिल वाले थे जहां तक खर्चा-पानी देने का सम्बन्ध है।”
“कोई अन्य वारिस?” ओल्ड ब्राइसन ने पूछा।
“कोई भी नहीं,” गिलियन ने भौंहों पर बल डालते कहा और बेचैनी से दीवान को ठोकर लगा दी। “एक मिस हेडन है, मेरे चाचा के संरक्षण में रहने वाली एक लड़की, जो घर में ही रहा करती थी। मैं तुम्हें बताना भूल गया कि उसे भी एक मोहर लगाने वाली अंगूठी और दस डॉलर मिले हैं। कैसी मज़े वाली बात है ! अपमान न करना, ओल्ड ब्राइसन – बताओ कि कोई व्यक्ति एक हजार डॉलर से क्या कर सकता है?”

ओल्ड ब्राइसन ने अपने चश्मे को साफ़ किया और मुस्करा दिया। और जब वह मुस्कराया तो गिलियन को विश्वास हो गया कि वह पहले से भी ज्यादा अपमान-जनक बनने वाला था। “एक हज़ार डॉलर,” उसने कहा, “का अर्थ कम या ज्यादा दोनों ही है। कोई इतनी रकम से एक अच्छासा घर खरीद सकता है। एक हजार डॉलर जून, जुलाई और अगस्त में एक सौ बच्चों के लिए शुद्ध दूध खरीदने में समर्थ होंगे और उनमें से पचास बच्चों के जीवन की रक्षा कर सकेंगे। किसी कला दीर्घा में आप आधे घण्टे का मौज-मज़ा ले सकते हैं। इससे किसी महत्त्वाकांक्षी लड़के को शिक्षा मिल सकेगी। तुम न्यू हैंपशायर के किसी नगर में जाकर रह सकते हो और इतने पैसों में दो साल तक सम्मानपूर्वक रह सकते हो।”

“लोग तुम्हें पसन्द करने लगेंगे अगर तुम उपदेश देना बन्द कर दो। मैंने सिर्फ तुमसे यह बताने के लिए कहा था कि मैं उन एक हजार डॉलर से क्या कर सकता हूं,” गिलियन ने कहा। “तुम?” ओल्ड ब्राइसन ने हल्की हंसी के साथ कहा। “हां तो बॉबी गिलियन, सिर्फ एक ही समझदारी वाला काम है जो तुम कर सकते हो। तुम मिस लौटा लौरियर को हीरों की एक लटकन खरीद कर दे सकते हो और अपना बाकी का समय तुम किसी पशु-फ़ार्म में बिता सकते हो। मैं इसलिए तुम्हें भेड़ों के फ़ार्म की सलाह दे रहा हूं क्योंकि मुझे भेड़ें बिल्कुल अच्छी नहीं लगती।”

(Page 20)
“Thanks,” ………………. he told the driver.

Word-meanings : 1. lump—एकमुश्त; 2. cab-टैक्सी या किराए की कोई अन्य बग्घी; 3. let him in—उसे अन्दर ले आओ; 4. perform-प्रदर्शन करना; 5. cipher-शून्य; 6. saloon-मधुशाला, शराबखाना; 7. curiosity–उत्सुकता; 8. sidewalk —पटरी, फुटपाथ।

अनुवाद- “धन्यवाद,’ गिलियन ने उठते हुए कहा। “मैंने सोचा था कि मैं तुम पर भरोसा कर सकता हूं, ओल्ड ब्राइसन। तुमने मुझे सही सलाह दी है। मैं पैसों को एकमुश्त खर्च करना चाहता था। अब कोई विस्तृत हिसाब-किताब रखने की कोई ज़रूरत नहीं है। मैं वैसा करना सख़्त नापसन्द करता हूं।”

गिलियन ने फोन करके एक टैक्सी बुलवाई और ड्राइवर को कोलंबाइन थियेटर चलने को कहा। मिस लौटा लौरियर शो के लिए लगभग पूरी तरह तैयार थी जब वस्त्र-सज्जा करने वाली स्त्री ने मिस्टर गिलियन के आने की सूचना दी। “उसे अन्दर ले आओ,” मिस लौरियर ने कहा। “अब क्या बात है, बॉबी?” उसने बोर होते हुए कहा। “मैं दो मिनट में प्रदर्शन करने वाली हूं।”

“मैं दो मिनट भी नहीं लूंगा,” गिलियन बोला। “एक लटकन के विषय में तुम्हारा क्या विचार है? मैं तीन शून्यों के पहले एक अंक लगाने जितनी रकम कर सकता “ओह, जैसा तुम कहो। बॉबी, क्या तुमने वह हार देखा था जो उस रात को डैला स्टैसी ने पहना हुआ था? वह दो हज़ार दो सौ डॉलर में आया था,” वह बोली। और वह अपने प्रदर्शन के लिए चली गई। गिलियन टैक्सी की तरफ़ गया। “तुम क्या करते अगर तुम्हारे पास एक हज़ार डॉलर होते?” उसने ड्राइवर से पूछा। “मैं तो एक शराब-घर खोल लेता,” ड्राइवर ने झट से जवाब दिया। “मैं दोनों हाथों से पैसा बनाता। क्या तुम सोच रहे हो

“ओह, नहीं,” गिलियन ने कहा, “मैंने केवल उत्सुकतावश पूछा था। चलो, चलते रहो, जब तक मैं तुम्हें रुकने को न कहूं।”
ब्राडवे पर आठ ब्लाक आगे, गिलियन ने पटरी पर एक अन्धे आदमी को पैंसिलें बेचते हुए देखा। गिलियन टैक्सी में से बाहर निकला ओर उसके सामने खड़ा हो गया।

“क्षमा करना,” उसने कहा, “लेकिन मुझे बताओ कि तुम क्या करते अगर तुम्हारे पास एक हजार डॉलर होते?”
“क्या आप अभी-अभी टैक्सी से उतरे हैं? ज़रा इस पर नजर डालिए, अगर आप – पसन्द करें,” उस अन्धे आदमी ने कहा और अपनी जेब से एक छोटी-सी किताब निकाली। गिलियन ने उसे खोला और पाया कि वह बैंक की एक पास-बुक थी। पास-बुक के अनुसार अन्धे आदमी के खाते में 1785 डालर जमा थे। गिलियन ने पास-बुक वापस की और टैक्सी में बैठ गया। “टॉलमैन एन्ड शार्प, ब्राडवे चलो,” उसने ड्राइवर से कहा।

(Page 21)
“I beg your ……. Tolman & sharp.

Word-meanings : 1. cheerful —प्रसन्नतापूर्ण; 2. slender-दुबली-पतली, छरहरी; 3. postscript-अनुलेख; 4. loosened a bit-थोड़ा नर्म पड़ा; 5. light-heartedly-खुशमिजाज़ी से; 6. bowed-सिर झुकाया। __ अनुवाद- “क्षमा कीजिएगा,” गिलियन ने प्रसन्नतापूर्ण स्वर में कहा, “किन्तु क्या मैं एक प्रश्न पूछ सकता हूं? मुझे आशा है कि आप बुरा नहीं मानेंगे। क्या मिस हेडन को मेरे चाचा जी की वसीयत में अंगूठी और दस डॉलर के अलावा भी कुछ मिला था?”

“नहीं, कुछ नहीं,” मिस्टर टॉलमैन ने कहा। “आपका बहुत-बहुत धन्यवाद है, श्रीमान,” गिलियन ने कहा और बाहर निकल कर टैक्सी में बैठ गया।
जब गिलियन अपने चाचा के घर पहुंचा तो मिस हेडन लाइब्रेरी में बैठकर पत्र लिख रही थी। वह छोटे कद की दुबली-पतली स्त्री थी और उसने (शोक-सूचक) काले वस्त्र पहने हुए थे। “मैं अभी-अभी टॉलमैन के कार्यालय से आया हूं,” उसने कहा। “उन्हें वसीयत में हस्ताक्षरों के बाद लिखा हुआ एक सन्देश मिला है। ऐसा लगता है कि चाचा जी दुबारा सोच-विचार करने के बाद थोड़े नर्म पड़े और आपके नाम एक हज़ार डॉलर की . वसीयत और कर दी। क्योंकि मैं इधर से गुजर रहा था, टॉलमैन ने मुझे वह पैसे आपको देने को कहा।

यह रहे पैसे।” गिलियन ने पैसे मेज़ पर रख दिए। मिस हेडन सफ़ेद पड़ गई। “ओह! मुझे अफ़सोस है,” पैसे उठाते हुए मिस हेडन ने कहा। “मुझे अफ़सोस है,” उसने दुबारा कहा। “क्या इसका कोई फायदा नहीं है?” गिलियन ने लगभग खुशमिजाजी से कहा। “क्या मैं एक नोट लिख सकता हूं?” गिलियन ने एक मुस्कराहट के साथ पूछा। मिस हेडन ने उसे एक पन्ना दिया और फिर से अपने काम में व्यस्त हो गई। गिलियन ने अपने एक हजार डॉलर के खर्च के ब्यौरे के तौर पर यह शब्द लिख दिए“अपने परिवार के एक कलंक, रॉबर्ट गिलियन, द्वारा एक हजार डॉलर, अमर प्रसन्नता के लिए पृथ्वी की सर्वोत्तम और प्रियतम् स्त्री को दिए गए।” गिलियन ने अपने लिखे को एक लिफ़ाफ़े में सरकाया, सिर झुकाया और अपने रास्ते चला गया। – उसकी टैक्सी टॉलमैन एण्ड शार्प के कार्यालय पर रुकी।

(Page 21-22)

“I have spent ………………… room whistling.

Word-meanings : 1. slipped-सरकाया; 2. tossed-उछाल दिया, फेंका; 3. bequest-उत्तराधिकार में मिला; 4. gist-सारांश; 5. examine-जांच करना; 6. in regard to-के सम्बन्ध में; 7. bother -परेशान करना; 8. disgust-विरुचि, घृणा।

अनुवाद- “मैंने एक हजार डॉलर खर्च कर दिए हैं,” उसने प्रसन्नतापूर्ण स्वर में मिस्टर टॉलमैन से कहा, “और मैं आप को हिसाब देने आया हूं।” उसने लिफ़ाफे को मेज़ पर फेंक दिया। लिफ़ाफे को छुए बिना मिस्टर टॉलमैन दरवाज़े की तरफ़ गया और उसने साझीदार, शार्प, को बुलाया। दोनों आपस में किसी चीज़ के बारे में विचार-विमर्श करते रहे। अन्त में मिस्टर टॉलमैन ने कहा, “मिस्टर गिलियन, आप के चाचा ने एक और लिफ़ाफा भी रखवाया था जिसे आपको उत्तराधिकार में मिले एक हज़ार डॉलर के खर्च का आप के द्वारा हिसाब दे दिए जाने के बाद खोलने का निर्देश दिया गया था।

क्योंकि आप ने हिसाब दे दिया है, मेरे साझीदार और मैंने उस लिफ़ाफ़े में लिखे हुए को पढ़ लिया है। हम आप को विस्तार में नहीं बताएंगे। परन्तु उसका सारांश यह है कि अगर आपने वे एक हजार डॉलर अक्लमंदी से खर्च किए हैं तो हमें आपके लिए रखे गए पांच हज़ार डॉलर की रकम को आप को दे देने का अधिकार है। परन्तु यदि आपने उस रकम को उसी तरह खर्च किया है जिस तरह आप अतीत में करते थे तो वे पांच हजार डॉलर मिरियम हेडन, स्वर्गीय मिस्टर गिलियन के संरक्षण में पलने वाली वह लड़की, को दे दिए जाएंगे।

अब, मिस्टर गिलियन, अब हम उन हजार डॉलर के खर्चे के हिसाब की जांच करेंगे।” मिस्टर टॉलमैन ने अपना हाथ उस लिफ़ाफे की तरफ़ बढ़ाया। गिलियन ने उससे भी ज्यादा तेज़ी दिखाकर लिफ़ाफे को उठा लिया। उसने उस हिसाब को तथा लिफ़ाफ़े को फाड़ डाला और उन चिंदियों को अपनी जेब में डाल लिया। “कोई बात नहीं,” उसने मुस्करा कर कहा, “आप को इसके द्वारा परेशान होने की कोई ज़रूरत नहीं है। कुछ भी हो, मैं उन एक हज़ार डॉलरों को घुड़दौड़ में गंवा चुका हूं। नमस्कार, सज्जनो।” टॉलमैन तथा शार्प ने घृणा में अपने सिर हिलाए और एक-दूसरे की तरफ़ देखा, और उन्होंने गिलियन को सीटी बजाते हुए कमरे से बाहर जाते हुआ सुना।

Punjab State Board PSEB 10th Class English Book Solutions English Literature Book Chapter 2 Half A Rupee Worth Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 10 English Literature Book Chapter 2 Half A Rupee Worth

Question 1.
How did Subbiah manage to get rice during the drought ?
Answer:
During the drought, Subbiah would go round the countryside and collect as much rice as he could. He would sell it at a very high rate and earn huge profits.

सूखे के दौरान सुब्बिया चावल प्राप्त करने के लिए ग्रामीण प्रदेश का चक्कर काटता और जितने चावल सम्भव हो सकता, इकट्ठे कर लेता। इन्हें वह बहुत ऊंचे दामों पर बेच देता और ऊंचे मुनाफ़े कमाता।

Question 2.
Those were the days when Subbiah loathed the rice bags.’ Which were those days ? Why did he dislike the rice then ?
Answer:
Subbiah was then a young boy. Like other boys, he longed to go and enjoy life in the open. But his father would not allow him to leave the shop. Naturally, Subbiah loathed the rice bags.

सुब्बिया तब एक छोटा लड़का हुआ करता था। दूसरे लड़कों की तरह वह खुले में जा कर जीवन का आनन्द लेना चाहता था। परन्तु उसका पिता उसे दुकान छोड़ने नहीं देता था। स्वाभाविक रूप से सुब्बिया चावलों की बोरियों से घृणा करता था।

Question 3.
What is the meaning of the statement ‘Rice was in his blood.’ ?
Answer:
Subbiah had spent all his days with his father in his rice shop. Thus he knew all about rice, and the rice business. It could be said that rice was in his blood.

सुब्बिया ने अपने सब दिन अपने पिता के साथ उसकी चावलों की दुकान में बिताए थे। इस प्रकार वह चावलों और चावलों के व्यापार के बारे में सब कुछ जानता था। ऐसा कहा जा सकता था कि चावल उसके खून में था।

Question 4.
How did Subbiah’s profits increase during the war ? Did he follow the rules laid down by the government ? How did he tackle the officers ? Answer:
During the war, there was a scarcity of rice. Subbiah sold his stock at very high rate and made big profit. He followed the rules only on paper, not in practice. He bribed the officers who came to check his stock and accounts.

युद्ध के दौरान चावलों की बहुत कमी हो गई। सुब्बिया अपने भण्डार बहुत ऊंचे भाव पर बेचता और भारी लाभ कमाता। वह केवल कागजों पर ही नियमों का पालन करता, असल में नहीं। जो अफ़सर उसका भण्डार या लेखा जांचने आते, वह उन्हें रिश्वत दे देता।

Question 5.
Besides selling rice, what else did Subbiah do to earn more ?
Answer:
Subbiah lent money at very high rates of interest. If people failed to pay back his money, he would acquire their houses. Thus he earned more and more money.

सुब्बिया ब्याज की बहुत ऊंची दरं पर पैसा उधार देता। यदि लोग उसका पैसा वापस न कर पाते तो वह उनके मकानों पर कब्जा कर लेता। इस प्रकार वह अधिकाधिक धन कमाता गया।

Question 6.
Who came to buy rice one evening when Subbiah was about to go home ? Did he give rice to him ? What did he say
Answer:
A person came to buy some rice. Subbiah refused to give him any. He said that he had some other business. But then he agreed to give the rice, but only half a seer for eight annas.

एक व्यक्ति कुछ चावल खरीदने आया। सुब्बिया ने उसे चावल देने से इन्कार कर दिया। उसने कहा कि उसे कोई अन्य काम था। परन्तु फिर वह उसे चावल देने के लिए सहमत हो गया किन्तु आठ आने में केवल आधा सेर।

Question 7.
How much rice did Subbiah agree to sell the man and for how much ?
Answer:
Subbiah agreed to sell him half a seer of rice for half a rupee.

सुब्बिया उसे आधा सेर चावल आठ आने में बेचने को सहमत हो गया।

Question 8.
Why did Subbiah ask the man to wait ? What reasons did he give ?
Answer:
Subbiah did not want anyone to know about his secret godown. So, he asked the man to wait. He said that he would have to go and bring rice from some other man.

सुब्बिया नहीं चाहता था कि उसके गुप्त गोदाम के बारे में किसी दूसरे को पता चले। इसलिए उसने उस आदमी को इन्तजार करने को कहा। उसने उससे कहा कि उसे किसी अन्य व्यक्ति के पास जा कर चावल लाने होंगे।

Question 9.
Where did Subbiah go to get the rice ?
Answer:
He went to his secret godown to get the rice. This godown was situated in a back street.

वह चावल लेने के लिए अपने गुप्त गोदाम में गया। यह गोदाम एक पिछली गली में स्थित था।

Question 10.
Did the man wait for Subbiah for long ? How.do you know ?
Answer:
Yes, the man waited for a very long time. He came in the evening and waited till morning. Then he went to Subbiah’s wife who took him to the godown.

हां, उस आदमी ने बहुत लम्बे समय तक प्रतीक्षा की। वह सायंकाल आया और प्रातः तक प्रतीक्षा करता रहा। फिर वह सुब्बिया की पत्नी के पास गया जो उसे गोदाम पर ले गई।

Question 11.
Where did the man go after waiting for Subbiah for a long time ? Where was he taken and by whom ?
Answer:
The man went to Subbiah’s home. There he asked Subbiah’s wife about him. The wife took the man to Subbiah’s godown.

हवह आदमी सुब्बिया के घर गया। वहां उसने सुब्बिया की पत्नी से उसके बारे में पूछा। पत्नी उसे सुब्बिया के गोदाम पर ले गई।

Question 12.
How did Subbiah die ?
Answer:
Subbiah tried to take out some rice from a heap of bags. While he was doing so, the bags fell on him. He was buried under the bags and killed.

सुब्बिया ने बोरों के एक ढेर में से कुछ चावल निकालने का यत्न किया। जब वह ऐसा कर रहा था तो बोरे उसके ऊपर आ गिरे। वह बोरों के नीचे दब गया और मारा गया।

Objective Type Questions

Question 1.
Subbiah was a rice merchant. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Question 2.
Subbiah had …………….. children.
(i) two
(ii) three
(iii) four
(iv) five.
Answer:
(iv) five.

Question 3.
Where did Subbiah’s wife take the man ?
Answer:
She took the man to the secret godown

Question 4.
Subbiah died in a road accident. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 5.
Subbiah’s profit ………… during the war.
(i) increased
(ii) decreased
(iii) went down
(iv) did not change.
Answer:
(i) increased

Question 6.
Subbiah was buried under the bags and died. (True/False)
Question
True

Answer each of the following in one word / phrase / sentence :

Question 1.
Who wrote the story, ‘Half a Rupee Worth?
Answer:
R.K. Narayan.

Question 2.
Who was Subbiah ?
Answer:
A rich merchant.

Question 3.
What sort of a man was Subbiah ?
Answer:
A shrewd businessman.

Question 4.
Where had Subbiah spent all his days ?
Answer:
With his father in rice shop.

Question 5.
For how much did Subbiah agree to sell half a seer of rice ?
Answer:
For half a rupee.

Question 6.
What was the government rate of rice at that time ?
Answer:
Three seers of rice for a rupee.

Question 7.
What did Subbiah’s wife have to tell the people when Subbiah did not return by the next morning even ?
Answer:
She had to tell them about their secret godown also.

Question 8.
Where was Subbiah’s secret godown situated ?
Answer:
In a back street adjoining Subbiah’s house.

Question 9.
How was the main door of the secret godown opened by the people ?
Answer:
They first broke open the front ventilator and then a boy slipped through it to open the main door.

Question 10.
Where did they find Subbiah eventually ?
Answer:
He lay buried under a heap of rice bags.

Complete the following :

1. Subbiah kept ………………… prized cows and buffaloes.
2. Subbiah owned ………………… acres of land.
3. During the war, there was a …………….. of rice.
4. Subbiah …………… all about rice and the rice business.
5. To earn more, he lent money at ……………….. of interest.
6. When Subbiah died, there was ………. in his hand.
Hints :
1. five
2. thirty
3. scarcity
4. knew
5. a very high rate
6. a half-rupee coin.

Write True or False against each statement :

1. Subbiah loathed the rice bags in his boyhood.
Answer:
True

2. Subbiah’s profits increased during the war.
Answer:
True

3. Subbiah followed the rules only on paper.
Answer:
True

4. When Subbiah’s father died, he took over his father’s business.
Answer:
True

5. Subbiah’s wife did not know about his secret godown.
Answer:
False.

6. Besides selling rice, Subbiah used to sell and buy lands also.
Answer:
False.

Choose the correct option for each of the following :

Question 1.
‘Boys should be horsewhipped if they are not to become brigands.’ Who practised this theory of child training ?
(a) Subbiah.
(b) Subbiah’s father.
(c) Subbiah’s son.
(d) Subbiah’s mother.
Answer:
(b) Subbiah’s father.

Question 2.
Subbiah would bribe the government officials and thus
(a) sell the rice to the ration depot.
(b) buy the rice from the ration depot.
(c) sell the rice in the black market.
(d) buy the rice from the black market.
Answer:
(c) sell the rice in the black market.

Question 3.
When the man had waited for Subbiah for three hours, …………
(a) he went to Subbiah’s godown.
(b) he called at Subbiah’s house.
(c) he went back to his house.
(d) none of these three.
Answer:
(b) he called at Subbiah’s house.

Question 4.
…………………. became very anxious when Subbiah did not return by six next morning.
(a) Subbiah’s mother
(b) Subbiah’s father
(c) Subbiah’s wife
(d) Subbiah’s children.
Answer:
(c) Subbiah’s wife

Half A Rupee Worth Summary & Translation in English

Half A Rupee Worth Introduction:
This is the story of a rich rice merchant, Subbiah. In his shop, there were all varieties of rice. Subbiah was a very shrewd businessman. He survived all ups and downs of his trade. He had five children. He provided them good education. His house was quite big and his wife had a lot of gold ornaments. He would lend money to people on high rates of interest.

And if people failed to pay back the money, he would acquire their houses. During the War, his profits piled up. But after the War, the government introduced price and food control. But Subbiah also found solution to this problem. He would bribe the government officials and thus sell the rice in the black market. At his shop, he would measure short and thus save a considerable quantity of rice.

He converted one of his houses into a big godown. He would sell his rice to his known customers only. One evening as he had just closed his shop, a person came to him. He requested him to give him rice worth half a rupee. At first Subbiah refused. But after much request, Subbiah agreed to give him only half a seer of rice although the government rate was three seers for a rupee. He took the coin from the man and told him to wait there. The man waited for Subbiah for three hours but he did not come.

He called at Subbiah’s house. Subbiah’s wife opened the door. She became very anxious when Subbiah did not come by six next morning. Now Subbiah was looked for in his godown. They saw his dead body under the fallen bags of rice. There was a half-rupee coin in his hand.

Half A Rupee Worth Summary & Translation in Hindi

Half A Rupee Worth Introduction:
यह एक धनी चावल व्यापारी सुब्बिया की कहानी है। उसकी दुकान में सभी प्रकार के चावल थे। सुब्बिया एक चतुर व्यापारी था। वह व्यापार के सभी उतार-चढ़ावों के बावजूद कायम रहा था। उसके पांच बच्चे थे। उसने उन्हें अच्छी शिक्षा दिलवाई। उसका घर काफी बड़ा था और उसकी पत्नी के पास सोने के बहुत से गहने थे। वह लोगों को ब्याज की ऊंची दरों पर पैसे उधार दिया करता था। यदि लोग उसके पैसे वापस करने में असफल रहते तो वह उनके घरों पर कब्जा कर लेता। विश्व युद्ध के दौरान उसके मुनाफे बहुत बढ़ गए।

परन्तु युद्ध के बाद सरकार ने ‘मूल्य और भोजन पर नियन्त्रण कानून’ लागू कर दिया। परन्तु सुब्बिया ने इस समस्या का भी समाधान खोज लिया। वह सरकारी अफसरों को रिश्वत दिया करता और चावलों की कालाबाजारी किया करता। अपनी दुकान पर वह कम तौला करता और इस प्रकार काफी मात्रा में चावल बचा लिया करता। उसने अपने मकानों में एक को बड़े गोदाम में बदल दिया। वह अपने चावलों को केवल जान-पहचान वाले ग्राहकों को ही बेचा करता। एक शाम जब उसने अपनी दुकान को अभी बन्द किया ही था कि एक व्यक्ति उसके पास आया।

उसने उससे आठ आने के चावल देने का अनुरोध किया। पहले तो सुब्बिया ने मना कर दिया। परन्तु काफी मिन्नत के बाद सुब्बिया उसे केवल आधा सेर चावल देने को सहमत हो गया जबकि सरकारी भाव एक रुपये में तीन सेर था। उसने उस आदमी से अठन्नी ली और उसे वहीं इन्तजार करने के लिए कहा। वह आदमी तीन घण्टे तक सुब्बिया का इन्तजार करता रहा, परन्तु वह नहीं आया। वह सुब्बिया के घर पर गया। सुब्बिया की पत्नी ने दरवाज़ा खोला। वह बहुत चिन्तित हो गई जब सुब्बिया अगली सुबह छः बजे तक भी नहीं आया। अब सुब्बिया को उसके गोदाम में तलाश किया गया। उसका मृत शरीर चावलों की बोरियों के नीचे दबा पड़ा था। उसके हाथ में एक अठन्नी थी।

Half A Rupee Worth Summary & Translation in Hindi:

(Page 11-12)
Subbiah sold rice ………………. Business prospered.

Word-meanings : 1. heaped-ढेर लगे हुए; 2. wicker basket-बाँस की टोकरी; 3. varieties-किस्में; 4. coarse-मोटा, सस्ता; 5. jasmine-चमेली; 6. slender-छरहरा, पतला, 7. stuffy-दम घोंटने वाला; 8. gunny sack-बोरा; 9. husk-भूसी, 10. flourish-फलना-फूलना; 11. drought-सूखा, अनावृष्टि; 12. scour-छान डालना; 13. harvest-फ़सल; 14. depressionनीचे जाना, अवनति होना; 15. survive-बच जाना, जीवित रहना; 16. apprentice-किसी काम को सीखने वाला, प्रशिक्षु; 17. loathe-घृणा करना, 18. more or less-लगभग, मानो; 19. horsewhipped-घोड़ों की तरह चाबुक से पीटे जाएं; 20. brigand-डाकू, बदमाश; 21. steadfastness-दृढ़ता, स्थिरता; 22. slid in-की जगह ले ली; 23.prosper-फलना-फूलना।

अनुवाद- सुब्बिया बाज़ार के गेट पर चावल बेचता था। उसकी दुकान में आप को बांस के टोकरों में ढेर लगी हुई सभी किस्में मिल सकती थीं। कंकड़ों से भरे मोटे चावल से लेकर दिल्ली संबा (एक बढ़िया किस्म) तक, जिसके दाने चमेली जैसे सफ़ेद और सुई जैसे पतले होते थे। उसकी दुकान दमघोंटू और अन्धेरी थी परन्तु वह दुकान की हर चीज़ को पसन्द करता। उसे बोरों, चावलों और भूसी की गंध बहुत अच्छी लगती थी। अच्छे और बुरे, सभी दिनों में वह फलता-फूलता रहा।

ऐसे भी सूखे के दिन आए जब धान की फ़सल नहीं हई और चावल-मिलें खामोश रहीं और जब लोगों की आंखें खोखली दिखती थीं और वे अधमरे दिखते थे। परन्तु उन दिनों में भी वह अपनी दुकान कभी बन्द नहीं करता था। यदि उसे बीस टोकरों जितना माल न मिलता तो वह आसपास का सारा क्षेत्र छान डालता और कम से कम दो टोकरे भर लेता और उन्हें बेच देता। ऐसे समय भी आए जब फसल इतनी भरपूर हुई कि वह उस अनाज का एक चौथाई भी स्वीकार न कर पाता जो उसे खरीदने के लिए प्रस्तुत किया जाता और तब चावल बेचना बेवकूफी वाला व्यापार समझा जाता। अगर आप दिन-रात लगा कर चावल बेचें तो आपको पचास रुपये का मुनाफा भी होने की कोई आशा नहीं होती। ऐसे समय को वे लोग ‘कारोबार की अवनति’ कहते हैं।

परन्तु सुब्बिया सभी उतार-चढ़ावों के बावजूद कायम रहा। चावल उसके खून में था। अपने पिता के शासन (जब वह दुकान का मालिक हुआ करता था) में सुब्बिया एक अवैतनिक प्रशिक्षु के रूप में दुकान पर बैठता था। वह ऐसे दिन थे जब सुब्बिया चावल के बोरों को घृणा की दृष्टि से देखता था। वह भीड़ से भरी सड़कों, सिनेमाघरों, फुटबाल के मैचों और कुश्ती की प्रतियोगिताओं के लिए लालायित रहता था जिन्हें वह भीड़-भरी दुकान के दरवाजे में से देखा करता था। परन्तु उसका पिता मानो उसे दुकान के साथ जंजीर से बांध कर रखता और उसकी बाहर की रुचियों को हतोत्साहित करता था। “लड़कों को घोड़ों की तरह चाबुक से मारना चाहिए यदि हम नहीं चाहते कि वे डाकू या बदमाश बनें।” वह शिशु-शिक्षा के इस सिद्धान्त पर इतनी दृढ़ता से पालन करता था कि समय बीतने पर उसी छोटे-से व्यक्ति को चावल और बाजार के सिवाय कुछ दिखाई नहीं देता था। जब उसके पिता की मृत्यु हुई, तो उसने काम को इतनी अच्छी तरह संभाल लिया कि किसी को कोई फर्क नहीं दिखा। ज्यादातर लोगों को लगता कि वह बूढ़ा अभी भी वहीं था और नकदी की गिनती कर रहा था। व्यापार फलता-फूलता गया।

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Subbiah kept we ………… mess of things.

Word-meanings : 1. prized—कीमती; 2: round-गोल-मटोल; 3. owned का मालिक था; 4. survey-देखना; 5. intact-साबुत, ठीक-ठाक; 6. exorbitant-बहुत ऊंचे; 7. acquired—कब्जे में ले लेता था; 8. swollen with money-बहुत धनवान हो गया; 9. brocaded-ज़री से युक्त, 10. draped-वस्त्रों से सज्जित; 11. gaudy-भड़कीली; 12. gilt-जिस पर मुलम्मे का काम हुआ हो, सुनहरा; 13. shove-धकेलना; 14. eternity-अनंत काल तक; 15. shock–सदमा, धक्का ; 16. piled up-ढेर लगाते गए; 17. flocked-भीड़ लगा कर आते थे; 18. beneficial-लाभ देने वाली; 19. hoax-नकली, कृत्रिम, झांसा; 20. make a mess-अव्यवस्थित करना।

अनुवाद- सुब्बिया के पास पांच अमूल्य गाएं और भैंसें थीं जिनका दूध, दही और मक्खन वह, उसकी पत्नी और उसके पांच बच्चे दिन-रात खाते थे जिसके कारण से वे सब गोल-मटोल और गुब्बारे की तरह हो गए। नजदीक के गांव में उसके पास 30 एकड़ जमीन थी और वह अपनी सम्पत्तियों को देखने और यह सुनिश्चित करने के लिए, कि वे ठीक-ठाक थीं, महीने में एक बार वहां जाया करता था। वह ब्याज की बहुत ऊंची दर पर पैसे उधार दिया करता था और यदि लोग पैसे वापस करने में असफल रहते तो वह उनके घरों पर कब्ज़ा कर लिया करता था। वह बहुत धनवान हो गया। वह अपने बच्चों को स्कूल भेजता था और उन्हें ज़री की टोपियां और मखमल के कोट खरीद कर देता था और घर में पढ़ाने वाले एक अध्यापक को पैसे देता था ताकि वह हाल में एक दिए की रोशनी में बैठकर पाठों को अपनी सबसे ऊंची आवाज में चिल्ला-चिल्ला कर बोले।

उसने अपनी पत्नी को गहनों से लाद दिया और उसे बनारसी रेशम की भड़कीली साड़ियां पहनने को दी, उसने अपने मकान में दो और मंजिलें और कई हाल-कमरे बढ़ा लिए और सभी दीवारों पर गहरे नीले रंग का पेंट करवा लिया और उन को सुनहरी फ्रेमों वाले देवताओं के सैंकड़ों चित्रों से ढक दिया। सारा दिन वह अपनी लोहे की अलमारी के पास बैठा रहता और उसमें पैसे धकेलता रहता, साथ ही अपने सहायकों को बोरों में चावल नापते हुए गौर से देखता रहता; वह एक संतोषजनक जीवन बिता रहा था। कोई कारण नहीं दिखाई देता था कि यह सब अनंत काल तक न चलता रहे – वही गतिविधियां और काम धन्धे चलते रहें और उसका एक. या दूसरा बेटा उसी की आकृति ग्रहण करे और परिवार के व्यापार को आगे बढ़ाए। यह सब कुछ शायद चलता रहता यदि युद्ध न शुरू हो जाता। शुरू-शुरू में तो ऐसा लगा मानो सभ्यता का अन्त आ गया हो, किन्तु पहले सदमे के बाद कुछ भी हो, वह इतना बुरा भी सिद्ध नहीं हुआ।

उसके मुनाफ़े इस तरह बढ़ते चले गए जैसे पहले कभी भी नहीं बढ़े थे। मैगोन और बर्मा ने चावल भेजना बन्द कर दिया और उसका अर्थ यह था कि उस स्टॉक, जो उसके पास था, का मूल्य अपने वजन के सोने के मूल्य के बराबर हो गया था। लोग हर समय झुंडों में उसकी दुकान पर आने लगे। उसने साथ लगता एक बड़ा मकान गोदाम के रूप में इस्तेमाल करने के लिए खरीद लिया, और फिर उससे आगे वाला, फिर उससे आगे वाला भी, और उसके बाद उसने एक दर्जन अन्य गांव खरीद लिए। कुल मिलाकर, ऐसा लगता था कि युद्ध एक बहुत लाभकारी शक्ति था जब तक कि ‘मूल्य तथा भोजन नियन्त्रण कानून’ नहीं लागू हो गया। अपने जीवन में पहली बार वह चिंतित हो गया। वह नहीं समझ पा रहा था कि किसी भी व्यक्ति को यह अधिकार कैसे था कि वह बताए कि सुब्बिया को क्या बेचना चाहिए और किस दर पर। उसे खुशी महसूस हुई जब उसने किसी को कहते सुना, ‘खाद्य विभाग एक झांसा ही है। सरकार सब चीज़ों में अव्यवस्था पैदा कर रही है।’

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He soon found ………….. on these things nowadays.

Word-meanings : 1. survive-बचे रहना; 2. garb—वेश, वस्त्र; 3. groan-कराहना; 4. surrender-त्याग देना, समर्पित करना; 5. peasants-किसान; 6. atrocious-नृशंस, भद्दी; 7. outward—बाहर दिखती हुई; 8. screen-सुरक्षित कर लेना; 9. prying eyes-खोज-बीन करने वाली नज़रें; 10. boon-वरदान; 11. appreciation-प्रशंसा, सम्मान; 12. gradually-धीरे-धीरे; 13. deft-दक्ष, निपुण; 14. accumulate-इकट्ठा होना; इकट्ठा करना; 15. vast—विशाल; 16. rags चिथड़े; 17. count on—पर भरोसा करना।

अनुवाद- जल्दी ही उसे पता लग गया कि एक नए वेश में वह अभी भी बचा रह सकता था। अधिकारियों के सामने गिड़गिड़ा कर, और लोगों से मिलकर, और कई तरह के फार्म भर कर शीघ्र ही उसे अपने व्यापार को ‘उचित मूल्य का खाद्यान्न डिपो’ के रूप में जारी रखने की आज्ञा मिल गई। वह अप्रसन्नता से कराह उठा जब उसे पता चला कि उसे अपना वह सारा चावल, जो उसके मज़दूर-किसान उसके गांव के खेतों में उगाते थे, त्याग देना होगा। वह सारा मामला उसे बहुत निर्दयतापूर्ण लगा। “वे मेरी फ़सल की कीमत तय करेंगे ! वे मुझे उस चीज़ को लेने की आज्ञा देंगे जो मैं स्वयं उगाता हूं !” परन्तु उसने उस स्थिति को बिना किसी बाहरी विरोध के स्वीकार कर लिया।

उसे नींद बहुत कम आने लगी और उसे भोजन से अरुचि हो गई। अंधेरी रातों में पूरे वक्त वह अपनी इस समस्या के विषय में सोचता रहता। अंत में उसे एक हल सूझ गया। वह ऊंचे स्वर में स्वयं से बोला, “अभी भी खेतों में मेरे पास चावल हैं और अभी भी मेरे गोदाम में बोरे पड़े हैं, आखिर सरकार क्या चाहती है ? कागज़ों में चीजें व्यवस्थित रूप में हों ? उन्हें यह अवश्य मिलेगा।’ उसने वह सारा चावल रख लिया जो वह बेचना तथा अपने निजी प्रयोग के लिए चाहता था परन्तु छिपा कर और बिना काग़ज़ों में दिखाए।

उसे उन लोगों को बहुत सारे पैसे देने पड़े जो उसके खातों और स्टॉक का निरीक्षण करने के लिए आते थे। यदि उसे किसी ऐसे अवसर पर दस रुपये का एक नोट देना पड़ जाता तो उसका अर्थ यह होता था कि उसने उन छानबीन करने वाली आंखों से एक हज़ार रुपये का अनाज छिपा लिया था। जब उसने इस सब पर विचार किया तो उसकी समझ में आ गया कि वे सारे नियन्त्रण वास्तव में वरदान थे। हफ़्ते में एक बार वह कुछ आने दान करने लगा और अपने मामलों में ईश्वर द्वारा रुचि लेने के सम्मान में वह मन्दिर में हर शुक्रवार को एक नारियल फोड़ने लगा। धीरे-धीरे, तजुर्बा होने पर, वह अपनी स्थिति का मालिक बन गया। अपने डिपो पर वह निपुण हाथों से चावल इस प्रकार तौलता था कि दिन के अन्त में चावलों की काफ़ी सारी मात्रा इकट्ठी हो जाती थी जो किसी की भी नहीं होती थी और उसके बाद वह देर लगाता और इस प्रकार से दुकान को खोलता, बन्द करता, और फिर से खोल देता कि लोगों को कई बार उसके पास आना पड़ता, इससे पहले कि वे उससे कुछ भी चावल ले सकें : जब उनके पास पैसे होते तो उसके पास स्टॉक न होता, अथवा जब उसके पास चावल होते तो उनके पास (खरीदने के लिए) पैसे न होते।

यह सब कर के वह हर हफ्ते चावल की एक विशाल मात्रा बचा लेता, और फिर गांव की उसकी फ़सल का एक छोटा-सा अंश ही खाद्यान्न विभाग में पहुंचता। बहुत कम समय में ही उसने पिछली गली में स्थित अपने एक मकान को गोदाम में बदल लिया और वहां फर्श से ले कर छत तक चावलों के बोरे एक के ऊपर एक करके रख दिए। (लोगों की नजरों में) वह रद्दी कागज़ों और चिथड़ों का एक स्टोर था जिन्हें वह कागज़ के कारखाने के लिए जमा किया करता था।

वह हमेशा अपने चावल को छोटी मात्राओं में और अपने परिचित ग्राहकों को ही बेचता था। वह उनसे पैसे पेशगी ले लेता था और उन्हें बाद में आने को कहता था। वह हमेशा एक सन्देह वाली बात भी उछाल दिया करता था, ‘एक आदमी था तो सही, जिसके पास थोड़े-से चावल थे। मुझे नहीं पता कि अभी भी उसके पास हैं या नहीं। चलो कोई बात नहीं, पैसे मेरे पास छोड़ जाओ।’ कभी-कभी वह पैसों को यह कहते हुए वापस कर देता, ‘मुझे अफ़सोस है कि चावल मिल नहीं पाए। उस आदमी ने कहा तो था कि उसके पास थे, पर तुमको पता ही है कि आजकल हम इन चीज़ों पर कभी भी भरोसा नहीं कर सकते।

(Page 14)
One evening ………. know will demand.

Word-meanings :
1. halted-रुका; 2. starving-भूखे मर रहे हैं; 3. exhausted—समाप्त हो गया था, वैध नहीं रहा था; 4. empty-handed-खाली हाथ; 5. seer-सेर (तौल की पुरानी इकाई); 6. contempt-तिरस्कार; 7. nonsense-मूर्खता की बात; 8. enraged-अत्यन्त क्रोधित; 9. perhaps-शायद।

अनुवाद- एक दिन शाम के वक्त जैसे ही उसने दुकान बन्द की और चाबी को जेब में रख कर चलने वाला था, एक व्यक्ति उसके सामने आकर रुका और बोला ‘ओह ! दुकान बन्द हो चुकी है। चलो, मेरी किस्मत ही ऐसी थी।’ ‘मुझे एक अन्य ज़रूरी काम है, मेरे पास रुकने और बातें करने के लिए कोई वक्त नहीं है,’ सुब्बिया ने कहा। वह उस व्यक्ति के पास से हो कर चल दिया। दूसरा व्यक्ति उसके पीछे-पीछे चलने लगा। उसने सुब्बिया को बांह से पकड़ा और चिल्लाया, ‘तुम्हें दुकान खोलनी होगी और मुझे चावल देने होंगे। मैं तुम्हें जाने नहीं दे सकता।’ सुब्बिया सोच में पड़ गया। वह व्यक्ति फिर बोल उठा, ‘मेरे दो बच्चे भोजन के लिए रो रहे हैं। वे और मेरी बूढ़ी मां भूख से मरे जा रहे हैं।

मेरा राशन कार्ड तीन दिन पहले खत्म हो गया था। मैं उन्हें उस हालत में और नहीं देख सकता। ‘कृपा करके किसी भी तरह मुझे थोड़े-से चावल दे दो। मैं पूरे शहर में बार-बार चक्कर काटता रहा हूं, किन्तु मुझे कहीं से एक दाना भी नहीं मिल सका। घर पर वे सोच रहे होंगे कि मैं कुछ न कुछ लेकर लौटूंगा। यह तो ईश्वर ही जानता है कि वे क्या करेंगे जब वे मुझे खाली हाथ लौटते हुए देखेंगे।’
‘तुम्हें कितने चावल चाहिएं ?’ ‘मुझे एक सेर दे दो। घर में मुझे छः व्यक्तियों को खिलाना है।’

‘तुम्हारे पास कितने पैसे हैं ?’ दूसरे व्यक्ति ने अठन्नी (आधा रुपया) का सिक्का सामने दिखाया। सुब्बिया ने सिक्के को तिरस्कार से देखा। तुम आशा करते हो कि इतने पैसों में तुम्हें एक सेर चावल मिल जाएंगे ?’ ‘किन्तु चावल तो एक रुपये में तीन सेर मिलते हैं, हैं कि नहीं ?’ ‘यह सब बातें अब मत करो। तुम भूखे ही मर जाओगे अगर तुम नियंत्रित मूल्य और इसी प्रकार की मूर्खता भरी बातें करते रहोगे।’ उसे बहुत गुस्सा आ गया। ‘यदि तुम्हारे पास आठ आने और भी हैं तो शायद तुम्हें एक सेर चावल मिल जाएंगे,’ सुब्बिया ने कहा। – दूसरे व्यक्ति ने ‘न’ में सिर हिलाया और कहा, “इस समय महीने के आखिरी दिन चल रहे हैं, देखो, मेरे पास इतने ही पैसे हैं।’ ‘तुम्हें केवल आधा सेर चावल मिल पाएंगे। यही वह मूल्य है जो वह आदमी, जिसे मैं जानता हूं, मांगेगा।’

(Page 15)
All right; ………… fallen bags.

Word-meanings : 1. suspicious-शक करने वाला; 2. had gone by-बीत चुके थे; 3. deepened-गहरा चुकी थी, काफ़ी बीत चुकी थी; 4. pretend-बहाना बनाना, दिखावा करना; 5. wander-भटकना; 6. anxious-चिंतित, 7. nervous-घबरा जाना, अधीर हो जाना; 8. whereaboutsपता-ठिकाना; 9. bylanes-छोटी गलियां, 10. bolted—(काबले से) बंद था; 11. ventilator-रोशनदान; 12. a little off-थोड़ी ही दूर; 13. stick out-निकला हुआ दिखाई दे रहा था।

अनुवाद- ‘चलो ठीक है,’ दूसरे व्यक्ति ने कहा, ‘कुछ न होने से तो बेहतर होगा।’ ‘मुझे वह सिक्का दो,’ सब्बिया ने कहा। उसने सिक्का पकड़े रखा। ‘मेरे पीछे मत आओ, वह व्यक्ति बहत शक्की है। वह उसी पल ‘न’ कह देगा जब मेरे साथ किसी को देखेगा। तुम यहीं इंतजार करो, मैं वापस आऊंगा किन्तु मैं (चावल ला देने का) वायदा नहीं करता। यदि वह ‘न’ कह देता है तो यह तुम्हारा दुर्भाग्य होगा, केवल इतना ही समझ लो। चलो, मुझे सिक्का दो।’

वह आठ आने ले कर वहां से चला गया और वह दूसरा व्यक्ति गली के एक मोड़ पर खड़ा हो गया। रात गहरा चुकी थी। वह व्यक्ति बार-बार स्वयं से बुदबुदाने लगा, ‘हैं ? क्या हुआ होगा, वह कहां है ? वह कहां गया है ? अब मैं कब घर जाऊंगा और चावल पकाऊंगा ? मेरे बच्चे, ओह, मेरे बच्चे।’ वह घूमा और उस दिशा में चलने लगा जिसमें सुब्बिया गया था परन्तु वह कहीं भी न पहुंच सका क्योंकि सुब्बिया ने उस तरफ जाने का दिखावा भर किया था ताकि उसके गुप्त गोदाम का पता न चल सके, और वास्तव में वह मुड़ गया था और किसी और दिशा में चला गया था।

वह व्यक्ति खामोश गलियों में इधर-उधर भटकता रहा और वापस मुख्य दुकान पर आ गया, इस आशा के साथ कि शायद वह वहां हो। वह वहां भी नहीं था। दरवाज़े पर अब भी ताला लटक रहा था, ठीक उसी प्रकार से जैसे उसने उसे पहले देखा था। फिर वह सुब्बिया के घर गया। उसने दरवाज़े को खटखटाया। सुब्बिया की पत्नी ने दरवाज़ा खोला। उस व्यक्ति ने पूछा, ‘क्या सुब्बिया घर पर है ?’ – ‘नहीं ! वह घर तो बिल्कुल भी नहीं आया।’ वह बहुत चिंतित लग रही थी। अगली प्रातः छः बजे तक वे अधीर हो उठे और उस हालत में वह कहे बिना न रह सकी, “क्या तुमने उसे उस दूसरे गोदाम में ढूंढा ?’ ‘वह (गोदाम) कहां है ?’

उसे बताना पड़ा क्योंकि वही अकेली व्यक्ति थी जो उस गोदाम का पता-ठिकाना जानती थी। वे चल पड़े। कुछ छोटी-छोटी गलियों में से होते हुए वे उस मकान पर आ पहुंचे। दरवाज़े को अन्दर से कुंडी लगी हुई थी। उन्होंने दरवाजे को खटखटाया। अंत में उन्हें सामने वाले रोशनदान को तोड़ना पड़ा, एक लड़के को उस में से घुसाना और फिर मुख्य द्वार को खुलवाना पड़ा। सुबह की धुंधली रोशनी उस टूटे हुए रोशनदान से आ रही थी। एक कोने में उन्होंने फर्श पर पड़ी हुई एक टार्च को देखा, और फिर उन्हें आठ आने का एक सिक्का, और थोड़ी ही दूरी पर गिरे हुए बोरों के ढेर के बीच में से निकलता हुआ एक हाथ दिखाई दिया।

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Who is known as the father of Sociology?
(a) Anguste Comte
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Durkheim
(d) Max Weber
Answer:
(a) Auguste Comte

2. In which year the word Sociology was used for the first time?
(a) 1840
(b) 1839
(c) 1842
(d) 1844
Answer:
(b) 1839

3. When was Karl Marx born?
(a) 1820
(b) 1822
(c) 1818
(d) 1816
Answer:
(c) 1818

4. Who wrote Communist Manifesto?
(a) Weber and Marx
(b) Marx and Durkheim
(c) Durkheim and Weber
(d) Marx and Engles
Answer:
(d) Marx and Engles

5. According to Marx, how many classes are there?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
(d) Five
Answer:
(a) Two

6. Which of these classes present in every type of society?
(a) Capitalist Class
(b) Labour Class
(c) a + b
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) a + b

7. According to Karl Marx, what is the reason of class struggle in society?
(a) Exploitation of labourers by capitalists
(b) Exploitation of capitalists by labourers
(c) Historical problems between the both
(d) All of these
Answer:
(a) Exploitation of labourers by capitalists

8. Which of these concepts was given by Karl Marx?
(a) Class struggle
(b) Historical Materialism
(c) Theory of Surplus value
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

9. When was Durkheim born?
(a) 1870
(b) 1858
(c) 1964
(d) 1868
Answer:
(b) 1858

10. Who is known as the successor of Comte in France?
(a) Weber
(b) Marx
(c) Durkheim
(d) Spencer
Answer:
(c) Durkheim

11. Which of these books was written by Durkheim?
(a) Division of labour in society
(b) Suicide-A study of Sociology
(c) The Rules of Sociological Method
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

12. Which of these concept was given by Durkheim?
(a) Division of Labour
(b) Social Fact
(c) Suicide
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

13. How many types of Social Facts are given by Durkheim?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
(d) Five
Answer:
(b) Three

14. Which of these concepts was given by Weber?
(a) Authority
(b) Ideal type
(c) Social action
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Karl Marx was a ……………… philosopher.
Answer:
German

2. Max Weber gave the concept of Social …………….
Answer:
action

3. The concept of division of labour was given by ……………….
Answer:
Durkheim

4. Historical materialism is the contribution of ………………
Answer:
Karl Marx

5. Karl Marx gave the theory of Class ……………..
Answer:
struggle

6. According to Weber, ……………… religion is responsible for the advent of capitalism.
Answer:
Protestant

7. The theory of suicide was given by ……………….
Answer:
Durkheim

True/False:

1. Durkheim was born in France.
Answer:
True

2. Durkheim explained about three types of suicide.
Answer:
True

3. Weber gave four types of authority.
Answer:
False

4. According to Marx, there are three types of classes in society.
Answer:
False

5. Labour class exploits the capitalist class.
Answer:
False

6. The concept of social solidarity was given by Dürkheim.
Answer:
True

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
Who is known as the father of Sociology?
Answer:
Auguste Comte is known as the father of Sociology.

Question 2.
When was the word Sociology used for the first time?
Answer:
An 1839 A.D. the word Sociology was used for the first time.

Question 3.
When and where was Karl Marx born?
Answer:
Karl Marx was born on 5th May, 1818 at Rearcity of Ryan state of Prussia.

Question 4.
When and where did Karl Marx receive his Doctrate?
Answer:
Karl Marx received his Doctrate in 1841 at Jena University.

Question 5.
When and who wrote ‘Communist Manifesto’?
Answer:
Karl Marx and Engles wrote ‘Communist Manifesto’ in 1848 A.D.

Question 6.
When did Karl Marx die?
Answer:
Karl Marx died on 14th March, 1883.

Question 7.
According to Karl Marx, how many classes are there in society?
Answer:
According to Karl Marx, there exist two classes in society, Capitalist class and Labour class.

Question 8.
Name the Concepts given by Karl Marx.
Answer:
Class Struggle, Historical Materialism, Dialectic Materialism, Social Change, Alienation, Surplus Value etc.

Question 9.
Who is known as the successor of Comte in France?
Answer:
Emile Durkheim is known as the successor of Comte in France.

Question 10.
In which university, Durkheim was appointed as a professor in Sociology?
Answer:
In Paris University, Durkheim was appointed as a professor in Sociology.

Question 11.
Name the Concepts given by Durkheim.
Answer:
Social Fact, Suicide, Religion, Division of Labour etc.

Question 12.
Name the types of authority given by Max Weber.
Answer:
Max Weber gave three types of authority-traditional, legal and charismatic.

Question 13.
According to Weber, which religion is responsible for the emergence of capitalism?
Answer:
Weber was of the view that Protestant religion was responsible for the emergence of capitalism,

Question 14.
Name the concepts given by Max Weber.
Answer:
Authority and its types, domination, ideal type Capitalism, Protestant Ethics and the spirit of capitalism, social action, Verstehen etc.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Capitalist Class?
Answer:
According to Karl Marx, Capitalist Class is that which owns all the means of production with the help of which it exploits all the other classes. With the help of means of production, it earns more money and spends its leisureful life. Marx was of the view that one day will come when labour class will throw away its power and authority.

Question 2.
What is Labour Class?
Answer:
According to Marx, labour class is that which does not own any means of production. It does not have any money or wealth. It does not have anything to sell except its labour to earn its livehood. It is always exploited by the capitalist class.

Question 3.
What is Social Solidarity?
Answer:
According to Durkheim, each society has some of its own ideals, beliefs, ways of behaviour, institutions and laws which bind it. Due to such elements, solidarity is maintained in society. They help in the formation of social relations and create unity in society which is known as social solidarity.

Question 4.
What is Capitalism?
Answer:
Capitalism is an economic system in which private property is of great importance and there is negligible govt, control on the market. Every one earns according to his qualification and ability. In Capitalism, capitalist earns more money with the help of its existing resources and exploits the labour class.

Question 5.
What is Division of Labour?
Answer:
According to Durkheim, division of labour is the division of work among the people or groups, according to their ability so that the work could be done in an organised and efficient way. It exists in every society. It does not originate but it gradually develops.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Class Struggle?
Answer:
Karl Marx has studied two classes in every society. According to him, in every society two opposite classes are there. One who exploits and other who is exploited by first one and there is always a struggle in them. To this struggle Marx has given the name of Class struggle. The class which exploits, to whom he gives the name of Capitalist class or Bourgouise, has all the means of production. With these means of production it always tries to suppress the other classes. Second class to which he has given the’name of Labour class or Proletariats, don’t have any means of production. They don’t have anything to earn their livelihood except to sell their labour. They are always exploited by Capitalist class. A continuous struggle is always going on in these both the classes. To this struggle Marx has given the name of ‘Class Struggle’.

Question 2.
When class and class struggle will come to an end?
Answer:
Under the leadership of labour class with the help of class struggle, the tools of state will come in its hands and then the age of Socialism will start. According to Marx, “State is the biggest tool in the hands of capitalists to exploit others.” After the revolution, Feudalism and Capitalism will try for anti revolution. That’s why the stage of Socialism from Capitalism is the temporary stage of authority of labourers. After the establishment of Socialism, exploitation will come to an end, groups also will come to an end and every one will be able to get according to his labour. But in the developed stage of communism every one will be able to get according to his needs. Slowly and slowly the state will disintegrate and the institution based on cooperation will come into being and class and class struggle will come to an end.

Question 3.
What is Capitalist Class?
Answer:
Marx has given the concept of Capitalist Class. According to him, one group in society is of that type which has all the means of production and which is the owner of all the means of production. With the help of its means of production it always exploits other classes. With the help of its means it earns more money and becomes more and more rich. Because of the ownership of money and means of production the capitalist lives a luxurious life. It is a developing class which has become the powerful owner of production forces in a short span of time. It stops the social progress and exploits the labour class. One day will come when the labour class will throw away their authority and will establish a Socialist Society.

Question 4.
What is Labour class or Proletariat class?
Answer:
According to Marx, there are two classes in society—Capitalist class and labour class. Labour class doesn’t have the ownership of means of production. It doesn’t have any money. It doesn’t have any other way to earn their livelihood except selling its labour. They are always exploited at the hand of capitalist class. Capitalist class always take more work from them and pays less money for their work, Because of the labour of labour class always produces surplus value and keeps it with themselves. Because of this exploitation labourer will become poorer and poorer. One day will come when a struggle will start in both the classes and labour class will throw the capitalist class from their authority and Socialist Society will be established.

Question 5.
What is meant by Capitalism?
Answer:
About Capitalism Marx was of the view that the reason of exploitation is Capitalism. Capitalists always taking away everything economically from labourers. They are taking extra work from labourers but are not paying them enough money. The capitalist is taking away the whole surplus value produced by labourer. Labourers are forced to do more work than the definite time. Capitalists are taking advantage of thier economic condition and are not giving them enough money. In this condition one day will come when all the labourers will unite and throw away the whole Capitalism.

Question 6.
What is a Social Fact?
Answer:
In every type of society some facts are there which are different from materialistic, Biological—Psychological facts. This type of facts Durkheim calls as social facts. Durkheim has given some definitions of social fact. At one place Durkheim writes, “Social facts are those ways of thinking, doing work and feeling which has the special characteristics to maintain its existence exterior to the individual consciousness.” At one more place Durkheim writes, “Social facts are those ways of working, thinking and feeling which are exterior to man and which controls the men by their power of constraint.”

Question 7.
Give Types of Social Fact.
Answer:
Durkheim has described two types of social facts—Normal social fact and Pathological social fact. Normal social facts are those facts which are scattered everywhere in the human society and if they are not common among all the persons then atleast they are common in most of them. Pathological social facts are those social facts which are not scattered everywhere in human society but are available at some places or at some particular place.

Question 8.
What is Division of Labour?
Answer:
According to Durkheim, meaning of division of labour is division of functions among different people according to their ability and capacity. Works are divided in this so that the work could be done in an organized way. Division of labour is a social fact, moral system and a universal phenomenon which exist in all the societies. It does not originate but it develops.

Question 9.
What is Social Solidarity?
Answer: Durkheim says that in every society some values, ideas, beliefs, ways of behaviour, institutions and laws are there which binds the society in one knot. Because of these elements, the relations and unity or solidarity exists in society. These elements increase acceptance and solidarity in society. This type of solidarity is known as social solidarity. If these elements start to disintegrate then the society will also start to disintegrate.

Question 10.
What is meant by Mechanical solidarity?
Answer:
According to Durkheim Mechanical solidarity can be seen in the repressive laws of society. The basis of this solidarity are the similarities exist among the members of society. The society in which the life of members is full of similarities, where general norms of thoughts, beliefs, functions, life styles and ideas are there and the society which thinks, works as a collective unit on the basis of these similarities shows mechanical solidarity. Its members are united like parts of a machine. In old primitive socieities, mechanical solidarity was there.

Question 11.
What is meant by Organic solidarity?
Answer:
Darkheim says that second type of solidarity is organic solidarity. In modern societies man is not directly united with group. In these socieities, there is a lot of importance of mutual human relations. That’s why Durkheim was of the view that Restitutive laws are important in modern socieities. In the societies, which are based on differences, humans are dependent upon each other. Each individual can specialize in one field and for other works, he is dependent upon others. This interdependence of members of group or society and their personal inequalities force them to come closer to each other. It leads to establishment of solidarity in society. This, according to Durkheim, is organic solidarity.

Question 12.
Give four differences between Mechanical and Organic solidarity.
Answer:

• We can see mechanical solidarity in repressive laws but organic solidarity could be seen in restitutive laws of society.
• Mechanical solidarity is based on similarities but organic solidarity is based on division of labour.
• Mechanical solidarity lies in the hands of collective representation but organic solidarity lies in the hands of functional differences.
• Mechanical solidarity establishes direct relations between an individual and society but in organic solidarity no direct relation is there between society and an individual.

Question 13.
What is Ideal Type?
Answer:
Weber has used the term Ideal Type not to indicate any ideal thought or some normative ideology but as a specific name for general nomenclature of the social phenomena or the social events. This is based on rational understanding and characteristics. This ideal type forms the basis of his methodology. In fact, this ideal type is an attempt at a scientific explanation of the social phenomenon. Martindale has defined it in these words, “Ideal types are hypothetical concrete individuals constructive out of their relevant components by researchers for the purpose of instituting precise comparison.” Ideal type is not a general or abstract concept but they are such assumed ideal units that have a realistic acceptance.

Question 14.
What is Social Action?
Answer:
According to Weber, social action is very much different from individual action. While giving its definition Weber has written, “Action is social in so far as, by virtue of the subjective meaning attached to it by the acting individual or it takes into account of the behaviour of others and is there by oriented in its course.” Weber has not recognised very overaction as a social action. Social action has to be guided by the object or the meaning because of which it has been done. Similarly, it is to have a social connotation. Every action or any action that is guided towards inanimate object alone, is not a social action. It has to be a meaningful orientation to the actor imitating it.

Question 15.
What is Legal Authority?
Answer:
Authority based upon formal rules and laws is known as legal authority. This type of authority is being given by laws or rules of the country. Jurisdiction of the concerned person is being given in this. Authoritative person uses this type of authority according to the definite rules and he can be punished if he will go beyond his Jurisdiction. All the persons, who have got legal authority, don’t have same type of authority but the authority of the concerned person depends upon his post. There is a definite hierarchy among the different posts.

Question 16.
What is meant by Traditional Authority?
Answer:
Authority given on the basis of Social values, folkways, mores, traditions, customs etc. is known as traditional authority. No written rules or laws are behind this authority. Traditional authority always depends upon unwritten rules. Social Sanction is the main force behind this type of authority. If anyone defies this type of authority then he is punished by social boycot. Example of this type of authority is head of the joint family in Indian Society. Authority of Brahmins in caste sytem was also based upon traditions.

Question 17.
What is Charismatic Authority?
Answer:
The source of individual authority can be completely different from traditional authority. The power of order can be used by a leader, a prophet, a hero etc. but this type of person can be a charismatic leader if he has any magical power, revelation or any other extraordinary quality and he has some sort of charisma.

This type of authority is neither based on legislative rules and nor on tradition but is based on some sort of charisma. This type of power only those people who have some charismatic forces. It takes a lot of time to achieve this type of authority. In other words the person should develop his personality in such a way that the people should be able to understand that this person has developed some charismatic powers and people accept his authority. Magicians, Prophets, Pir, Military-General, Religious leaders come in this type of category.

Question 18.
What were Weber’s views about Social Actibn?
Answer:

• Weber says that social action can be influenced by the past, present or future’s behaviour of other persons. If we are doing any action for the answer of our past action then it will be a past action. If we are doing any action in present then it will be a present action and if we will do any action while keeping in mind the future then it will be a futuristic action.
• Weber says that every type of external action cannot be a social action. Exterior action can be non-social action if it is influenced by non-living things.
• Few human contacts can come in the category of social action upto that extent when these contacts are influenced by the meaningful behaviour of others.
• If so many persons are doing some action then it cannot be called a social action and that action also cannot be called a social action which is only influenced by other persons.

Question 19.
Law of three stages.
Answer:
In the field of Sociological concepts, Comte has given a very important contribution and that is the concept of ‘Law of three stages’ given by him. He has written about this concept in his famous book ‘Positive Philosophy’. Comte gave this concept in 1822 when he was only 24 years of age. Comte got the thought of this law from ‘Conderecet’, Turoget and from ‘Saint Simon’. Comte wrote that the human knowledge was not developed at once. It came through a number of stages. Comte says that by studying the intellectual development of man in all ages and societies, we can come to know about its base and basic law under which man’s thinking is there and whose concrete result is included in the facts of our structure and in our historical experiences. These laws are like this. Our every main concept, every branch of our conceptual knowledge goes through three different stages and these three stages are :

• Theological or Fictitious Stage
• Metaphysical or Abstract Stage
• Scientific or Positive Stage

In simple words, the meaning of this law is that when humans wanted to get knowledge about any subject then they were thinking on the theological basis. With the passage of time, people started to get knowledge about any subject on metaphysical basis instead of theological basis. But again with the passage of time, instead of using these two bases, -people started to understand any phenomena on positivistic basis. In first stage fiction, in second stage feeling and in third stage rational or reason became important.

Question 20.
Theological stage.
Answer:
In the conceptual scheme of Comte this theological stage is of great importance. According to him to understand the beginning of social evolution, evaluation of first stage is must. In theological stage thoughts or views of man were fiction or of imagination. Man sees, believes and understands all things as a result of actions at that time of God. They believe that all things whether they are living or non-living are supernatural. It means that there exists some supernatural power in all the things. While talking about human thoughts in religious stage Comte says that in theological stage while finding the essential nature of the universe and while finding the last reasons of natural phenomena human mind believes that all phenomena are the proof of the phenomena of supernatural beings.

In this stage man believed too much in magic and totemism. He believed that in every object, one God or soul or the other resides. That’s why they had separate gods for separate things. As a result of this a number of Gods multiplied. When this number became quite large then an hierarchical order was established and the most important God was placed at first. According to Comte, this stage can be divided in three different sub-stages and these three sub-stages are :

• Fetishism
• Polytheism
• Monotheism

Question 21.
Metaphysical stage.
Answer:
Comte has called this stage the revolutionary time of modern society. This stage lasts long for five centuries and infact it was started in 14th century and lasted upto 19th century. We can divide this passage of time in two parts. In first part revolutionary movement was started automatically or by itself. Second part started in 16th century. In this negative principle was started whose main aim was social change. The start of revolutionary stage can be accepted as from the time of differentiation of spiritual and worldly powers of monotheism. Revolutionaly Philosophy was started from the arrival of Protestentism in 16th century. Here one thing should be kept in mind that in Roman Catholicism the differentiation of spiritual and worldly powers has also encouraged the theological questions to think over the social problems. The second part of metaphysical stage can be divided in three parts. In first part old system came on to an end automatically at the end of 15th century.

In second stage Protestentism came in front of us. Here there was complete independence of observation but it was limited only to Christian religious matter. In third stage deism came forward in 18th century. It has broken all the limits of observation and said that it has no limit. In this stage the middle aged Philosophy and experts of Law came forward and got higher status in society. These both attacked a lot on Catholic System. Because of it Spiritualism came down. Feudal Society and higher class also see a lot of downfall in them. Protestantism has shown the way of wider independence with the help of which people became ready to finish the social and intellectual elements of old system. In this stage Negative philosophy was established.

Question 22.
Positivism stage.
Answer:
At the start of this stage two things are important. First thing is this that Comte views it as Industrial society. Second thing is that he believes that it was started in 14th century. It means that this stage was started in comparison with metaphysical or revolutionary stage but in 19th century it started to gain momentum. One difference came into being between the concept and its usage in this stage. Intellectual imagination was divided in three parts. These are Industrial, Asthetic and scientific or philosophical. These three stages are matching with three aspects of every subject like Good or Useful, Beautiful and Truth. From these three parts the most important part is industrial part on the basis of which we can- compare primitive society with modern stage. The special quality of industrial movement was the birth of political independence. One more quality is its revolutionary aspect.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Law of Three Stages:

Question 1.
Explain Comte’s theory of Law of Three Stages.
Or
What do you know about Comte’s Law of Three Stages? Give in detail.
Answer:
In the field of sociological theories, one of the major contribution of Comte is the theory of Law of Three Stages. He gave this theory in his book ‘Positive Philosophy. He created this concept in 1822 when he was only 24 years of age. Comte got this concept from Conderecet, Turoget and Saint Simon. Comte was of the view that human knowledge and contemplation processes did not develop momentarily. It has crossed many stages, Comte was of the view that after studying human intellectual development in all ages, we come to know about the basic rules under which human contemplation does occur and its result is included in our historical experiences and organisational facts.

All of our major concepts, every branch of knowledge has gone through three separate theoretical conditions and these are—Theological or fictious stage, Metaphysical or abstract stage and Scientific or positive stage. In simple words, this rule says that initially in human life, when people wanted to get knowledge on any subject, they thought about it on theological base. Gradually, instead of thinking on theological level, people started thinking on metaphysical level. Later on, humans left both the levels and started to observe any phenomenon on scientific or positive level. In first stage, imagination was important. Feeling in second stage and reason in third stage became important.

Comte made this law on the basis of different aspects of human nature. There are three important aspects of human nature and these are :

1. Feelings. Human feelings motivate a person to do work and these feelings serve his functions.
2. Thought. An individual always thinks to satisfy his feelings and makes a few thoughts. These thoughts take responsibility of satisfying such feelings and help in regulating them.
3. Action. Humans do work (action) to satisfy their feelings.

Comte was of the view that an individual can live life after maintaining balance in all the three aspects of his nature. If human feelings are different, he thinks differently and acts differently, he cannot live a simple life. In this way, there is a need of a system of knowledge, institutions and beliefs for the existence and continuation of a system regulating behaviour between social individuals. It can lead to the successful establishment of ideological relations between different members of society.
Comte studied the history of human society and said that for giving answer to the given problem, three social systems developed, during the course of time, which had such co-ordination. These three systems were :

• Theological Stage
• Metaphysical Stage
• Positive Stage.

1. Theological Stage. Theological stage has an important place in the conceptual scheme of Comte. According to Comte to understand the beginning of social evolution, the proper observation of first stage is necessary. He believed that in theological stage, all the human ideas were imaginative. Humans always considered every thing as a consequence of activities of a supernatural power i.e. God. He believed that in all the things—alive or lifeless, that supernatural power exists. About human views in theological stage, Comte writes that human brain believed that all the events occurred in the world, are the proof of instant events of that supernatural power. According to Comte, this stage can be divided into three sub stages and these are :

1. Fetishism. Comte established social mobility as a basic element in his philosophy and used it to study human society. Comte believed that his basic element will help in the re-establishment of social sciences. Comte believed that theological stage starts with fetishism. In human thinking, it was a naturally born idea that all the external things have humans like life. At this stage feelings were more dominant than intellectual life. The basic element of fetishism philosophy was the belief that some unidentified influences on human life come forward due to actions of few . things which they considered are alive. Fetishism is an impaired form of theology but is one of its sources.

Fetishism had a close relation with morality, language, intellect and society. At the initial level of human life, sentiments were quite dominant and that is why much stress was given on morality and moral values. Language had no symbolic base. Comte believed that human language has a formative structure. At intellectual level, fetishism was a thumping system. At this stage, humans could only understand theological concepts. There were very few natural phenomenon of which he had personal experience and about which he had very good knowledge. Consequently, the level of this stage’s civilization was of low level. At social level, fetishism gave birth to a specific type of priesthood or clericalism. In this, priests came into being who were astrologers and knew the art of magic. In this stage, humans had direct relation with everything. That is why priesthood or clericalism did not develop in an organised way. The fetish gods did not influence much human life. Consequently, there was not any chance of the birth of intellectual class in this stage.

Here one thing should be kept in mind that in the sub stage, humans started conquering over nature. The most important aspect in this sub stage was the domestication of animals. Comte was of the view that Polytheism, which is the second sub stage, beginning was started in Fetishism. He takes this stage to a historical level. To reach the second sub stage of theological stage, the most important change came at intellectual level was the change in human views about stars. Stars were worshipped in fetishism but when they reached the level of Gods, it took a concrete form.

2. Polytheism. This stage remained for the maximum time. To explain this sub stage, Comte tells us about his analysis method. He tells us that our analytical method must study abstractly the major features of polytheism. After that, polytheism must be analysed in the context of its features. Basically, Polytheism was completely against every type of scientific explanation but the beginning of science started in this stage. Actually reaching polytheism from fetishism was one of the major achievements of human intellect. The social thought of polytheism can be observed from two sides and these are political and moral.

1. Political Structure. Humans sowed the seeds of politics, right from the beginning, in many ways. Initially in politics, military features such as courage and strength were the most important aspects in politics. Later on intelligence and diplomacy became the base of politics. According to Comte, there were many aspects of political structure in Polytheism such as, religious wars (crusades) and military system. In this sub stage, religion gained social importance. Religious festivals in the Greek civilisation express this aspect very well. Except this, in this sub stage, there was a need of military development. The major reason of military development was that without this, the political structure and its progress was almost impossible. Polytheism not only established military discipline but it maintained this discipline as well. Political structure of Polytheism had two important features and these were slavery and centralisation of spiritual and temporal forces.

2. Morality. The above given explanation of political structure clearly tells us that morality, at this stage, was not in good shape. According to Comte, under the system of slavery, personal, familial and social relations became corrupt to a great extent. Except this, in comparison with political structure, morality was at its lower level. -According to

Comte, Polytheism had three phases :

1. Comte gives the name of Egyptian phase to the first phase. Intellectual and social elements of primary phase can develop only when whole power comes in the hands of priest class. Its important function was to accept different occupations on a large scale. Consequently, in this stage, one important institution came into being which is known as caste system. First of all, caste system developed in the Asian countries. Yet, the caste system emerged out of military system but it curbed the wartime interests and gave authority to the priest class. Caste system did not develop in the western societies. According to Comte, social equalitarianism was the main aspect of the civilisation. Sometimes he seems to agree with Karl Marx when he says that Colonialism was good for the Asian countries because the equalitarianism of western countries played an important role in breaking the clutches of caste system. Its universality is a major proof of its activeness for the human needs. Major role of caste system in the intellectual progress is to differentiate theory and its execution. Politically, its importance was to maintain system and peace in society. Even after having many advantages, this phase was against any type of progress or change.

2. Second phase was Greek or intellectual in which, first time, discrepancy was created between intellectual and social progress. In this stage, in Greece, one such intellectual class took birth which did not do any work except the conceptual framing. That is why it emerged as an alternative to the pries’! class. Its direct impact was on the progress of science. The revolutionary change occurred in this was the progress in Geometry. The progress of philosophy was started with the progress of science.

3. Comte gave the name Roman or Military phase to the third phase. Major achievement of Rome was to make free itself from the priest class. Consequently the authority of Senate was established in Rome or Roman Civilisation. The centralised feature of the Roman Civilisation was its war policy. Main objective of the wars was to establish colonial areas. The development of individual personality was based on war culture. Humans were nurtured under military discipline. The reasons of Rome’s decline can be seen in its expansionist policy.

These three phases of Polytheism had a universal character. Comte observes them as a specimen of Egypt, Greece and Rome. His main objective was to express three types of Polytheism.

3. Monotheism. When Rome united whole of the civilised world, Monotheism got a chance to work on intellectual level to raise the living standard. Intellectual decline of theological philosophy was bound to happen. Comte gave the example of Roman Catholicism to explain this stage. Monotheism basically is a belief system which is independent from the political system. Differentiation of religion and political power was the major achievement of modern age. One of the achievements of Roman Catholicism was to bring morality under its control. Initially, morality was controlled by political needs. In this stage, an independent and effective existence of an intellectual class was established. Consequently differentiation between theory and its usage came into being. Now, there is no need of empirical context to create new theories. To bring reforms in political system, abstract theories can be created. In the same way, talks could take place about the needs of future society.

In Monotheism’s sub stage, feudalism could be considered as a base of modern society. In the field of morality, Roman Catholicism was able to maintain a universal morality. It helped in creating different moralities such as personal morality, familial and social morality but there was an intellectual decline in this stage. In comparison to this stage, Polytheism was having better opportunities of intellectual progress.

2. Metaphysical Stage. Comte gave the name of revolutionary time of modern society to this stage. This stage remained for five centuries i.e. from 14th till 19ril centuries. This stage can be divided into two parts. In first part, revolutionary movement started without any deliberate efforts. Second stage started in the 16th century. One negative theory started in this whose main aim was to bring social change. The time of revolutionary stage could be considered at the time of differentiation of spiritual and worldly powers in Monotheism. Revolutionary philosophy started in 16th century with the advent of ‘Protestantism’. Second part of Metaphysical stage can be divided into three phases :

• In first phase, old system automatically ended in the later part of 15th century.
• In second phase, Protestantism came into being. In this, there was a complete right of observation but it remained confined with the Christian religion. It broke the limits of observation and said that it has no limits.
• In third stage, Deism came forward in the 18th century. It broke the limited limits of observation. This phase established the authority of medieval philosophy and legal experts. These both gave a great blow to the Catholic system. Consequently, spiritualism declined which greatly affected the world. Feudalism and upper classes also declined. Protestantism gave birth to universal freedom and consequently people became ready to remove social and intellectual elements of ancient system. Negative philosophy was also established in this stage.

3. Positive Stage. To understand the beginning of positive stage, two things should be kept in mind. First of all, Comte considered it as Industrial society. Secondly, he considers the beginning of this stage also from the 14th century. It means that the positive stage also started with the revolutionary stage but it started dominating in the 14th century. In the positive stage, one difference occurred in its concept and usage. Intellectual imagination was divided in three phases and these were’ industrial, aesthetic and scientific. All of these phases were similar in three aspects of each subject such as good or profitable, beautiful and truth. Most important aspect out of these is industrial on the basis of which, we can compare ancient society with modern system. Major feature of the industrial aspect was the advent of political freedom. One of its another feature is its revolutionary nature.

Positivism:

Question 2.
Explain Positivism theory given by Auguste Comte.
Or
Discuss the theory of Positivism given by Comte.
Answer:
Auguste Comte used the word ‘Positivism’ in his book ‘Positive Philosophy’ in a way that it became polemical. Actually, he used this word as an ideological weapon to struggle against the revolutionary culture. Comte’s main objective, to understand social phenomenon, was to dismiss critical and destructive theories of negative philosophy and, in place of it, to establish formative and constructive theories of positive philosophy. In other words, main objective of Comte was to bring social study and research at scientific level. Positivism wanted to use methods of natural sciences in social studies and to make social sciences more realistic such as Physics, Chemistry etc. He believed that through positivism, real and positive knowledge could be attained. He said that through their practical use, social progress could be made possible. Real and positive knowledge will become strong base of social reorganisation. In this way, the ultimate objective of positivism is social reconstruction or reorganisation.

Now the question is that what is meant by the concept of Positivism given by Comte. In simple words, the scientific method used by Comte to study social phenomenon is positivism. Comte adopted this method as study method from Huem, Kont and Gaul. He used positivism while formulating his theories but never gave its clear cut explanation in his books. He never tried to prove the correctness of its rules. He did so deliberately because he believed that the explanation of method cannot be differentiated from the study of its phenomenon which can be found through these methods.

After studying Comte’s writings, we can say that the meaning of positivism is a scientific method. Scientific method is the method in which, to understand and explain any subject matter, there is no place of imagination, guessing, exchange etc. It is a systematic functional method of observation, experience, classification, comparison and scientific method. In this, to understand and to gain any knowledge of any subject, the scientific method based on observation, experience, classification, comparison and historical method is known as positivism.

Chamblis explained the meaning of Comte’s positivism in these words. Comte rejected the thing that positivism is antitheist because, in any form, it is not attached with supernaturality. He also believed that positivism is not fatalist because it accepts that change can come in outer phase. It is also not optimistic because it lacks the metaphysical base of optimism. Positivism is related with reality, not with imagination, is related with useful knowledge, not with complete knowledge. It is related with those definite facts whose pre-knowledge is possible. It is also related with real knowledge, not with indefinite ideas. In short, positivism is the system of ideas which is universally accepted.

From the given description, it is clear that positivism is the scientific method based on observation, explanation, classification, comparison and historical method through which the real and positive knowledge about any subject is gained. While following Huem and Kont, Comte was clear about the fact that what any science should achieve and what it should try to achieve. The scope of scientific knowledge is limited. Such logics are included in scientific knowledge which are about the relations of traditions and can be checked. These logics, are of two types :

• Uniformity of co-existence
• Uniformities of succession.

During the times of Comte, natural sciences such as mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and biology were completely developed and the study of their subject matter was done through scientific method. But Comte was not satisfied with the study system of social phenomenon through prevailing hypostatical and religious methods. He gave the utmost importance to scientific method. He was in favour of bringing social study system into the scientific study system of observation, classification, analysis etc. Comte was of the view that, with the help of systematic functional systems based on observation, experience, classification etc., the study of not only natural phenomenon is possible but the study of society is also possible because society is a part of nature. The way in which natural phenomenon are based on few definite rules, in the same way, as a part of nature, social phenomenon also occur according to certain rules.

Social phenomenon never occur suddenly but occur according to pre-determined rules. It means that the study of collective life and its related basic rules is realistically possible. This is the basic concept of positivism. So, it is clear that Comte’s Positivism is not based on imagination but is based on the systematic functional system of observation, comparison, classification, historical method which explains social tradition and instead of finding reasons, it gives more stress on finding causal-effect relationship.

It is clear from the given description that in positivistic system, initially we select a topic and then, through observation, we collect all the related facts. In the eyes of Comte, observation is the major method to study any phenomenon, natural or social. After this, it is explained, analysed and on the basis of general features, they are classified. In the end, related with the topic, conclusions are drawn and they are verified by using comparison and historical method.

Theory Of Social Action:

Question 3.
Discuss Max Weber’s theory of Social Action.
Answer:
Among the propounders of the theory of Social Action, Max Weber is quite prominent. Weber gave a detailed and scientific explanation of the theory,of Social Action. Only through the concept of Social Action, Weber explains scientific nature of Sociology. A number of Sociologists, such as Raymond Aaron, Irwing Zetlin, Bogardax, Rex etc. criticised Max Weber and they started their work of criticism only with the theory of Social Action. Before the beginning of this theory, we must keep in mind that there must be no technical difference between action and behaviour. It is necessary for the members of the society to interact with others for the formation of relations. There is always an objective behind every type of human action. One needs to act to achieve his objective. As a sociologist, one cannot include all the actions in the purview of Social Action. Only such actions come in its purview which are given any particular meaning by the actor. This action of an individual can be external, internal, mental and material. Along with this, actions can be related with any time present, future or past. It means it can be related with any age.

First of all the theory of Social Action was given by ‘Alfred Marshall’. Marshall studied Utilitarianism and developed the concept of action. Marshall considered action as a special category of value. After Marshall, Vilfredo Pareto developed the theory of ‘elites’ and ‘circulation of elites’. In this category, Durkheim gave the theory of ‘Social Fact’.  In modern age, major propounder of the concept of Social Action was Max Weber who gave the concept of meaningful ‘Social Action’. In the same way the names of Weblin, Commons, Karl Manheim, Parsons and Merton are quite important. We can also include the names of William White and C. Right Mills in this category. Max Weber gave his theory of ‘Social Action’ in his book ‘The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation’.

Weber says that social action is very much different from individual action. While defining social action, Max Weber writes that, “That action is social in so far as by virtue of the subjective meaning attached to it by acting individual it takes account of the behaviour of others and is ther eby oriented in its course.” To explain his concept of social action, Weber divided it into four parts. According to Weber, this classification of Weber is based on the relations with things. Parsons considered it a form of orientation. Gerth and Mills call it as a motivational direction.

Before understanding Weber’s classification of action, we need to understand the concept of Social Action. According to Weber, we need to keep in mind four things before accepting any action as Social Action :

1. Weber believed that social action can be affected by the past, present and future behaviour of other individuals. If we act in accordance with our action of past, it will be a past action. If we act in present time, it is a present action and if we act while keeping in mind future, it will be a future action.
2. Weber says that every exterior action cannot be a social action. Exterior action is non-social which is influenced completely by non-living things.
3. Few human contacts come in the category of social action till the extent that they are related and influenced by meaningful behaviour of others.
4. Action is neither called social if same type of action is done by many and nor it can be called social which is only affected by others. For example, during rain, if every one opens up his umbrella, it cannot be a social action because action of every one is not related with the action of others. Weber says that imitation of someone’s action is not social until your action is having a meaningful relation with others’ action.

Types Of Social Action:

1. Rational Action. Rational Action (also known as value-rational ones, wertrational) is the action which is taken because it leads to a valued goal, but with no thought of its consequences and often without consideration of the appropriateness of the means chosen to achieve it (‘the end justifies the means’). Value rational or Instrumentally rational social action is divided into two groups : rational consideration and rational orientation. Rational consideration is when secondary results are taken into account rationally. This is also considered alternative means when secondary consequences have ended. Determining this mean of action is quite hard and even incompatible. Rational orientation is being able to recognize and understand certain mediums under common conditions. According to Weber, heterogeneous actors and groups that are competing, find it hard to settle on a certain medium and understand the common social action.

2. Instrumental Action (also known as value relation, goal-instrumental ones, zweckrational): actions which are planned and taken after evaluating the goal in relation to other goals, and after thorough consideration of various means (and consequences) to achieve it. An example would be a high school student preparing for life as a lawyer. The student knows that in order to get into college, he/she must take the appropriate tests and fill out the proper forms to get into college and then do well in college in order to get into law school and ultimately realize his/her goal of becoming a lawyer. If the student chooses not to do well in college, he/she knows that it will be difficult to get into law school and ultimately achieve the goal of being a lawyer. Thus the student must take the appropriate steps to reach the ultimate goal.

Another example would be most economic transactions. Value Relation is divided into the subgroups commands and demands. According to the law, people are given commands and must use the whole system of private laws to break down the central government or domination in the legal rights which a citizen possess. Demands can be based on justice or human dignity just for morality. These demands have posed several problems. Even legal formalism has been put to the test. These demands seem to weigh on the society and at times can make them feel immoral.

The rational choice approach to religion draws a close analogy between religion and the market economy. Religious firms compete against one another to offer religious products and services to consumers, who choose between the firms. To the extent that there are many religious firms competing against each other, they will tend to specialize and cater to the particular needs of some segments of religious consumers. This specialization and catering in turn increase the number of religious consumers actively engaged in the religious economy. This proposition has been confirmed in a number of empirical studies.

It is well known that strict churches are strong and growing in the contemporary United States, whereas liberal ones are declining. For lannaccone’s religious experience is a jointly produced collective good. Thus members of a church face a collective action problem. Strict churches, which often impose’ costly and esoteric requirements on their members, are able to solve this problem by weeding out potential free riders, since only the very committed would join the church in the face of such requirements. Consistent with the notion that religious experience is a collective good, lannaccone et al. show that churches that extract more resources from their members (in the form of time and money) tend to grow in membership.

3. Affectional Action (also known as emotional actions) are the actions which are taken due to one’s emotions, to express personal feelings. For example, cheering after a victory, crying at a funeral would be affectional actions. Affectual is divided into two subgroups : uncontrolled reaction and emotional tension. In uncontrolled reaction there is no restraint and there is lack of discretion. A person with an uncontrolled reaction becomes less inclined to consider other peoples’ feelings as much as his own. Emotional tension comes from a basic belief that a person is unworthy or powerless to obtain his/her deepest aspirations. When aspirations are not fulfilled there is internal unrest. It is often difficult to be productive in society because of the unfulfilled life. Emotion is often neglected because of concepts at the core of exchange theory. A common example is behavioral and rational choice assumptions. From the behavioral view, emotions are often inseparable from punishments.

Emotion. Emotions are one’s feelings in response to a certain situation. There are six types of emotion : social emotions, counterfactual emotions, emotions generated by what may happen (often manifested as anxiety), emotions generated by joy and grief (examples found in responses typically seen when a student gets a good grade, and when a person is at a funeral, respectively), thought-triggered emotions (sometimes manifested as flashbacks), and finally emotions of love and disgust. All of these emotions are considered to be unresolved. There are six features that are used to define emotions : intentional objects, valence, cognitive antecedents, physiological arousal, action tendencies, and lastly physiological expressions. These six concepts were identified by Aristotle and are still the topic of several talks.

4. Rational choice theorists, on the other hand, believe that all social actions are rationally motivated. Rationality means that the actions taken are analyzed and calculated for the greatest amount of (self)-gain and efficiency. Rational choice theory although increasingly colonized by economist, it does differ from microeconomic conceptions. Yet rational choice theory can be similar to microeconomic arguments. Rational choice assumes individuals to be egoistic and hyperrational although theorists mitigate these assumptions by adding variables to their models.

5. Traditional actions. Actions which are carried out due to tradition, because they are always carried out in a particular manner for certain situations. An example would be putting on clothes or relaxing on Sundays. Some traditional actions can become a cultural artifact. Traditional is divided into two subgroups: customs and habits. A custom is a practice that rests among familiarity. It is continually perpetuated and is ingrained in a culture. Customs usually last for generations. A habit is a series of steps learned gradually and sometimes without conscious awareness. As the old cliche goes, “old habits are hard to break” and new habits are difficult to form.

Social Action models help to explain social outcomes because of basic sociological ideas such as the Looking Glass Self. The Idea of Cooley’s Looking Glass Self is that our sense of self develops as we observe and reflect upon others and what they may think of our actions. Additionally, impression formation processes allow us to interpret the significance of others’ actions.
Social Actions and Institutions Model. An ‘institution’ consists of specialized roles and settings that are linked together semantically, with the complex typically being devoted to serving some function within society.

In sociological hierarchy, social action is more advanced than behavior, action and social behaviour, and is in turn followed by more advanced social contact, social interaction and social relation.
Weber said that social actions are directed in three ways :

1. Traditional Usage: It means that which is edited on the basis of tradition. Social customs affect human actions. Consequently human actions never move away from social traditions which led to the maintenance of social decorum.
2. Interest: The meaning of interest is by such similarities in which actions could be understood in the form of prudential guidance.
3. Legitimate Order: In this, actions are directed by actor’s ideals.

Authority-Concept And Types:

Question 4.
What is meant by Authority? Explain the types of authority given by Max Weber.
Answer:
Human activities are always according to social structure. In each organised group, elements of authority are always there. In an organised group, few general members are there and few other members are there who are given responsibility as well as authority. Few persons work as administrators. Composition of a group is always according to this rule of authority which states that few are empty handed and few are given enough. Legal or sanctioned form of power is known as authority. Meaning of sanction of power is by that power which is sanctioned by society. This sanction can be given through written rules, laws, traditions or written norms. Power is the capacity of a person or a group of influencing other’s behaviour according to one’s wish. Power is an institutionalised concept and Weber’s analysis is in this direction. Weber has given three basic types of authority and these are :

1. Legal Authority
2. Traditional Authority
3. Charismatic Authority

1. Legal Authority. The authority based upon formal rules and laws is known as legal authority. This type of authority is being given by laws or rules of the country. Jurisdiction of the concerned person is being given is this. Authoritative person uses this type of authority according to the definite rules and he can be punished if he will go beyond his jurisdiction. All the persons, who have got legal authority, don’t have some type of authority but the authority of the concerned person depends upon his post. There is definite hierarchy among the different posts..

There are certain rules in using authority which keep restrictions on those who use authority. Authority differentiates his personality as an individual and as an authoritative person. It is expected from him to keep all of his activities in written form. In this way State makes certain rules according to which few statuses are there with which some authority is associated. So if any person gets that status, he automatically enjoys the authority associated with that status.

In this type of authority, the source of authority is not the individual prestige of a person but is the authority associated with the rules. For this his scope is limited until the authority is given to him by laws. An individual cannot go beyond the limits of authority which is given to him by his official status or laws. In this way there is a basic difference between his scope of official activities and personal activities. For example, if any one is working as an officer then in office he enjoys certain type of authority which he cannot enjoy at home. At home he enjoys the authority of a father and a husband but not of an officer. In any complex society, legal authority is not the same in every one’s hand but there is definitely a hierarchy in it. It means that in legal authority certain higher and lower authorities are there.

2. Traditional Authority. Authority given on the basis of social values, folkways, mores, traditions, customs etc. is known as traditional authority. No written rules or laws are behind this type of authority. Traditional authority always depends upon unwritten rules. Social sanction is the main force behind this type of authority. If any one defies this type of authority then he is punished by social boycot. Example of this type of authority is head of the joint family in Indian society. Every one obeys the orders of head of the family due to traditions. Authority of Brahmins caste system was also based upon traditions. They are considered as superior to other castes and they have the permission to perform religious rituals. Even today, Brahmin plays a very important role as a religious consultant. In the same way authority of husband over wife is the fine example of traditional authority in Indian society.

This type of authority is not given according to one’s status or is given to any one under certain rules but one enjoys it because authority to him is given by tradition. This status is defined according to traditional system because of which one gets a specific type of authority. In this way authority based on traditional beliefs is known as traditional authority. For example, in earlier times, the authority given to panchs in panchayat was not according to certain rules but was according to traditions associated with the status of panchs. Even the authority of panchs was compared with the authority of God. It means that panch was seen as replica of God. In the same way the authority given to father in a patriarchal society is not according to rules but is based on traditions. We do not follow father’s orders because of any legal authority given to him but we follow him because traditionally this process is going on from the ages. Legal authority is definite and limited according to certain defined rules but this is not the case in traditional authority because traditions are not clearly defined and they don’t have any definiteness. There is no limit of this type of authority. For example, the limit of authority of an officer can be defined but we cannot define his authority as a father or as a husband.

3. Charismatic Authority. The source of charismatic authority can be completely differ ent from traditional authority. The power of order can be used by a leader, a prophet, a hero etc. but this type of person can be a charismatic leader if he has any magical power, revaluation or any other extraordinary quality and he has some sort of charisma. Those people who obey his orders, are his followers who, instead of belie’zing in legal or traditional authority, believe in his charismatic abilities and individual charisma. Those followers can barely be characterized as an organisation and their activi ties are based on the authority of the leaders. Officials of this type of organisation can be designated by ithe leader not by any rule or tradition. They are bounid to the orders given by their charismatic leader.

This type of authority is neither’ based on legislative? rules and nor on tradition but i:s based on some sor-t of charisma. This type of power only those people enjoy who have some charismatic forces. It takes a lot of time to achieve this type of authority. In other words; the person should develop his personality in such a way that the people- should be able to understand that this, person has developed some charismatic powers and people mus?t accept his authority. Magicians, Prophets, Pir, Military General, Religious leaders come in this type of authority. People accept authority of thin type of person because they feel that this person has some charismatic traits; which ordinary people don’t have. Thai’s why they even bow in front of him. This type of au thority don’t have any limit. This type of authority has a feat ure that after some time, it changes into either legal or traditional autho:rity.

Social Fact:

Question 5.
Explain the concept of Social Fact of Durkheim. Critically examine it also. .
Or
Explain the nature and characteristics of Social Fact. Criticise it also.
Answer:
The analysis of‘social fact’ given by Karl Marx is very important. Durkheim’s views about ‘Social Fact’ can be seen in his second main book ‘The Rules of Sociological Method’. Durkheim felt that Sociology cannot be established as independent science until or unless its subject matter is not clear and for the analysis of this there is need of systematic objective methodology. Because of these two objectives Durkheim wrote ‘The Rules of Sociological Method.’Durkheim clearly felt the drawbacks of Sociologists like Comte, Spencer, Mill etc. and clearly wrote, “These Sociologists have gone forward unclear towards the relations between nature of Sociology and Socio-biological areas.”

What are Social Facts? From the point of view of subject matter and study methodology, Durkheim has tried to establish Sociology as an independent Social Science. Durkheim was of the view that Sociology does not include all the human activities in its study’ but it limits itself to the study of social facts. In this chapter Durkheim tries to clarify that actually which facts oan be called as Social Facts? What are the characteristics of social facts and how these can be studied?

While explaining the meaning of Social Fact, Durkheim said that there are many wrong views about social fact and that’s why many misconceptions are there regarding the subject matter of Psychology, Biology and Sociology. Himself Durkheim has written, “Before knowing methodology of social facts we should know that which facts are generally known as ‘Social’? This is also important from this point that the word ‘Social’ has been used in very indefinite way. Today this word is used for that phenomenon which occurs in society. That is a different thing that how much interest that phenomenon have in society. But we don’t have any human phenomenon which cannot be called as social. Every man is sleeping, eating, drinking and thinking and it is in the interest of society that everthing should be done in a systematic way. If we’ll call all these social facts then there will be no independent subject matter of Sociology and there will be a great confusion in Sociology and Psychology and Biology.

While explaining the meaning of social fact, first of all Durkheim said that social facts should be seen as things. Yet Durkheim has not given clear meaning of the word ‘thing’. Durkheim has used the word ‘thing’ in four different meanings. These are :

1. Social fact is that thing which has some characteristics and externally which can be seen.
2. Social fact is that thing which we can know with experience only.
3. Social fact is that thing whose existence is not dependent upon humans,
4. Social fact is that thing about which we can understand externally. But because social fact is like thing so it is not a static concept but it should be taken as moveable concept.

In this way we can see that in every type of society some those type of facts are there which are quite different from Material, Biological and Psychological. To this type of facts Durkheim is calling them social fact. Durkheim has given many definitions of social facts. At one place Durkheim has written, “Social facts are those ways of doing work, thinking and experiencing, in which they have extraordinary characteristic of keeping their existence outside of personal consciousness.” At another place Durkheim has written, “Social facts are the ways of doing work, thinking and experiencing, which are external from man and which controls the man with the help of their power of constraint.”

In the end of first chapter of his book Durkheim gave clear definition of social fact. He wrote, “A social fact is a temporary, permanent way of doing work, which is capable of putting external pressure or every way of doing any work which is available in any society in general form but with that they are independent from personal consciousness and have their independent existence.”

From all these definitions of Durkheim it is clear that way of acting are social facts. In ways of acting all human behaviour are included which are related with his thinking, feeling and acting. These are the parts of social reality. These phenomenon can be temporary or can be permanent. For example in any society there is little bit difference between numbers of suicide, marriages and dead people. It means that their annual rate is .generally static or permanent. So these can be called social facts. In this way ‘God’ cannot be called as social fact because it is always from real observation.

In this way any thought of mind cannot be called as social fact because it doesn’t have any external form. But any concept as rule given by any scholar or any pray, in which Totemism is included, can be called as social fact because their real observation is possible. Language, folk stories, religious beliefs, business laws, actions moral rules are the best examples of social facts because their observation, experimentation is possible and they are external of humans and they are capable to pressurise them.

Characteristics of Social Facts:

On the basis of given description we can say that there are three characteristics of social facts. These are :

1. Exteriority
2. Constraint
3. Generality

1. Exteriority. The first and most important characteristic of social fact is its exteriority. By exteriority it means that it is right that social facts are made by the members of society but when they are developed once then they are not under control of any particular person and they are taken as independent reality. Then they don’t have any internal relation with scientist or maker of that fact and no one can influence these social facts.

To explain exteriority of social facts Durkheim has explained this on the basis of difference between individual consciousness and collective consciousness. According to Durkheim if we will analyse the organization and forms of individual consciousness then it will be clear that the main bases of individual consciousness are sentiments. Sentiments are the results of interaction of different cells. But these sentiments, which develop from different cells, have their own characteristics which are not there before the birth of cells. With collection a system comes in front. To this concept Durkheim is calling ‘Synthesis and Suigeneris. Durkheim believes that the way in which the main base of personal thoughts is the different collection of cells, in that same way the main base of social thoughts is members of society. Collective consciouness is developed from the organization of personal consciousness. In this way “these show the exceptional fact of living outside of individual consciousness.”

2. Constraint. The second characteristic of social fact is its constraint. In other words, social facts have a type of pressure or constraint on man. Social fact cannot be made by one man or by some men, it will be made by many or a number of humAnswer: So that why these are very powerful and they can put effect of constraint on any man. Durkheim was of the view that social facts not only affect the behaviour of man but they affect his way of thinking and doing work. In this way according to Durkheim we can see this characteristic of social fact in this way that it is not according to the interests of humans but the behaviour of humans is according to them. Durkheim is giving a number of explanations to explain this characteristic.

According to him, the behaviour and ways of humans all are influenced by many social facts like moral rules, religious beliefs, economic systems etc. Durkheim has written, “Constraint is their internal characteristic and its proof is that how much I am trying to opposing them they are exerting more pressure or constraint on me. If I will not use the ways of my country, If I will not wear clothes and obey rules of my country then my countrymen will keep me away from them. In actual words these are as effective as punishment. Yet these are indirect but still they are influential.”

At another place Durkheim has written, “It is’not necessary for me to talk with other French people in French language or I should use popular currency, but it will not be possible for me to do work against this. As an industrialist I am free to use old methods of business but if I will do this then definitely I will’ call my destruction. It means that these social facts are exerting on me to work according to them.”

In this way social facts are coming in the category of collective consciousness and collective consciousness is the collection of individual consciousness. This is the consciousness of consciousnesses. A social fact can be seen with the power of constraint pressure.

3. Generality. The third characteristic of social fact is its generality and these have been distributed right from the ancient times till today and these are spread in every sphere of life. These are common to all. These do not belong to any particular person. This generality is not just the collection of many personal facts. They are collective by nature and they are influencing people because of their characteristics of generality and collectiveness. In this way we can see that according to Durkheim, there are three important characteristics of social facts :

1. Social facts are keeping their independent existence from personal thoughts.
2. Social facts have an effect of constraint on humans.
3. They are universal and general and are available everywhere.
   In short, according to Durkheim social fact is the every way of doing work which is external, puts pressure on humans and are general in nature.

Rules For Distinguishing Between Normal and Pathological Facts. In his 3rd chapter Durkheim has given laws for distinguishing normal and pathological facts. Marx has said that the social facts of subject matter of Sociology generally are coming in front of us in two forms. First are those which are according to the accepted behaviour of the society and others are those which are different from these. To these Durkheim has given types of social facts and these are of two types.
Types :

• Normal facts
• Pathological facts

According to Durkheim, science must have power to formulate those rules on the basis of which we can differentiate these normal and pathological facts. Normal social facts are those facts which are spread everywhere in human society and if they are not spread in all then atleast they are spread in most of these.

Pathological social facts are those facts which are not spread everywhere but are spread only in some parts. To clarify Durkheim’s view, Raymond Arron has written, “Any phenomenon is normal at that time when they are found in the special stage of evolution of any particular society.” With this definition of Arron the types of facts will be cleared. According to him any social phenomena or fact will be normal in that condition when it is available in any particular stage of evolution of one particular society. In contrary to that if any fact is not of that type or it don’t have characteristic of this type then it can be called as pathological fact.
Durkheim has given three important rules to -differentiate in Normal and Pathological facts.

1. According to Durkheim, the first important rule of differentiating between these two is Generality. Generality is called to that fact when any characteristic or fact is available in most of the members of the group. According to Durkheim the General Phenomenon available in any society or group can be called as normal. Those phenomenon or facts don’t have this characteristic means the phenomenofi which are not average those will be called as Pathological.

In this way Generality is the main base of differentiating in Normal and Pathological facts but Generality is a neutral concept. It is not sure that we can find all the facts everywhere and in every type of society. We can give two examples to clarify this rule. In U.S.A. ‘Kissing’ at any place is a General Phenomena but it is not in India. In this way ‘untouchability’ was a general phenomena in India before independence but now it is not.

2. The second rule of differentiating between normal and pathological fact according to Durkheim is that all use the result of preceding method (Generality) to show that the Generality of the phenomena is related with the general condition of community life of that society. It means that if it is called any fact as general fact according to first rule then to verify our result we can say that this phenomenon is related with the general conditions of community life of that society. For example, marriage is a social phenomena which can be found in every type of society. It is general because it is related closely with our life.

3. According to Durkheim’s 3rd rule we can verify any social phenomena as formal fact in that condition when that normal fact is available in that society which has not evolutionized fully or which is in underdeveloped condition. It is must in that condition when that particular fact is available in that society which has not evolutionized fully.

Division Of Labour:

Question 6.
What do you know about the concept of Division of Labour given by Durkheim? Give its functions and reasons also.
Or
Write a note on ‘Division of Labour’ as described by Durkheim.
Answer:
In 1893 Durkheim published his first book in French language called ‘De La Division due Trovail Social’. Though it was his first writing yet it was a strong base for his popularity. On this book only he got doctorate from Paris University in 1893. In this great book he has fully explained the social division of labour. Durkheim’s this book has been divided into three parts. In every part he has analysed the different aspects of division of labour. These three parts are :

1. The Functions of Division of Labour
2. Causes and Conditions
3. Abnormal forms of Division of Labour

In the first part of this book ‘Functions of Division of Labour’ he has tried to prove that division of labour is the base of social solidarity. With that from the point of view of scientific study he has explained different forms of Law, types of solidarity, different forms of human relations, crime, punishment, social evolution and some problems of society. In second part of this book he has given detailed explanation of reasons and results of division of labour. In third part of this book he has given some abnormal forms of division of labour.

Here we will give brief description of two parts and with this we will explain the concept of division of labour.

Functions of Division of Labour:

Durkheim accepts every social fact as moral fact. Any social behaviour lives on the base of moral base. As a functionalist first of all Durkheim has given function of division of labour. According to him, division of labour is a social fact, that’s why he started his book from its functional analysis. First of all, Durkheim has given the meaning of function. He has given two meanings of function:

• Meaning of function is from system of movement it means from action.
• Second meaning of function is from this action or movement and from interrelation according to its needs which means the need to be fulfilled by action.

Here Durkheim is using meaning of function from second point of view. In this way by function of division of labour his meaning is that which basic of social existence is fulfilled by the process of division of labour. Function is that in the absence of which, the basic needs of its units cannot be fulfilled. Generally it has been said that the function of division of labour is the development of Society because it is a truth that with the development of division of labour and

• Penal law. These are related with giving suffering, causing loss, to kill and to obstruct independence. We can call them organised Repressive laws.
• Diffused law. Some repressive laws are there which are spread in the whole society or group on the basis of morality. That’s why Durkheim is calling them diffused law.

According to Durkheim, Repressive laws are related with criminal functions. These laws explain the crime and its punishment. These laws also show the basic conditions of collective life of society. Every society has its basic circumstances. So in different societies repressive laws are also different. The power of these repressive laws is based in collective mind and collective mind gets power from equalities.

2. Restitutive law. Another type of law is Restitutive law system. These laws provide balance to the imbalance produced in the human relations. In this group civil laws, business laws, constitutional laws, administrative laws are coming. These laws are not related with the whole society but are related with human. These laws are regulating the balance and imbalance produced in the personal relations of members of society. Restitutive laws are joining individuals and society with some middle institutions.
On the basis of these two types of laws according to Durkheim two types of solidarities can be made. These two types of solidarities are the result of two different types of life styles. Repressive laws are related with general nature of man and with equalities. But Restitutive laws are realted with differences or with division of labour. The type of solidarity which comes due to Repressive Jaws, according to Durkheim, it is Mechanical Solidarity arid the solidarity which comes due to Restitutive laws is called Organic Solidarity whose base is division of labour.

In this way according to Durkheim there are two types of social solidarities :

1. Mechanical Solidarity. According to Durkheim, Mechanical Solidarity can be seen in the repressive laws of society. The basis of this solidarity are the equalities available in the members of society. The society in which the life of members is full of equalities, where general norms of thoughts, beliefs, functions, life style and ideal are there and the society which thinks, works as a collective unit on the basis of these equalities shows mechanical solidarity. Its members are united like a machine. In old primitive socieities mechanical solidarity was there. He was of the view that even crime helps in binding the people in solidarity. In this way there is existence of one social solidarity which comes out of definite conditions of consciousness which are normal for the members of any society. These can be shown by Repressive laws. These are based on the power of collective consciousness.

2. Organic Solidarity. According to Durkheim, second type of solidarity is organic solidarity. The power of Repressive laws is in collective consciousness. Collective consciousness gets power from equalities. In primitive societies repressive laws were there because the base of social life was equalities. According to Durkheim, modern societies are influenced by division of labour and specialization in which instead of equalities, inequalities are the base. This difference of group or collective life gives importance to individual consciousness.

In modern societies man is not directly united with group. In-these societies there is a lot of importance of mutual relations of humAnswer: That’s why he was of the view that in modern societies instead of Repressive laws, Restitutive laws are important. In the societies which are based on differences humans are dependent upon each other. Every human can specialize in one field and for other works he is dependent upon others. This interdependent of members of group or society and their personal inequalities force them to come closer to each other with the help of which solidarity in society would be established. To this type of solidarity Durkheim is saying organic solidarity. This can be seen in restitutive social system.

According to Durkheim, this solidarity is just like Physical solidarity of man. Because of their specialized functions Hand, Feet, Nose, Ear, Eye etc. have different existence as independent parts of body but their function is possible in that condition when they are united with each other. Hand cannot work until or unless it is not joined with body. In other words, there is unity or solidarity between different parts of body but that is dependent upon mutual dependence. With the increase of population, needs also increase. For the growing demands of people division of labour and specialization take place and with that organic solidarity can be seen in modern societies.

3. Contractual Solidarity. After analysing mechanical and organic solidarity Durkheim has also written about one more solidarity which is known as Contractual Solidarity. According to Durkheim, the process of division of labour gives birth to contractual relationships. People of a group are getting the services of each other on the basis of mutual contracts and mutually they are cooperating with each other. It is right that in modern societies people are establishing cooperation and solidarity on the basis of contracts. But the function of division’of labour is not to give birth to contractual solidarity. According to him, contractual solidarity is individual fact, but it is regulated by society.

Social Evolution. Durkheim has explained social evolution on the basis of development of division of labour. He was of the view that the social evolution from primitive society to modern society should be called as result of continuously increasing division of labour. The changes which came in the social life of primitive societies which were easy and based on equalities, all those can be found in the explanation of process of division of labour. In other words, according to Durkheim, the development of division of labour is social evolution.

Causes and Conditions:

Second part of book ‘Division of Labour in Society’ is related with causes, conditions and results and these are given below :
Causes of Division of Labour. Durkheim has explained division of labour on Sociological basis. He has found the causes of division of labour in the conditions of social life and in the social needs produced from them. From this point of view, he had divided the cause of division of labour in two parts :

• Primary Causes
• Secondary Causes,

In Primary causes Durkheim has taken the cause of increase of population and its result. To Secondary reasons he has divided them in two parts and these are increasing unclarity of General consciousness and the decreasing influence of Ancestors. Now we explain them in detail :

(1) Increase in the size and density of Population. According to Durkheim, the increase in size and density of population is the central and Primary reason of division of labour. He says that the increase of population has two aspects—increase in size of population and increase in density of population. These both aspects give birth to division of labour. With the increase in population old primitive societies are disintegrating and new mixed societies are coming into being. Population started to concentrate in few centres. The density of population he has divided in two parts :

• Material Density. From physical point of view concentration of people at one place is material density.
• Moral Density. Because of material density relations of the people are increasing with which actions and reactions are increasing. To the complexity coming out of increased mutual relations and inter-relations Durkheim gives the name of dynamic or moral Density.

(2) Unclarity of Collective Consciousness. In secondary reasons of division of labour he has given first place to unclarity of collective consciousness. In equality based societies, collective consciousness is quite strong because of which members of societies cannot be motivated by individual or personal point of view. Collective feelings are showing them the way. Durkheim was of the view that division of labour and individual specialization is possible in that condition when instead of collective point of view, individual point of view will develop and when individual consciousness suppresses collective consciousness. So according to him the development of division of labour will be slow and difficult if collective consciousness is strong and definite. If this collective consciouness will be loose enough then the’ division of labour will move with quite a good speed.

(3) Ancestral reasons and division of labour. The second cause of division of labour according to Durkheim is the decreasing influence of ancestral influence. How much more influence these ancestral qualities can exert on man that much less chances will be there for change. In other words for the development of division of labour it is must that we should not give importance to ancestral qualities. The development of division of labour is possible only if there will be differences in the nature and behaviour of the people.

The result of classifying people on the base of their ancestral qualities and binding them with their ancestors is that man has not been able to develop his special qualities and does not change. In this way it is an obstacle in the distribution of division of labour. He was of view that with the passage of time ancestral binding will become so weak and their ancestral qualities will also become weak. So slowly and slowly different qualities of people will develop and then division of labour will also develop. In this way we have seen that Durkheim was of the view that increase of population, unclarity of collective consciousness and decreasing influence of ancestral qualities are the causes of division of labour.

3. Consequences of Division of Labour:

After giving primary and secondary factors of division of labour Durkheim gives us the results or consequences which come out of development of division of labour. We should keep in mind that ‘Functions’ and. ‘Consequences’ are two different words. So many facts which just seem like functions of this, are actually consequences of this. He has given a number of consequences of division of labour and some of these are given below :

1. Functional independence and specialization. Durkheim has differentiated between physical division of labour and Social division of labour and has given consequences of social division of labour. According to him, its one result is this that, the way in which work will be divided in that some way the independence of doing work and mobility also increases. Because of division of labour man keeps his special qualities in special function. So according to him, the result of development of division of labour is that the functions of humans become independent from their physical features. In other words human’s structural qualities are not influencing its functional nature.

2. Development of civilization. In the early part of the first part of his book he clarifies that development of civilization is not the function of division of labour because division of labour is a moral fact and all aspects of civilization-industrial, scientific and intellectual aspects don’t have any relation with moral development.

He has given development of civilization as a result of division of labour. He was of the view that the increase in size and density of population makes the development of civilization compulsory. Division of labour arid civilization both develop side by side but division of labour develops first and then because of its result civilization develops. So in this way he was of the view that civilization is not the aim and function of division of labour but it is its compulsory result-.

3. Social development. Development is the result of change. Division of labour gives birth to change. Change is a continuous process in society, so development is also a continuous process in society. According to him, the main result of this change is division of labour. Because of division of labour changes come and with change development comes. In this way social development is the result of division of labour. He said that the main reason of development is society. We change because society changes. Development will stop if the movement of society will be stopped but from scientific point of view it is not possible. So according to him, development is the result of social life.

4. Social Change and Individual Change. Durkheim has also explained social change on the basis of division of labour.The change which happens in individual is the result of changes in society. He was of the view that the main reason of changes of society is the change of size, distribution and density of population which does division of labour in humans are all individual changes. It happens due to result of these social changes.

5. Origin of new groups and interdependence. According to him, one of the results of division of labour is the development of social interest of persons engaged in special functions. For the security of their special interests new groups will be formed. In this way how much more division of labour is there that much more interdependence will be there. Interdependence gives birth to cooperation and division of labour makes compulsory the process of cooperation in social life.

6. Individual Ideology. He was of the view that because of division of labour individual ideology develops. Now there is less control of collective consciousness. Individual independence and specialization gives birth to individual ideology. So in the end because of division of labour individual ideology came into being.

7. Restitutive Laws and Moral Pressure. According to Durkheim, division of labour changes the law system. Because of division of labour mutual relations increase and because of functional relations and complexity, the importance of personal contract reduces. To keep a balance between contractual relations of humans restitutive laws develop. On one side division of labour promotes individualism and on other side it makes moral awareness related to social welfare and social behaviour of the people. According to Durkheim’s views individualism is not the result of human’s wish but is a compulsory result of social circumstances coming out of division of labour.

8. Organic Social Solidarity. To establish the organic solidarity is the function of division of labour. Therefore the end of function is result. That’s why we can take it in the consequences of division of labour.

Punjab State Board PSEB 10th Class English Book Solutions English Main Course Book Chapter 7 The Making of the Earth Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 10 English Main Course Book Chapter 7 The Making of the Earth

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What are planets ?
Answer:
A body that goes round a star is called a planet. For example, the sun is a star and the earth goes round it. Thus the earth is a planet of the sun.

वह पिण्ड जो किसी तारे के गिर्द चक्र लगाता है, उसे ग्रह कहा जाता है। उदाहरण के लिए, सूर्य एक तारा है और पृथ्वी उसके गिर्द चक्र लगाती है। इस प्रकार पृथ्वी सूर्य का एक ग्रह है।

Question 2.
Define the solar system.
Answer:
The solar system means the family of the sun. It includes the sun, its planets and the satellites of these planets.

सौर-मण्डल का अर्थ है, सूर्य का परिवार। इसमें सूर्य, उसके ग्रह और इन ग्रहों के उपग्रह शामिल हैं।

Question 3.
How can you distinguish between planets and stars?
Answer:
Stars twinkle while planets don’t. This is the real way to distinguish between planets and stars.

तारे टिमटिमाते हैं जबकि ग्रह टिमटिमाते नहीं हैं। ग्रहों और तारों के मध्य भेद जानने का यही वास्तविक तरीका है।

Question 4.
Why do the stars twinkle ?
Answer:
The stars, like the sun, are balls of fire. As their rays pass through the different layers of the atmosphere, they seem to be twinkling.

सूर्य की तरह तारे आग के गोले हैं। जब उनकी किरणें वायुमंडल की विभिन्न परतों में से गुज़रती हैं तो वे टिमटिमाते हुए प्रतीत होते हैं।

Question 5.
How was the earth formed ?
Answer:
The earth shot out from the sun. In the beginning, it was very hot. It took millions of years to cool down.

धरती छिटक कर सूर्य से अलग हो गई। शुरू में यह बहुत गर्म थी। इसे ठण्डा होने में लाखों वर्ष लग गए।

Question 6.
How were oceans and seas formed ?
Answer:
To begin with, the earth was very hot. When it cooled, all the water vapour in the air condensed into water. It came down as rain. It rained heavily. All the hollows of the earth were filled. Thus oceans and seas were formed.

आरम्भ में धरती बहुत गर्म थी। जब यह ठण्डी हो गई तो हवा में मौजूद सब जल-वाष्प कण पानी में बदल गए। यह वर्षा के रूप में नीचे आ गिरे। भारी वर्षा हुई। धरती के सभी गड्डे भर गए। इस प्रकार महासागर और सागर बन गए।

Question 7.
Why does the moon look bigger than the stars ?
Answer:
The moon looks bigger than the stars because it is quite near to the earth.

चाँद तारों से बड़ा दिखाई देता है क्योंकि यह धरती के बहुत निकट है।

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What are planets ? Define the solar system.
Answer:
A body that goes round a star is called a planet. For example, the sun is a star and the earth goes round it. Thus the earth is a planet of the sun. The solar system means the family of the sun. It includes the sun, its planets and the satellites of these planets.

वह पिण्ड जो किसी तारे के गिर्द चक्र लगाता है, उसे ग्रह कहा जाता है। उदाहरण के लिए, सूर्य एक तारा है और पृथ्वी उसके गिर्द चक्र लगाती है। इस प्रकार पृथ्वी सूर्य का एक ग्रह है। सौर-मण्डल का अर्थ है, सूर्य का परिवार। इसमें सूर्य, उसके ग्रह और इन ग्रहों के उपग्रह शामिल हैं।

Question 2.
Write a short note on the making of the earth.
Answer:
Long, long ago, the earth and the other planets were part of the sun. Somehow, little bits of the sun shot away from it. One of these bits was our earth. To begin with, it was as hot as the sun. But very slowly, it started to cool. And then life began to appear on it.

बहुत लंबे समय पहले, धरती और अन्य ग्रह सूर्य का भाग होते थे। किसी तरह सूर्य के कुछ छोटेछोटे कण छिटक कर इससे अलग हो गए। इनमें से एक टुकड़ा हमारी धरती था। शुरू में यह सूर्य के समान ही गर्म थी। परन्तु बहुत धीरे-धीरे यह ठण्डी होनी शुरू हो गई। और फिर इस पर जीवन प्रकट होने लगा।

Question 3.
Write a few words on the happy family of the sun.
Answer:
The sun has its planets and the planets have their satellites. All these form a happy family. They are called the solar system. Solar means belonging to the sun. The sun is the father of all the planets. Therefore, the whole group is called the Solar System.

सूर्य के अपने ग्रह हैं और ग्रहों के अपने-अपने उपग्रह हैं। वे सभी एक खुशहाल परिवार बनाते हैं। इन्हें सौर-मण्डल कहा जाता है। सौर का अर्थ है, सूर्य से सम्बन्धित । सूर्य सभी ग्रहों का पिता है। इसलिए पूरे समूह को सौर-मण्डल कहा जाता है।

Vocabulary and Grammar

Question 1.
Moon is the satellite of ……………
(i) universe
(ii) oceans
(iii) Mars
(iv) Earth.
Answer:
(iv) Earth.

Question 2.
From where do the planets get light ?
Answer:
From the sun.

Question 3.
The planets twinkle at night. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 4.
All the hollows of the earth were filled with ……………… when it rained heavily.
(i) dust
(ii) snow
(iii) water
(iv) light.
Answer:
(iii) water

Question 5.
How many years did the Earth take to cool down?
(i) Thousand
(ii) Millions
(iii) Hundred
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iv) None of these

Question 6.
Planets have natural satellites. (True/False)
Answer:
True

Answer each of the following in one word / phrase / sentence :

Question 1.
Name the author of the chapter.
Answer:
Jawahar Lal Nehru.

Question 2.
What does the earth go round ?
Answer:
The sun.

Question 3.
What constitues the solar system ?
Answer:
The sun, its planets and the satellites of the planets.

Question 4.
Is the sun a planet?
Answer:
No, it is a star.

Question 5.
Why is moon called a satellite of the earth?
Answer:
Because it revolves round the earth.

Question 6.
How do the stars shine?
Answer:
They shine of themselves.

Question 7.
How is the inside of the earth ?
Answer:
It is extremely hot.

Question 8.
Why did the moon cool earlier than the earth ?
Answer:
Because it was much smaller in size.

Question 9.
How were the oceans and seas formed?
Answer:
They were formed after the heavy rain when all the water on the earth condensed.

Question 10.
How do we feel when we go down a coal mine?
Answer:
It becomes hotter and hotter as we go deeper into the mine.

Complete the following :

1. The earth goes round ……………
2. The moon is called a ………. of the earth.
3. ………………. is termed the father of the family called ‘solar system’.
4. The sun is actually a ……
5. The sun is much ……………… than the earth or the moon.
6. Moon shines due to ……………… light falling on it.
Answer:
1. the sun
2. satellite
3. The sun.
4. star
5. bigger
6. the sun’s.

Write True or False against each statement :

1. The sun is the nearest star to the inhabitants of the earth.
2. The moon is also a star.
3. The solar system was formed only a few hundred years ago.
4. The other stars revolve round the sun.
5. The sun is heavier than the earth.
6. Stars twinkle because they are very far away.
Answer:
1. True
2. False
3. False
4. False
5. True
6. False.

Choose the correct option for each of the following :

Question 1.
The earth goes round …………..
(a) the sun
(b) the moon
(c) the satellites
(d) the stars.
Answer:
(a) the sun

Question 2.
The solar system includes ………….
(a) the sun
(b) its planets
(c) the satellites of the planets.
(d) all the above.
Answer:
(d) all the above.

Question 3.
The inside of the earth is ……….
(a) hotter than moon
(b) very cool
(c) full of water
(d) still extremely hot.
Answer:
(d) still extremely hot.

Question 4.
The earth took …….. to turn into solid form.
(a) a lot of time
(b) millions of years
(c) hundreds of years
(d) about 1000 years.
Answer:
(b) millions of years

Objective Type Questions

Question 1.
Fill in the blanks with the given prepositions, making appropriate phrasal verbs :
Answer:
(a) on
(b) off
(c) out
(d) into
(e) down.
Answer:

Question 2.
Fill in the blanks, selecting suitable words from the given list :
Answer:
Everything exists in space. But what exactly is space is something beyond human imagination and comprehension. It is also beyond mathematical calculation. We do not know for sure how far space extends. It does not have a beginning. And it does not have an end. It was earlier believed that the earth was the centre of the universe and that all heavenly bodies, including the sun, revolved around it. With the advancement of science and technology, it was known that the sun was the centre of the solar system and that the entire solar system occupies just a tiny fraction of space in the entire universe.

Question 3.
Fill in the blanks, using the correct infinitive or participle :
Answer:
1. failing
2. to go
3. going
4. to living
5. to live
6. waiting
7. to visit.

Question 4.
Fill in the blanks with suitable articles :
Answer:
So the earth started to cool. It took a long time over it. Gradually, the surface of the earth became cooler although the interior remained very hot. Even now if you go down a coal mine, it becomes hotter and hotter as you go down. Probably if you could go down deep enough inside the earth, you would find it red hot.

The Making of the Earth Summary & Translation in English

The Making of the Earth Introduction:
This chapter is an extract from Nehru’s ‘Letters from a Father to His Daughter. He wrote these letters to his daughter in the summer of 1928 when she was at Mussoorie. In this chapter, Nehru defines the solar system to which our earth belongs. He differentiates between a planet and a star. He talks of the breaking away of the earth from the sun and the breaking away of the moon from the earth. He also talks about the gradual cooling of the earth and the moon, and the formation of the great oceans.

The Making of the Earth Summary & Translation in English

Page 103

You know that the earth goes round the sun and the moon goes round the earth. You know also perhaps that there are several other bodies which like the earth go round the sun. All these, including our earth, are called planets of the sun. The moon is called a satellite of the earth because it hangs on to it. The Other planets have also got their satellites.

The sun and the planets with their satellites form a happy family. This is called the solar system. Solar means belonging to the sun, and the sun being the father of all the planets, the whole group is called the Solar System. At night you see thousands of stars in the sky. Only a few of these are the planets and these are really not called stars at all. Can you distinguish between a planet and a star? The planets are really quite tiny, like our earth, compared to the stars but they look bigger in the sky because they are much nearer to us.

Just as the moon, which is in reality quite a baby, looks so big because it is quite near to us. But the real way to distinguish stars from the planets is to see if they twinkle or not. Stars twinkle, planets do not. That is because the planets only shine because they get the light of our sun. It is only the sunshine on the planets or the moon that we see. The real stars are like our sun. They shine of themselves because they are very hot and burning. In reality our sun itself is a star, only it looks bigger as it is nearer and we see it as a great ball of fire.

Page 104

So our earth belongs to the family of the sun the solar system. We think the earth is very big and it is big compared to our tiny selves. It takes weeks and months to go from one part of it to another even in a fast train or steamer. But although it seems so big to us it is just like a speck of dust hanging in the air. The sun is millions of miles away and the other stars are even further away.

Astronomers, those people who study the stars, tell us that long, long ago the earth and all the planets were part of the sun. The sun was then as it is now a mass of flaming matter, terribly hot. Somehow little bits of the sun got loose and they shot out into the air. But they could not wholly get rid of their father, the sun.

It was as if a rope was tied to them and they kept whirling round the sun. This strange force, which I have compared to a rope, is something which attracts little things to great. It is the force which makes things fall by their weight. The earth being the biggest thing near us, attracts everything we have.

In this way, our earth also shot out from the sun. It must have been very hot, with terrible hot gases and air all around it, but as it was very much smaller than the sun, it started to cool. The sun also is getting less hot but it will take millions of years to cool down. The earth took much less time to cool. When it was hot, of course, nothing could live on it – no man or animal or plant or tree. Everything would have been burnt up then.

Page 105
Just as a bit of the sun shot out and became the earth, so also a bit of the earth shot out and became the moon. Many people think that moon came out of the great hollow which is now the Pacific Ocean, between America and Japan. So the earth started to cool. It took a long time over it. Gradually the surface of the earth became cooler although the interior remained very hot. Even now if you go down a coal mine it becomes hotter and hotter as you go down. Probably if you could go down deep enough inside the earth you would find it red hot. The moon also started to cool and because it was much smaller than even the earth, it cooled more quickly than the earth. It looks delightfully cool, does it not ? It is called the ‘cold moon’. Perhaps it is full of glaciers and ice fields.

When the earth cooled all the water vapour in the air condensed into water and probably came down as rain. It must have rained a tremendous lot then. All this water filled the great hollows in the earth and so the great oceans and seas were formed.As the earth became cooler and the oceans also became cooler, it became possible for living things to exist on the earth’s surface or in the sea .

The Making of the Earth Summary & Translation in Hindi

The Making of the Earth Introduction:
यह पाठ नेहरू द्वारा लिखित ‘एक पिता द्वारा अपनी पुत्री को लिखे पत्रों में से लिया गया एक अंश है। उसने ये पत्र अपनी पुत्री को 1928 की गर्मियों में लिखे जब वह मसूरी में थी। इस पाठ में नेहरू सौर-मण्डल का वर्णन करता है जिससे हमारी पृथ्वी सम्बन्ध रखती है। वह एक ग्रह और तारे में भेद बताता है। वह धरती के सूर्य से अलग होने और चन्द्रमा के धरती से अलग होने के बारे में बताता है। वह धरती और चन्द्रमा के धीरे-धीरे ठण्डा होने और बड़े-बड़े महासागरों के बनने के बारे में भी बताता है।

The Making of the Earth Summary & Translation in Hindi

Page 103

तुम जानती हो कि पृथ्वी सूर्य के चारों तरफ घूमती है और चंद्रमा पृथ्वी के चारों तरफ घूमता है। शायद तुम यह भी जानती हो कि कई अन्य ऐसे अन्य पिंड हैं जो पृथ्वी की तरह सूर्य के चारों ओर चक्कर लगाते हैं। हमारी धरती सहित इन सभी को सूर्य के ग्रह कहा जाता है। चन्द्रमा को पृथ्वी का उपग्रह कहा जाता है क्योंकि यह इसके साथ लटका रहता है। अन्य ग्रहों के भी अपने-अपने उपग्रह हैं। सूर्य और उसके ग्रह अपने अपने उपग्रहों सहित एक सुखी परिवार बनाते हैं।

इस परिवार को सौर-मंडल कहा जाता है। सौर का अर्थ होता है सूर्य से संबंध रखने वाला, और क्योंकि सूर्य सभी ग्रहों का पिता है, पूरे समूह को सौर-मंडल कहा जाता है। रात के समय तुम आकाश में हज़ारों तारे देखती हो। उनमें से केवल कुछ ही ग्रह हैं और इन्हें वास्तव में तारे बिल्कुल भी नहीं कहा जाता है। क्या तुम एक ग्रह और एक सितारे में भेद बता सकती हो ? वास्तव में तारों की तुलना में ग्रह हमारी पृथ्वी की ही भान्ति बहुत छोटे होते हैं, किन्तु वे आकाश में अधिक बड़े दिखते हैं क्योंकि वे हमारे बहुत नज़दीक हैं।

बिल्कुल उसी तरह चन्द्रमा भी, जो वास्तव में एक छोटे बच्चे के समान है, इतना बड़ा दिखता है क्योंकि यह हमारे बहत नज़दीक है। परन्तु तारों और ग्रहों में फर्क जानने का असली तरीका यह देखना है कि वे झिलमिलाते हैं या नहीं। तारे झिलमिलाते हैं, किन्त ग्रह नहीं। ऐसा इसलिए है क्योंकि ग्रह केवल इसलिए चमकते हैं क्योंकि वे हमारे सूर्य से प्रकाश ग्रहण करते हैं। ग्रहों पर अथवा चन्द्रमा पर यह केवल सूर्य की रोशनी ही है जिसे हम देखते हैं। वास्तविक तारे हमारे सूर्य की तरह होते हैं। वे स्वयं के प्रकाश से चमकते हैं क्योंकि वे बहुत गर्म हैं और जल रहे हैं। असल में हमारा सूर्य स्वयं एक तारा है, केवल यह ज्यादा बड़ा दिखता है क्योंकि यह ज़्यादा नज़दीक है और हम इसे आग की एक विशाल गेंद के जैसा देखते हैं।

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इस प्रकार हमारी पृथ्वी सूर्य के परिवार अर्थात् सौर मंडल से संबंध रखती है। हम सोचते हैं कि पृथ्वी बहुत बड़ी है और हम छोटे जीवों की तुलना में यह वास्तव में बहुत बड़ी है। किसी तेज़ रेलगाड़ी या स्टीमर द्वारा भी इसके एक भाग से दूसरे भाग तक पहुंचने में कई सप्ताह और महीने लग जाते हैं। किन्तु यद्यपि यह हमें इतनी विशाल प्रतीत होती है, यह मात्र हवा में लटकी हुई धूल के एक कण के समान है। सूर्य लाखों मील दूर है तथा अन्य तारे उससे भी बहुत ज्यादा दूर हैं। खगोल-शास्त्री, वे लोग जो तारों का अध्ययन करते हैं, हमें बताते हैं कि बहुत लम्बे समय पहले पृथ्वी और सभी ग्रह सूर्य का भाग हुआ करते थे। सूर्य उस समय, जैसा वह आज भी है, जलते हुए पदार्थ का एक पुंज था, जो भयानक रूप से गर्म था। किसी कारणवश सूर्य के कुछ छोटे टुकड़े उससे अलग हो गए और तेजी से बाहर हवा में चले गए।

किन्तु वे पूरी तरह से अपने पिता अर्थात् सूर्य से छुटकारा न पा सके। यह ऐसे था मानो उनके साथ एक रस्सी बन्धी हो और वे तेजी के साथ सूर्य के चारों तरफ चक्कर लगाने लगे। यह विचित्र बल,
जिसकी तुलना मैंने रस्सी से की है, एक ऐसी चीज़ होता है जो छोटी-छोटी चीज़ों को बड़ी चीजों की तरफ़ खींच लाता है। यही वह बल है जो चीज़ों को उनके भार की वजह से गिरने पर विवश करता है। पृथ्वी हमारे नज़दीक की सबसे बड़ी चीज़ होने के कारण हमारी सब चीज़ों को अपनी तरफ़ खींचती है।

इस तरह, हमारी पृथ्वी भी सूर्य से छिटक कर अलग हो गई। इसके चारों ओर फैली भयानक रूप से गर्म गैसों और हवा के कारण यह बहुत गर्म रही होगी, किन्तु क्योंकि यह सूर्य से बहुत छोटी थी, यह ठंडी होनी शुरू हो गई। सूर्य भी कम गर्म होता जा रहा है |किन्तु इसे ठंडा होने में लाखों वर्ष लग जाएंगे। पृथ्वी ने ठंडा होने में इससे बहुत कम समय लिया। जब यह गर्म थी तो निस्संदेह इस पर कोई भी चीज़ जीवित नहीं रह सकती थी – न मनुष्य और न ही कोई जानवर अथवा पौधा या पेड़। हर चीज़ तब भस्म हो जाती।

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जिस प्रकार सूर्य का एक टुकड़ा छिटक गया और पृथ्वी बन गया, ठीक उसी प्रकार पृथ्वी का एक टुकड़ा इससे छिटक गया और चन्द्रमा बन गया। बहत लोगों का विचार है कि चन्द्रमा उस विशाल गड़े से निकला था जो वर्तमान में अमेरिका और जापान के मध्य स्थित प्रशांत महासागर है। इस प्रकार पृथ्वी ठंडी होनी शुरू हो गई। ऐसा करने में इसे लंबा समय लग गया। धीरे-धीरे पथ्वी की सतह ठंडी हो गई यद्यपि इसका आंतरिक भाग बहुत गर्म रहा। आज भी यदि आप कोयले की किसी खान में नीचे जाएं तो यह अधिकाधिक गर्म होती जाएगी जैसे-जैसे आप नीचे तथा और नीचे चलते जाएंगे।

शायद यदि आप पृथ्वी के अन्दर काफी गहराई तक जा सकें तो आप इसे तपती हुई लाल पाएंगे। चन्द्रमा भी ठंडा होना शुरू हो गया और क्योंकि यह पृथ्वी से काफ़ी छोटा था, यह पृथ्वी की अपेक्षा अधिक जल्दी ठंडा हो गया। यह आनंददायक ठंडा दिखाई देता है, क्या नहीं ? इसे ‘ठंडा चंद्रमा’ कहा जाता है। शायद यह हिमनदियों और बर्फ के मैदानों से भरा हुआ है।जब पृथ्वी ठंडी हो गई तो हवा में विद्यमान सब जल-वाष्प कण घने हो कर पानी बन गए और संभवतया वर्षा बन कर नीचे गिर आए।

उस समय अवश्य बहुत भारी वर्षा हुई होगी। इस पूरे पानी ने पृथ्वी के बड़े-बड़े गड्ढों को भर दिया और इस प्रकार विशाल महासागरों और समुद्रों की रचना हुई। जैसे-जैसे पृथ्वी और ज़्यादा ठंडी होती गई और महासागर भी ज्यादा ठंडे हो गए तो पृथ्वी की सतह पर और समुद्र के अंदर जीवों का रहना संभव हो गया

Punjab State Board PSEB 10th Class English Book Solutions English Main Course Book Chapter 6 The Home-Coming Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 10 English Main Course Book Chapter 6 The Home-Coming

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Who was Phatik ?
Answer:
Phatik was a fourteen-year-old boy. He was the ringleader among the boys of his village. His fertile mind always thought of new mischiefs.

फटिक एक चौदह-वर्षीय लड़का था। वह अपने गाँव के लड़कों का मुखिया था। उसका उपजाऊ दिमाग़ हमेशा नई-नई शरारतें सोचता रहता था।

Question 2.
What was the new mischief Phatik thought of ?
Answer:
There was a log lying on the bank of the river. He planned to roll the log away with the help of the other boys. In this way, he wanted to annoy the owner and enjoy the fun.

नदी के किनारे लकड़ी का एक लट्ठा पड़ा हुआ था। उसने अन्य लड़कों की मदद से लटे को लुढ़का कर दूर ले जाने की योजना बनाई। इस प्रकार वह मालिक को परेशान करना और इसका आनन्द उठाना चाहता था।

Question 3.
Why were Phatik and his friends annoyed with Makhan ?
Answer:
Phatik and the other boys wanted to roll the log away. But Makhan came and sat down on the log. This annoyed Phatik and his friends.

फटिक और दूसरे लड़के लट्ठ को लुढ़का कर दूर ले जाना चाहते थे। परन्तु माखन आया और लट्ठ पर बैठ गया। इससे फटिक और उसके मित्र नाराज़ हो गए।

Question 4.
What was Phatik’s ‘new manoeuvre’ ?
Answer:
Phatik asked his followers to roll the log with Makhan sitting over it. This, he thought, would give them added amusement.

फटिक ने अपने साथियों से कहा कि वे लढे को उसके ऊपर बैठे हुए माखन सहित ही लुढ़का दें। उसने सोचा कि इससे उन्हें और भी ज्यादा मज़ा आएगा।

Question 5.
Why did Phatik beat Makhan even in the presence of his mother ?
Answer:
Makhan lied to his mother that Phatik had beaten him. Phatik could not bear this. Therefore, he beat Makhan.

माखन ने अपनी मां से झूठ बोल दिया कि फटिक ने उसे पीटा था। फटिक से यह सहन न हुआ। इसलिए उसने माखन की पिटाई कर दी।

Question 6.
Was Makhan speaking the truth?
Answer:
No, he was not speaking the truth. Phatik had not beaten him. In fact, it was Makhan who had beaten Phatik.

नहीं, वह सच नहीं बोल रहा था। फटिक ने उसकी पिटाई नहीं की थी। वास्तव में, यह माखन था जिसने फटिक की पिटाई की थी।

Question 7.
Why did Phatik’s mother want to send him away to her brother’s house ?
Answer:
The mother had a prejudice against Phatik. She thought he would some day drown Makhan in the river, or break his head in a fight. Therefore, she wanted to send him away.

मां फटिक के प्रति एक ग़लत धारणा रखती थी। वह सोचती थी कि किसी दिन वह माखन को या तो नदी में डुबो देगा या लड़ाई में उसका सिर फोड़ देगा। इसलिए वह उसे वहां से भेज देना चाहती थी।

Question 8.
How was Phatik received by his aunt ?
Answer:
The aunt was not at all pleased. She thought of Phatik as an unnecessary addition to her family.

(फटिक की) मामी तनिक भी प्रसन्न न हुई। वह फटिक को अपने परिवार में एक अनावश्यक वृद्धि मानती थी।

Question 9.
Why couldn’t Phatik do well at school ?
Or How did Phatik fare at his new school in Kolkata ?
Answer:
Phatik was ill-treated at his uncle’s house. He was always sad. He could not put his mind to his studies. Naturally, he could not do well at school.

फटिक के साथ उसके मामा के घर पर बहुत बुरा व्यवहार किया जाता था। वह सदा उदास रहता था। वह अपना ध्यान पढ़ाई में नहीं लगा पाता था। स्वाभाविक रूप से, वह स्कूल में अच्छा प्रदर्शन न कर पाया।

Question 10.
How did Phatik’s aunt behave on learning about the loss of his book ?
Answer:
The aunt called Phatik a country lout. She said that she couldn’t buy him new books five times a month.

मामी ने फटिक को गांव का एक गंवार कहा। उसने कहा कि वह उसे महीने में पांच बार नई पुस्तकें खरीद कर नहीं दे सकती।

Question 11.
What was the immediate reason for Phatik’s departure from his uncle’s house ?
Answer:
One day, Phatik had a bad headache and a shivering fit. He feared he would become a nuisance to his aunt. That was why he left the house.

एक दिन फटिक को भयानक सिर-दर्द हुआ और कंपकंपी छिड़ गई। उसे भय था कि वह अपनी मामी के लिए मुसीबत बन जाएगा। इसी कारण से उसने घर छोड़ दिया।

Question 12.
Why did Bishamber send for his sister ?
Answer:
Phatik was seriously ill. The doctor said that the boy’s condition was critical. That was why Bishamber sent for his sister.

फटिक गम्भीर रूप से बीमार हो गया। डाक्टर ने कहा कि लड़के की हालत नाजुक थी। इसी कारण से बिशम्बर ने अपनी बहन को बुला भेजा।

Question 13.
What were Phatik’s last words ?
Answer:
Phatik’s last words were : ‘Mother, the holidays have come.’

फटिक के अन्तिम शब्द थे : ‘मां, छुट्टियां आ गई हैं।’

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
How does Phatik feel when he is at Kolkata ?
Answer:
While at Kolkata, Phatik feels like a fish out of water. His aunt ill-treats him. His cousins mock at him. At school, his teachers cane him daily. All this makes Phatik’s life very miserable. He longs to go back to his village home.

कोलकाता में रहने के दौरान फटिक पानी से बाहर आई मछली की भांति महसूस करता है। उसकी मामी उससे बुरा व्यवहार करती है। उसके ममेरे भाई उसका मजाक उड़ाते हैं। स्कूल में उसके अध्यापक उसे प्रतिदिन बैंतों से मारते हैं। इन सबसे फटिक का जीवन बहुत दुःख-भरा हो जाता है। वह वापस अपने गांव के घर में जाने के लिए तड़पता रहता है।

Question 2.
Why does Bishamber want to take Phatik to Kolkata ?
Answer:
The mother is prejudiced against Phatik. She thinks of him as a big nuisance. She calls him lazy, wild and disobedient. Bishamber wants to help his widowed sister. So he offers to take Phatik with him to Kolkata. He says he will educate him there with his own children.

मां की फटिक के प्रति एक ग़लत धारणा बनी हुई है। वह उसे एक बड़ी सिरदर्दी मानती है। वह उसे निकम्मा, असभ्य और गुस्ताख कहती है। बिशम्बर अपनी विधवा बहन की मदद करना चाहता है। इसलिए वह फटिक को अपने साथ कोलकाता ले जाने की पेशकश करता है। वह कहता है कि वह वहां उसे अपने खुद के बच्चों के साथ शिक्षा दिलाएगा।

Question 3.
Who is responsible for Phatik’s death ?
Answer:
It is solely the cruel aunt who is responsible for Phatik’s death. She dislikesthe boy from the very beginning. She thinks of him as an unnecessary addition to her family. She ill-treats him all the time. Even when the poor boy is critically ill, she calls him a nuisance. We can say that the heartless witch causes the poor boy’s death in the end.

यह पूरी तरह से निर्दय मामी है जो फटिक की मृत्यु के लिए ज़िम्मेदार है। वह शुरू से ही लड़के को नापसन्द करती है। वह उसे अपने परिवार में एक अनावश्यक वृद्धि समझती है। वह उसके साथ हर समय बुरा व्यवहार करती है। जब वह बेचारा लड़का भयंकर रूप से बीमार भी होता है तो भी वह उसे एक सिरदर्दी कहती है। हम कह सकते हैं निर्दय चुडैल अन्त में बेचारे लड़के की मृत्यु का कारण बनती है।

Question 4.
Write a character-sketch of Bishamber.
Answer:
Bishamber is Phatik’s maternal uncle. He has a lot of love for his widowed sister. He finds that Phatik is a trouble for his sister. He offers to take him to Kolkata. He says he will educate him there with his own children. Truly, Bishamber is a loving brother. But he is not imaginative. He commits a blunder in taking Phatik to Kolkata.

बिशम्बर फटिक का मामा है। वह अपनी विधवा बहन से बहुत प्यार करता है। वह देखता है कि फटिक उसकी बहन के लिए एक मुसीबत है। वह उसे कोलकाता ले जाने की पेशकश करता है। वह कहता है कि वह उसे वहां अपने खुद के बच्चों के साथ पढ़ाएगा। सचमुच बिशम्बर एक प्यार करने वाला भाई है। किन्तु वह कल्पनाशील नहीं है। वह फटिक को कोलकाता ले जाने में बड़ी भारी ग़लती करता है।

Question 5.
Write a character-sketch of Makhan.
Answer:
Makhan is Phatik’s younger brother. He is the darling of his mother. She calls him as good as gold. But we see that Makhan is not that good. He is spoilsport. He comes and sits on the log when the other boys want to roll it away. He also tells lies to his mother about Phatik.

माखन फटिक का छोटा भाई है। वह अपनी मां का लाडला है। वह उसे सोने के जैसा अच्छा कहती है। किन्तु हम देखते हैं कि माखन इतना अच्छा नहीं है। वह रंग में भंग डालने वाला है। जब दूसरे लड़के लटे को लुढ़काना चाहते हैं तो वह आ कर इसके ऊपर बैठ जाता है। वह फटिक के बारे में अपनी मां के सामने झूठ भी बोलता है।

Question 6.
Write a character-sketch of Phatik’s aunt.
Answer:
Phatik’s aunt is a heartless witch. She dislikes Phatik from the very beginning. She thinks of him as an unnecessary addition to her family. She ill-treats him all the time. Even when the poor boy is critically ill, she calls him a nuisance. She has no womanly feelings in her heart. It is she who can be held solely responsible for Phatik’s death.

फटिक की मामी एक निर्दय चुडैल है। वह फटिक को शुरू से ही नापसन्द करती है। वह उसे अपने परिवार में एक अनावश्यक वृद्धि मानती है। वह हर समय उसके साथ दुर्व्यवहार करती है। जब बेचारा लड़का भयानक रूप से बीमार होता है, तब भी वह उसे एक सिरदर्दी कहती है। उसके दिल के अन्दर औरतों वाली कोई भावनाएं नहीं हैं। यह वही है जिसे फटिक की मृत्यु के लिए पूरी तरह से ज़िम्मेदार ठहराया जा सकता है।

Question 7.
Write a character-sketch of Phatik’s mother.
Answer:
Phatik’s mother is a simple-hearted lady. She is a widow and has two sons to bring up. She is prejudiced against Phatik, the elder one. But it does not mean she does not love him. She agrees to send him to Kolkata with her brother. But then she feels sad to see how anxious Phatik is to go. She is after all a mother !

फटिक की मां एक सरल हृदय वाली औरत है। वह एक विधवा है और उसके पास पालन-पोषण करने के लिए दो पुत्र हैं। उसे बड़े पुत्र, फटिक, के प्रति एक ग़लत धारणा है। किन्तु इसका अर्थ यह नहीं कि वह उससे प्यार नहीं करती है। वह उसे अपने भाई के साथ कोलकाता भेजने के लिए सहमत हो जाती है। किन्तु फिर वह यह देख कर उदास हो जाती है कि फटिक जाने के लिए कितना उत्सुक है। आखिर वह एक मां ही तो है!

Question 8.
Give a pen-portrait of Phatik.
Answer:
Phatik is a fourteen-year-old boy. He is the ringleader among the boys of his village. He has a fertile mind. He keeps thinking of new mischiefs. His mother is fed up with him. She sends him away to Kolkata with her brother. Now Phatik begins to feel like a fish out of water. He longs to go back to his village home. But he has to wait until the holidays of his life come !

फटिक चौदह वर्ष की आयु का एक लड़का है। अपने गांव के लड़कों के मध्य वह एक मुखिया है। उसका एक उपजाऊ दिमाग है। वह नई-नई शरारतें सोचता रहता है। उसकी मां उससे तंग आई हुई है। वह उसे अपने भाई के साथ कोलकाता भेज देती है। अब फटिक बिना पानी की मछली की भान्ति महसूस करने लगता है। वह अपने गांव वाले घर को वापस चला जाना चाहता है। किन्तु उसे अपने जीवन की छुट्टियां शुरू होने का इन्तजार करना पड़ता है !

Question 9.
Describe the quarrel between Phatik and Makhan.
Answer:
Phatik and his friends want to roll a log away. But Makhan comes and sits on the log. He does not care for Phatik’s warning: Phatik asks the boys to roll the log. As they do so, Makhan falls down. Now Makhan gets up, falls upon Phatik and scratches his face. Then he goes home crying. He tells his mother that Phatik has beaten him. Phatik can’t bear this telling of lies. He rains on Makhan a shower of blows.

फटिक तथा उसके मित्र एक लटे को लुढ़का कर दूर ले जाना चाहते हैं। किन्तु माखन आ कर लटे के ऊपर बैठ जाता है। वह फटिक की चेतावनी की परवाह नहीं करता। फटिक लड़कों से कहता है कि वे लढे को लुढ़का दें। जब वे ऐसा करते हैं तो माखन नीचे गिर जाता है। अब माखन उठ खड़ा होता है, फटिक पर झपटता है और उसके चेहरे को नोच डालता है। फिर वह रोता हुआ घर चला जाता है। वह अपनी मां से कहता है कि फटिक ने उसे मारा है। फटिक इस झूठ बोलने को सहन नहीं कर पाता। वह माखन पर घूसों की बौछार कर देता है।

Vocabulary and Grammar

Question 1.
Fill in the blanks with adjective forms of the following words :
Answer:
1. fertile
2. dignified
3. futile
4. delirious
5. philosophical.

Question 2.
Match the words in Column A with their opposites in Column B :
Answer:
A — B
unanimously — individually
timidly — boldly
futile — useful
furious — calm
fertile — barren
earthly — heavenly
impotent — potent
exhausted — invigorated
bequeath — take, receive
despised — liked
jeer — applaud

Question 3.
Makhan was ‘as good as gold’. Complete the following expressions in the same way :
Answer:
1. as white as snow.
2. as black as coal.
3. as innocent as a baby.
4. as obstinate as a mule.
5. as gentle as, a lamb.

Question 4.
Fill in the blanks with the correct verb form of the italicized words :
Answer:
1. glorify
2. sulked
3. amused
4. distressed
5. exhausted
6. despised
7. lost.

Question 5.
Fill in the blanks with suitable articles :
Answer:
1. The Ganga is a sacred river.
2. He reads the Bible every day.
3. The man struck a match.
4. Where is the money to come from?
5. He began a series of experiments.
6. I was on an official visit.
7. There was an elephant on the road.

Question 6.
Fill in the blanks with the passive forms of the verbs given in italics to complete the following sentences :
Answer:
1. informed
2. be posted
3. should be taken
4. be helped
5. would be closed.

Question 7.
Put proper punctuation marks in the following passage and use capital letters wherever necessary :
Answer:
The effect of books is twofold. Books preserve knowledge in time and spread it in space. Suppose, for example, that you think of an important idea or a beautiful poem. Unless you can write it down, your idea or poem will probably die.

Objective Type Questions

Question 1.
What was the name of Phatik’s brother ?
Answer:
Makhan

Question 2.
Phatik’s uncle lived in ………
(i) Mumbai
(ii) Dehradun
(iii) Calcutta
(iv) Chandigarh.
Answer:
(iii) Calcutta

Question 3.
Phatik’s aunt welcomed Phatik in her home. (True/False)
Answer:
False

Question 4.
Phatik’s …………….. did not like his ways.
(i) mother
(ii) sister
(iii) student
(iv) neighbours.
Answer:
(i) mother

Question 5.
Phatik wanted to move a ……………. from its place.
Answer:
log

Question 6.
Phatik’s last words were : ‘Mother, ………… have come.
(i) friends
(ii) aunt and uncle
(iii) brothers
(iv) holidays.
Answer:
(iv) holidays.

Answer each of the following in one word / phrase / sentence :

Question 1.
Name the author of the story, ‘The Home-coming’.
Answer:
Rabindranath Tagore.

Question 2.
Who was Makhan ?
Answer:
He was Phatik’s younger brother.

Question 3.
Did the mother of Phatik and Makhan treat them equally ?
Answer:
No, she loved Makhan much more than Phatik.

Question 4.
What offer did Bishamber make to Phatik’s mother ?
Answer:
He offered to take Phatik to his home in Kolkata.

Question 5.
Was Phatik happy in going to Kolkata ?
Answer:
Yes, he was extremely happy in going to the big city.

Question 6.
Was Phatik’s mother sad in parting from her son ?
Answer:
No, she felt greatly relieved to get rid of him.

Question 7.
How did Phatik’s aunt feel on seeing Phatik in her home ?
Answer:
She was unhappy to be burdened with an unwanted responsibility.

Question 8.
How did Phatik fare in his school in Kolkata ?
Answer:
He was considered a very stupid student.

Question 9.
Who brought Phatik back to his uncle’s house ?
Answer:
Two constables.

Question 10.
What were the last words murmured by Phatik ?
Answer:
“Mother, the holidays have come.”

Complete the following :

1. Makhan was Phatik’s …………
2. The surname of Phatik’s family was ………..
3. Phatik was considered the ……. of the village boys.
4. On Makhan’s false complaint, the mother rained. …………….. on Phatik.
5. Bishamber had left ………………. and started living in …….
6. Phatik died while he was living with his
Answer:
1. younger brother
2. Chakravarti
3. ringleader
4. blows
5. Mumbai, Kolkata
6. uncle.

Write True or False against each statement :

1. Phatik and Makhan were cousins.
2. Makhan’s mother was Phatik’s stepmother.
3. Phatik’s mother readily agreed to her brother’s offer.
4. Phatik was a very brilliant student in Kolkata.
5. Phatik was brought back to home by his mother.
6. Phatik was very cruelly treated by his aunt.
Answer:
1. False
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. False
6. True.

Choose the correct option for each of the following :

Question 1.
Phatik was a …………………. in his village.
(a) brilliant student
(b) an obedient son
(c) well-behaved boy
(d) ringleader of the boys.
Answer:
(d) ringleader of the boys.

Question 2.
Bishamber was …………. of the Chakravartis.
(a) a close relative
(b) a neighbour
(c) a family friend
(d) the landlord.
Answer:
(a) a close relative

Question 3.
Phatik’s aunt behaved with Phatik very
(a) lovingly
(b) nobly
(c) cruelly
(d) none of the above.
Answer:
(c) cruelly

Question 4.
Phatik met his death …..
(a) after a long illness
(b) after a short illness
(c) at his hometown.
(d) in a hospital.
Answer:
(b) after a short illness

The Home-Coming Summary & Translation in English

The Home-Coming Introduction:
This is the story of a fourteen-year-old boy, Phatik. He is very mischievous. He is sent to Kolkata with his maternal uncle. But there, he is not treated well by his aunt as well as his cousins. He becomes seriously ill and dies in the end. The underlying idea of this story is that home is a place where we find love – a place that our feet may leave, but not our hearts. Though it rains gold and silver in another place and daggers and spears at home, yet it is better to be at home.

The Home-Coming Summary & Translation in English

(Page 84)

Phatik Chakravarti was the ring – leader amongst the boys of the village. One day a plan for new mischief entered his head. There was a heavy log lying on the mud-flat of the river, waiting to be shaped into a mast for a boat. His plan was that they should all work together to shift the log by main force from its place and roll it away. The owner of the log would be angry and surprised, while they would all enjoy the fun. Everyone supported the proposal, and it was carried unanimously .

But just as the fun was about to begin, Makhan, Phatik’s younger brother, sauntered up without a word and sat down on the log in front of them all. The boys were puzzled for a moment. One of them pushed him rather timidly, and told him to get up; but he remained quite unconcerned. He appeared like a young philosopher meditating on the futility of things. Phatik was furious. “Makhan,” he cried, “if you don’t get up this minute, I’ll thrash6 you !”

Makhan only moved to a more comfortable position. Now, if Phatik was to keep his regal dignity before the public, it was clear that he must carry out his threat. But his courage failed him at the crisis. His fertile brain, however, rapidly seized upon a new maneuver which would discomfit his brother and afford his followers added amusement. He gave the word and command to roll the log and Makhan over together. Makhan heard the order and made it a point of honour to stick on. But like those who attempt earthly fame in other matters, he overlooked the fact that there was peril in it.

(Page 85)

The boys began to heave at the log with all their might calling out, “One, two, three, go !” At the word ‘go’ the log went; and with it went Makhan’s philosophy, glory and all. The other boys shouted themselves hoarse with delight. But Phatik was a little frightened. He knew what was coming. And he was not mistaken, for Makhan rose from Mother Earth blind as Fate and screaming like the Furies. He rushed at Phatik, scratched his face, beat him and kicked him, and then went crying home. The first act of the drama was over.

Phatik wiped his face, and sitting down on the edge of a sunken barge by the river bank, began to nibble at a piece of grass. A boat came up to the landing and a middle-aged man, with grey hair and dark moustache, stepped on to the shore. He saw the boy sitting there doing nothing and asked him where the Chakravartis lived. Phatik went on nibbling the grass and said : ‘Over there’; but it was quite impossible to tell where he pointed. The stranger asked him again. He swung his legs to and from on the side of the barge and said : ‘Go and find out’ and continued to nibble the grass.

But, at the moment, a servant came down from the house and told Phatik that his mother wanted him. Phatik refused to move. But on this occasion the servant was the master. He roughly took Phatik up and carried him, kicking and struggling in impotent rage. When Phatik entered the house, his mother saw him and called out angrily : ‘So you have been hitting Makhan again ?’

Phatik answered indignantly : ‘No, I haven’t ! Who told you that I had ?’
His mother shouted : ‘Don’t tell lies ! You have.’ Phatik said sullenly ‘I tell you, I haven’t. You ask Makhan !‘ But Makhan thought it best to stick to his previous statement. He said : ‘Yes, mother, Phatik did hit me.’

Page -86

Phatik’s patience was already exhausted. He could not bear this injustice. He rushed at Makhan and rained on him a shower of blows : ‘Take that,’ he cried, ‘and that, and that, for telling lies.’

His mother took Makhan’s side in a moment and pulled Phatik away, returning his blows with equal vigour. When Phatik pushed her aside , she shouted out: ‘What! You little villain ! Would you hit your own mother ?’

It was just at this critical moment that the grey-haired stranger arrived. He asked what had occurred. Phatik looked sheepish and ashamed. But when his mother stepped back and looked at the stranger, her anger was changed to surprise, for she recognized her brother and cried : ‘Why, Dada ! Where have you come from ?’ As she said these words, she bowed to the ground and touched his feet.

Her brother Bishamber had gone away soon after she had married, and had started business in Mumbai. She herself had lost her husband while he was there. Bishamber had now come back to Kolkata, and had at once made enquiries concerning his sister. As soon as he found out where she was, he had hastened to see her.

The next few days were full of rejoicing. The brother asked how the two boys were being brought up. He was told by his sister that Phatik was a perpetual nuisance. He was lazy, disobedient and wild. But Makhan was as good as gold, as quiet as a lamb, and very fond of reading. Bishamber kindly offered to take Phatik off his sister’s hands and educate him with his own children in Kolkata. The widowed mother readily agreed. When his uncle asked Phatik if he would like to go to Kolkata with him, his joy knew no bounds, and he said : ‘Oh, yes, uncle !’ in a way that made it quite clear that he meant it.

It was an immense relief to the mother to get rid of Phatik. She had a prejudice against the boy, and no love was lost between the two brothers. She was in daily fear that he would some day either drown Makhan in the river, or break his head in a fight, or urge him on into some danger. At the same time she was a little distressed to see Phatik’s extreme eagerness to leave his home.

Page 87

Phatik, as soon as all was settled, kept asking his uncle every minute when they were to start. He was on pins all day long with excitement and lay awake most of the night. He bequeathed to Makhan, in perpetuity, his fishing-rod, his big kite, and his marbles. Indeed at this time of departure, his generosity towards Makhan was unbounded. When they reached Kolkata, Phatik met his aunt for the first time. She was by no means pleased with this unnecessary addition to her family. She found her own three boys quite enough to manage without taking anyone else. And to bring a village lad of fourteen into their midst was terribly upsetting1. Bishamber should really have thought twice before committing such an indiscretion.

In this world there is no worse nuisance than a boy at the age of fourteen. He is neither ornamental nor useful. It is impossible to shower affection on him as on a smaller ,boy; and he is always getting in the way. If he talks with a childish lisp he is called a baby, and if in a grown-up way he is called impertinent. In fact, “talk of any kind from him is resented. Then he is at the unattractive, growing age. He grows out of his clothes with indecent haste his face grows suddenly angular and unsightly.

It is easy to excuse the shortcomings of early childhood, but it is hard to tolerate even unavoidable lapses in a boy of fourteen. He becomes painfully self-conscious, and when he talks with elderly people he is either unduly forward, or else so unduly shy that he appears ashamed of his own existence. Yet, it is at this age that in his heart of hearts, a young lad most craves recognition and love; and he becomes the devoted slave of any one who shows him consideration. But none dare openly love him, for that would be regarded as undue indulgence and therefore bad for the boy. So, what with scolding and chiding, he becomes very much like a stray dog that has lost its master.

Page 88

His own home is the only paradise that a boy of fourteen can know. To live in a strange house with strange people is little short of torture; while it is the height of bliss to receive the kind looks of women and never to suffer their slights. It was an anguish to Phatik to be an unwelcome guest in his aunt’s house, constantly despised and slighted by this elderly woman.

If she ever asked him to do anything for her, he would be so overjoyed that his joy would seem exaggerated; and then she would tell him not to be so stupid, but to get on with his lessons. ’ There was no more backward boy in the whole school than Phatik. He gaped and remained silent when the teacher asked him a question, and like an overladen ass patiently suffered the many thrashings that were meted out to him. When other boys were out at play, he stood wistfully by the window and gazed at the roofs of the distant houses. And if by chance he espied children playing on the open terrace of a roof, his heart would ache with longing.

One day he summoned up all his courage, and asked his uncle, ‘Uncle, when can I go home ?’ His uncle and. ‘Wait till the holidays come.’ But the holidays would not come till October and there was still a long time to wait.

One day Phatik lost his lesson book. Even with the help of books he had found it very difficult to prepare his lesson. But, now, it became impossible. Day after day the teacher caned him unmercifully. He became so abjectly miserable that even his cousins were ashamed to own him. They began to jeer and insult him more than even the other boys did. At last he went to his aunt and told her that he had lost his book.

Page 89

With an expression of the greatest contempt she burst out : ‘You great, clumsy, country lout ! How can I afford to buy you new books five times a month, when I have my own family to look after ?’ That night, on his way back from school, Phatik had a bad headache and a shivering fit. He felt that he was going to have an attack of malaria. His one great fear was that he might be a nuisance to his aunt.

The next morning Phatik was nowhere to be seen. Search in the neighbourhood proved futile. The rain had been pouring in torrents all night, and those who went out to look for the boy were drenched to the skin. At last Bishamber asked the police to help him. At nightfall a police van stopped at the door of the house. It was still raining and the streets were flooded. Two constables carried Phatik out in their arms and placed him before Bishamber. He was wet through from head to foot, covered with mud, while, his face and eyes were flushed with fever and his limbs were trembling. Bishamber carried him in his arms and took him inside the house. When his wife saw him, she exclaimed : ‘What a heap of trouble this boy has given us ! Hadn’t you better send him home ?’

Phatik heard her words and sobbed aloud : ‘Uncle, I was just going home; but they dragged me back again.’ The fever rapidly increased, and throughout the night.the boy was delirious. Bishamber brought in a doctor. Phatik opened his eyes, and looking up to the ceiling said vacantly ‘Uncle, have the holidays come yet ?’

Bishamber wiped the tears from his eyes and took Phatik’s thin burning hands in his own and sat by his side through the night. Again the boy began to mutter, till at last his voice rose almost to a shriek. ‘Mother !’ he cried, ‘don’t beat me like that Mother ! I am telling the truth.’

(Page 90)

The next day Phatik, for a short time, became conscious. His eyes wandered round the room as if he expected someone to come. At last, with an air of disappointment, his head sank back on the pillow. With a deep sigh he turned his face to the wall. Bishamber read his thoughts, and bending down his head whispered ‘Phatik, I have sent for your mother.

The day dragged on. The doctor said in a troubled voice that the boy’s condition was very critical. Phatik began to cry out: ‘By the mark three fathoms. By the mark four fathoms. By the mark.’ Many times had he heard the sailors on the river-steamers calling out the mark on the lead line. Now he was himself plumbing an unfathomable sea.

Later in the day Phatik’s mother burst into the room like a whirlwind and rocking herself to and fro from side to side, began to moan and cry. Bishamber tried to calm her, but she flung herself on the bed, and cried ‘Phatik, my darling, my darling.’Phatik stopped his restless movements for a moment. His hands ceased beating up and down. He said ‘Eh ?’ The mother cried again: ‘Phatik, my darling, my darling.’Very slowly Phatik’s eyes wandered, but he could no longer see the people around his bed. At last he murmured ‘Mother, the holidays have come.’

The Home-Coming Summary & Translation in Hindi

The Home-Coming Introduction:
यह कहानी एक चौदह-वर्षीय लड़के फटिक की है। वह बहुत शरारती है। उसे अपने मामा के साथ कोलकाता भेज दिया जाता है। परन्तु वहां न तो उसकी मामी और न ही उसके ममेरे भाई उसके साथ अच्छा व्यवहार करते हैं। वह गम्भीर रूप से बीमार हो जाता है और अन्त में उसकी मृत्यु हो जाती है। इस कहानी में दिया गया विचार यह है कि घर एक ऐसा स्थान होता है जहां हमें स्नेह मिलता है – एक ऐसा स्थान जिसे हमारे पैर तो छोड़ सकते हैं, परन्तु हमारा दिल नहीं। यद्यपि किसी अन्य जगह में सोने-चांदी की बरसात ही क्यों न हो रही हो और घर पर कटारों और भालों की, फिर भी घर पर होना बेहतर होता है। कठिन शब्दार्थ तथा सम्पूर्ण कहानी का हिन्दी अनुवाद

The Home-Coming Summary & Translation in Hindi

(Page 84)

फटिक चक्रवर्ती गांव के लड़कों का मुखिया था। एक दिन उसके दिमाग में किसी नई शरारत के लिए योजना सूझी। नदी की कीचड़दार तलहटी पर लकड़ी का एक भारी लट्ठा पड़ा हुआ था जिससे एक नाव का मस्तूल बनाया जाना था। उसकी योजना थी कि वे सभी मिलकर ज़ोर लगाएंगे और उस लट्टे को पूरी ताकत लगाकर उसकी जगह से हटा देंगे और इसे लुढ़का कर वहां से दूर ले जाएंगे। लट्टे का मालिक क्रोध से भर जाएगा और आश्चर्यचकित होगा जबकि वे सभी इस खेल का आनन्द लेंगे। प्रत्येक लड़के ने इस सुझाव का समर्थन किया और इसे एकमत से स्वीकार कर लियागया।

किन्तु जैसे ही खेल शुरू होने वाला था, फटिक का छोटा भाई माखन बिना कोई शब्द कहे टहलता हुआ आया और उन सब के सामने लट्टे के ऊपर बैठ गया। लड़के एक पल के लिए उलझन में पड़ गए। उनमें से एक ने उसे कुछ भीरुता के साथ धक्का दिया और उससे उठने को कहा; किन्तु वह बिल्कुल कोई परवाह किए बिना बैठा रहा। वह एक छोटे दार्शनिक के जैसा लग रहा था जो चीज़ों की व्यर्थता के बारे में चिन्तन कर रहा था। फटिक अत्यन्त क्रोधित हो गया। “माखन,” उसने चिल्लाते हुए कहा, “यदि तुम इसी पल नहीं उठोगे तो मैं तुम्हारी अच्छी पिटाई कर दूंगा।”

माखन केवल और अधिक आरामदायक स्थिति में हो गया। अब यदि फटिक ने जनता के सामने अपनी राजसी शान कायम रखनी थी तो यह स्पष्ट था कि वह अपनी धमकी को पूरा करे। किन्तु उस संकटपूर्ण स्थिति में उसकी हिम्मत जवाब दे गई। उसके आविष्कारी दिमाग़ ने तुरन्त ही एक नई तरकीब सोच ली जिससे उसका भाई परेशान भी हो जाए और उसके अनुयायियों को अतिरिक्त आनन्द भी मिल जाए। उसने उस लटे को और माखन दोनों को इकट्ठे ही लुढ़काने का आदेश दे दिया। माखन ने इस आदेश को सुना और डटे रहने को सम्मान की बात बना ली। परन्तु उन लोगों की तरह, जो अन्य विषयों में भौतिक ख्याति प्राप्त करने का यत्न करते हैं, उसने इस तथ्य की अनदेखी कर दी कि ऐसा करने में ख़तरा था।

(Page 85)

लड़के अपनी पूरी शक्ति से लट्टे पर जोर लगाने लगे और कहने लगे, “एक, दो, तीन, चलो!” ‘चलो’ शब्द के साथ ही लट्ठा लुढ़कने लगा, और इसके साथ ही माखन का दर्शन, उसकी शान और सब कुछ जाता रहा। अन्य लड़कों का खुशी से चिल्लाते हुए गला बैठ गया। किन्तु फटिक अब थोड़ा-सा डर गया। वह नहीं था, क्योंकि माखन धरती माता पर से उठा, भाग्यदेव की भान्ति अन्धा बना हुआ और क्रोध की देवियों की भान्ति चिल्लाता हुआ। वह फटिक के ऊपर झपटा, उसके चेहरे को खरोंचा, उसे पीटा और ठोकरें मारी, और फिर रोता हुआ घर चला गया। नाटक का प्रथम अंक समाप्त हो गया। फटिक ने अपना मुंह पोंछा और नदी के किनारे पड़ी एक धंसी हुई नाव के छोर पर बैठकर घास के एक तिनके को कुतरने लगा।

घाट पर एक नाव आ कर रुकी और अधेड़ आयु का एक व्यक्ति, जिसके बाल सफेद थे और मूंछे काली थीं, उतर कर तट पर आया। उसने उस लड़के को वहां कुछ न करते हुए देखा और उससे पूछा कि चक्रवर्ती परिवार कहां रहता था। फटिक ने घास को कुतरना जारी रखा और कहा, “वहां पर,”, किन्तु यह बता पाना असम्भव था कि उसने किस तरफ इशारा किया था। अजनबी ने उससे दुबारा पूछा। फटिक ने अपनी टांगें नाव की साइड के साथ इधर-उधर झुलाई और बोला ‘जाओ और पता कर लो’ और घास को कुतरना जारी रखा।

किन्तु उसी समय एक नौकर घर की तरफ से आया और उसने फटिक से कहा कि उसकी मां उसे बुला रही थी। फटिक ने हिलने से इन्कार कर दिया। किन्तु इस अवसर पर नौकर मालिक बना हुआ था। उसने फटिक को कर्कश ढंग से पकड़ा और उसे उठाकर ले गया, जब कि वह टांगें इधर-उधर पटक रहा था और बेअसर क्रोध से संघर्ष कर रहा था। जब फटिक ने घर में प्रवेश किया तो उसकी मां ने
उसे देखा और क्रोध में बोली, ‘तो तुमने माखन को फिर से पीटा है ?’ फटिक ने क्रोधपूर्वक उत्तर दिया, ‘नहीं, मैंने नहीं पीटा। तुमसे किसने कहा मैंने पीटा था ?’ उसकी मां चिल्लाई : ‘झूठ मत बोलो ! तुमने पीटा है।’ फटिक ने चिड़चिड़े ढंग से कहा : ‘मैं तुम्हें कहता हूँ कि मैंने नहीं पीटा है। तुम माखन से पूछ लो!’ किन्तु माखन ने अपनी पहले वाली बात पर डटे रहना ही सबसे अच्छा समझा। उसने कहा : ‘हां, मां, फटिक ने मुझे पीटा था।’

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फटिक का धैर्य पहले ही समाप्त हो चुका था। वह इस अन्याय को सहन न कर सका। वह माखन की तरफ झपटा और उस पर घूसों की बौछार कर दी। यह लो,’ वह चिल्लाते हुए बोला, ‘और यह लो, और यह लो, झूठ बोलने के लिए।’ उसकी मां ने एक पल में माखन का पक्ष ले लिया, और फटिक को खींच कर हटा दिया, उसके बूंसों को उसी शक्ति से लौटाते हुए। जब फटिक ने उसे एक तरफ धकेल दिया तो वह चिल्ला पड़ी, ‘अरे क्या! छोटे दुष्ट! क्या तुम अपनी मां को भी मारोगे ?’ इसी नाजुक घड़ी में वह सफ़ेद बालों वाला अजनबी आ पहुँचा। उसने पूछा कि क्या हुआ था। फटिक लज्जित और मुंह छिपाता हुआ लगने लगा।

किन्तु जब उसकी मां ने पीछे कदम हटाया और उसने अजनबी की तरफ देखा तो उसका क्रोध आश्चर्य में बदल गया क्योंकि उसने अपने भाई को पहचान लिया और चिल्ला उठी, ‘अरे, दादा ! आप कहां से आए ये शब्द कहने के साथ ही, वह ज़मीन को झुकी और उसके पांव छुए। उसका भाई, बिशम्बर, उसके विवाह के तुरन्त बाद ही घर से चला गया था और उसने मुम्बई में अपना व्यापार शुरू कर लिया था। वह अपना पति खो बैठी थी जिस दौरान बिशम्बर मुम्बई में था। बिशम्बर अब वापस कोलकाता आ गया था और उसने आते ही अपनी बहन के बारे में पूछताछ शुरू कर दी थी। जैसे ही उसे पता चला कि वह कहां पर थी, वह जल्दी से उसे मिलने चल पड़ा था|

अगले कई दिन हंसी-खुशी में बीत गए। भाई ने पूछा कि लड़कों का पालन-पोषण कैसे चल रहा था। उसकी बहन ने उसे बताया कि फटिक निरन्तर एक परेशानी था। वह सुस्त, गुस्ताख और मनमर्जी करने वाला था। किन्तु माखन सोने के जैसा अच्छा और मेमने के जैसा शांत था और पढ़ने का बहुत शौकीन था। बिशम्बर ने कृपापूर्वक फटिक को अपनी बहन के घर से ले जाने और उसे अपने ही बच्चों के साथ कोलकाता में पढ़ाने की पेशकश की। विधवा मां तुरन्त सहमत हो गई। जब फटिक के मामा ने उससे पूछा कि क्या वह उसके साथ कोलकाता चलना पसन्द करेगा तो उसकी खुशी की कोई सीमा न रही और उसने ऐसे ढंग से कहा ‘ओह, हां, मामा जी !’ जिससे साफ़ पता चलता था कि वह ऐसा ही चाहता था।

फटिक से छुटकारा पाना मां के लिए एक बड़ी भारी राहत की बात थी। उस लड़के के प्रति उसमें एक पूर्वाग्रह बना हुआ था और दोनों भाइयों में कोई भी प्यार नहीं रहा था। उसे प्रतिदिन डर लगा रहता था कि फटिक किसी दिन माखन को या तो नदी में डुबो देगा, या लड़ाई में उसका सिर फोड़ देगा या उसे किसी खतरे में break his धकेल देगा। किन्तु साथ ही फटिक की अपना घर छोड़ने की तीव्र उत्सुकता को देख कर उसे थोड़ा दुःख भी हो रहा था।

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जब सब बात तय हो गई तो फटिक ने हर पल अपने मामा से पूछना शुरू कर दिया कि उन्होंने कब रवाना होना था। वह सारा दिन उत्तेजना से बेचैन बना रहा और रात को अधिकतर समय जागता पड़ा रहा। उसने माखन को अपनी मछली पकड़ने की कांटी. अपनी बडी पतंग और अपने कंचे सदा के लिए (वसीयत में) दे दिए। सचमुच प्रस्थान के इस समय पर माखन के प्रति उदारता असीमित थी।
जब वे कोलकाता पहुंचे तो फटिक अपनी मामी से पहली बार मिला। अपने परिवार में इस अनावश्यक वृद्धि से वह किसी भी तरह प्रसन्न न हुई।

अपने परिवार में किसी अन्य को लिए बिना उसे अपने ही तीन लड़के सम्भालने काफी लग रहे थे। तथा उनके मध्य चौदह साल के एक ग्रामीण लड़के को ले आना अत्यन्त विचलित करने वाली बात थी। ऐसी नासमझी करने से पहले बिशम्बर को सचमुच दो बार सोच लेना चाहिए था। इस दुनिया में चौदह साल के लड़के से बढ़ कर कोई अन्य परेशानी नहीं होती है। वह न तो देखने में सुन्दर लगता है, और न ही उपयोगी। एक छोटे बच्चे की भान्ति उस पर स्नेह की बौछार करना असम्भव होता है; और वह हमेशा बाधा बना रहता है। यदि वह बचकानी तुतलाहट में बोले तो उसे बच्चा कहा जाता है और यदि वह सयाने व्यक्तियों की तरह व्यवहार करे तो उसे गुस्ताख कहा जाता है। वास्तव में उसकी किसी भी बात का बुरा मनाया जाता है।

इसके अलावा वह एक अनाकर्षक और बढ़ती हुई उम्र में होता है। एक अभद्र तेजी के साथ उसके वस्त्र उस पर छोटे होने लगते हैं : उसका चेहरा अचानक ही कोणाकार और कुरूप हो जाता है। छोटे बचपन की कमियों को क्षमा कर देना आसान होता है,किन्तु एक चौदह साल के लड़के की अपरिहार्य कमियों को भी सहन करना मुश्किल हो जाता है। उसे पीड़ाजनक ढंग से आत्मचेतना हो जाती है, और जब वह बड़ी उम्र के लोगों से बात करता है तो वह या तो अनुचित रूप से बड़बोला लगता है, या अनुचित रूप से इतना शर्मीला बन जाता है कि वह अपने अस्तित्व पर ही शर्मिंदा प्रतीत होता है।

फिर भी इसी उम्र में होता है कि चौदह साल का एक जवान लड़का अपने अन्तर्मन से पहचान और स्नेह की इच्छा अत्यधिक रखता है; और वह किसी भी ऐसे व्यक्ति का समर्पित गुलाम बन जाता है जो उसके प्रति ध्यान देता है। परन्तु कोई भी व्यक्ति खुल कर उससे प्यार नहीं कर सकता क्योंकि ऐसा करने को अनुचित लाड़-प्यार समझा जाता है और इसलिए लड़के के लिए बुरा माना जाता है। इसलिए डांट और झिड़क का मारा वह बहुत-कुछ उस आवारा कुत्ते के समान बन जाता है जो अपने मालिक को खो बैठा हो।

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उसका अपना घर ही एकमात्र स्वर्ग होता है जो एक चौदह वर्ष का लड़का जानता होता है। एक अजनबी घर में अजनबी लोगों के साथ रहना यातना से कोई कम नहीं होता है। जबकि स्त्रियों की कृपा-भरी दृष्टि ले पाना और उनकी उपेक्षा कभी न सहन करना सबसे बड़ा आनन्द होता है। फटिक के लिए अपनी मामी के घर पर एक अनचाहा मेहमान बन कर रहना, निरन्तर घृणा सहना और उस बुजुर्ग औरत के द्वारा अपमानित होते रहना एक व्यथापूर्ण बात थी। यदि वह उसे कभी कोई काम करने के लिए कहती तो वह इतनी ज्यादा खुशी से भर जाता कि उसकी खुशी ज़रूरत से ज्यादा प्रतीत होती; और फिर वह औरत उससे कहती कि वह इतना मूर्ख न बने और अपनी पढ़ाई पर ध्यान दे।

पूरे स्कूल में फटिक से ज़्यादा पिछड़ा लड़का कोई नहीं था। वह मुँह खोले देखता रहता और खामोश बना रहता जब अध्यापक उससे कोई प्रश्न पूछता, और एक अत्यधिक लदे गधे की भान्ति चुपचाप वह सब पिटाइयां सहन कर लेता जो उसे दी जातीं। जब अन्य लड़के बाहर खेल रहे होते, वह उदासीपूर्वक खिड़की की बगल में खड़ा हो जाता और दूर-स्थित मकानों की छतों को टकटकी लगाए देखता रहता। और यदि संयोग से वह खुली छत पर लड़कों को खेलते हुए देख लेता तो उसका दिल तीव्र इच्छा की पीड़ा से भर जाता। एक दिन उसने अपनी पूरी हिम्मत जुटाई और अपने मामा से पूछा, ‘मामा जी, मैं घर कब जा पाऊँगा ? उसके मामा ने उत्तर दिया, ‘छुट्टियां होने तक प्रतीक्षा करो।’

किन्तु छुट्टियां तो अक्तूबर तक नहीं होने वाली थीं, और अभी वहां प्रतीक्षा करने को लम्बा समय था। एक दिन फटिक अपनी पाठ्यपुस्तक खो बैठा। पुस्तकों की मदद से भी उसे अपना पाठ तैयार करना बहुत कठिन लगता था। किन्तु अब तो यह असंभव हो गया। दिन-प्रति-दिन अध्यापक उसे निर्दयतापूर्वक बैंतें मारता। वह इतने दयनीय रूप से दुःखी हो गया कि उसके ममेरे भाई भी उसे अपना कहने में शर्म महसूस करते थे। वे अन्य लड़कों से भी ज्यादा उसका मज़ाक उड़ाते और उसे अपमानित करते। अन्त में वह अपनी मामी के पास गया और उसे बताया कि उसकी पुस्तक खो गई थी।

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अत्यन्त तिरस्कार व्यक्त करते हुए वह फूट उठी, ‘अरे महा बेढंगे, गंवार लड़के ! मैं तुम्हें महीने में पांच बार नई पुस्तकें कैसे खरीद कर दे सकती हूं जबकि पास देखभाल करने के लिए मेरा अपना परिवार भी उस रात स्कूल से लौटते हुए फटिक को सख्त सिरदर्द हुआ और कंपकंपी छिड़ गई। उसे महसूस हुआ कि उसे मलेरिया होने जा रहा था। उसका एकमात्र मुख्य भय यह था कि वह अपनी मामी के लिए परेशानी बन जाएगा।

अगली प्रातः फटिक कहीं भी नज़र न आया। पड़ोस में की गई तलाश बेकार सिद्ध हुई। पूरी रात भर मूसलाधार वर्षा होती रही थी और वे लोग जो लड़के को ढूंढने गए थे, वे पूरी तरह भीग गए। अन्त में बिशम्बर ने पुलिस को उसकी सहायता करने के लिए कहा। रात होने पर पुलिस की एक गाड़ी घर के दरवाज़े पर आ कर रुकी। वर्षा अब भी हो रही थी और गलियों में पानी भरा हुआ था। दो सिपाहियों ने फटिक को अपनी

बांहों में लेकर बाहर निकाला और बिशम्बर के सामने लिटा दिया। वह सिर से पांव तक पूरी तरह भीगा हुआ था, कीचड़ से भरा हुआ था, जबकि उसका चेहरा और आंखें बुखार से लाल हो रहे थे, और उसके हाथ-पांव कांप रहे थे। बिशम्बर ने उसे बांहों में उठाया और घर के अन्दर ले गया। जब उसकी पत्नी ने उसे देखा तो वह कह उठी, ‘इस लड़के ने हमें कितना कष्टों का ढेर दिया क्या बेहतर न होता अगर तुम इसे घर भेज देते ?’ फटिक ने उसके शब्द सुने और ऊंची सिसकियां भरते हुए कहने लगा, ‘मामा जी, मैं घर ही जा रहा था; परन्तु वे मुझे घसीट कर वापस ले आए।’

बुखार तेजी से बढ़ता गया और रात भर लड़का बड़बड़ाता रहा। बिशम्बर एक डाक्टर को बुला लाया। फटिक ने अपनी आंखें खोली और ऊपर छत की तरफ़ देखते हुए शून्य भाव से बोला : ‘मामा जी, क्या छुट्टियां आ गई हैं ?’ बिशम्बर ने अपनी आंखों से आंसू पोंछे और फटिक के जलते हुए पतले हाथों को अपने हाथों में लिया, और पूरी रात उसकी बगल में बैठा रहा। लड़का फिर से बड़बड़ाने लगा और अंत में उसकी आवाज़ ऊंची हो कर लगभग एक चीख में बदल गई। ‘माँ!’ वह चीखा, ‘मुझे इस तरह न मारो …………मां ! मैं सच कह रहा हूँ।’

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अगले दिन थोड़ी देर के लिए फटिक को होश आया। उसकी नज़रें कमरे में चारों तरफ़ भटक रही थीं मानो वह किसी के आने की आशा कर रहा था। अन्त में निराशा की भावना में उसका सिर वापस तकिए पर गिर गया। गहरी आह भरते हुए उसने दीवार की तरफ़ अपना मुंह घुमा लिया। बिशम्बर उसके विचारों को भांप गया और अपना सिर झुकाते हुए फुसफुसाया : ‘फटिक, मैंने तुम्हारी मां को बुलवा भेजा है।’

दिन धीरे-धीरे घिसटता रहा। डॉक्टर ने दुःखी आवाज़ में कहा कि लड़के की हालत बहुत नाजुक थी। फटिक चिल्लाने लगा : ‘निशान के हिसाब से तीन फ़ैदम। निशान के हिसाब से – चार फ़ैदम। निशान के हिसाब से।’ कई बार उसने नदी में चलने वाले स्टीमरों के नाविकों को गहराई नापने वाली रस्सी पर के चिन्हों को ऊँचे स्वर में बोलते हुए सुना था। अब वह स्वयं एक अथाह सागर की गहराई को नाप रहा था। दिन के पिछले पहर, फटिक की मां एक चक्रवात की तरह कमरे के अन्दर पटाक से आई, और एक तरफ़ से दूसरी तरफ़ झूलती हुई कराहने और चिल्लाने लगी। बिशम्बर ने उसे शांत करने का यत्न किया, परन्तु उसने स्वयं को चारपाई पर पटक दिया और चिल्ला उठी : ‘फटिक, मेरे बच्चे, मेरे प्यारे।’

फटिक ने एक पल के लिए अपनी बेचैनी-भरी गतियां रोक दी। उसके हाथों ने ऊपर-नीचे फड़फड़ाना बन्द कर दिया। उसने कहा, ‘क्या ?’ मां फिर से चिल्लाई : ‘फटिक, मेरे बच्चे, मेरे प्यारे।’ बहुत धीरे-धीरे फटिक की नज़रें इधर-उधर घूमी किन्तु अब वह अपनी चारपाई के गिर्द खड़े हुए लोगों को देख नहीं पा रहा था। अन्त में वह बड़बड़ाया : ‘मां, छुट्टियां आ गई हैं।’ .

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is Liberty? Explain the negative and positive aspect of Liberty.
Answer:
Liberty is essential for the development of the personality of the individual. Montesquieu remarked that no other word left so indelible an impression on the mind of the individual as the word liberty. It has indeed been a magic word in history which has inspired millions to revolt. Even today the battle-field of freedom is not silent.

Wherever individuals suffer from injustice, they invoke the name of liberty. Everybody has the feeling that his personality cannot develop without the enjoyment of liberty and, therefore, every individual wants to enjoy maximum degree of liberty. The term liberty is derived from the Latin word ‘liber’ which means ‘free’. In other words, liberty means freedom to do whatever a man likes to do. Liberty is understood in two different ways negative aspect of liberty and positive aspect of liberty.

1. Negative aspect of Liberty:
The negative aspect of liberty means absolute freedom of the individual or i,t means that the individual has the freedom to do anything. Absence of all restraints is the meaning of negative liberty. According to J.S. Mill, liberty means absence of all restraints. J.S. Mill divided man’s sphere of activity into ‘self-regarding’ and ‘other- regarding’ and state interference is justified only in other regarding activities in case his action amounts to an intervention into the domain of the freedom of his fellow-beings.

2. Positive aspect of Liberty:
Real liberty has a positive connotation. It does not mean the absence of restrictions. On the other hand, true liberty exists only when every citizen enjoys the opportunity for self-realization and the State maintains those rights and opportunities which help the citizens to develop all that is best in them. “The true test of liberty lies in the extent to which the law of the land helps the citizen to develop all that is good in him.”

The positive aspect of liberty includes the right of man to do or enjoy something that is worth enjoying. Laski says, ‘Liberty is the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.” In brief it means, the enjoyment of certain important rights such as freedom of life, freedom of thought and freedom of worship, etc.

Now-a-days liberty cannot be accepted in the absolute form. Liberty can be accepted in its positive aspect. An individual is allowed to do all those things which do not do any harm to others and which are essential for the development of his personality. So many writers have defined liberty and the most important deinitions are given as ahead:

(i) According to Prof. Seeley, “Liberty is the opposite of over-government.” Prof. Seeley is of the opinion that true liberty lies in the existence of a right type of government. The individual cannot enjoy liberty under absolute rule.

(ii) According to Gettell, ‘Liberty is the positive power of doing and enjoying those things which are worthy of enjoyment and work.”

(iii) According to G.D.H. Cole, “No external restrictions should be imposed on those functions of the individual which are essential for the development of his personality.” He further says, ‘Liberty is the freedom of the individual to express without external hindrance of his personality.”

(iv) According to McKechnie, “Freedom is not the absence of all restraints, but rather the substitution of rational ones for the irrational.”

(v) According to T.H. Green, “Freedom consists in a positive power or capacity of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying.”

(vi) According to Laski, “I mean by liberty the absence of restraints upon the existence of those social conditions which in modern civilisation are the necessary guarantees of individual happiness.” Laski further says, “By liberty is meant the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.”

On the basis of above given definitions we can say that liberty does not mean absence of all restrictions because unrestrained or unrestricted liberty cannot be given to anybody in society. It means that no unjust restrictions be imposed on the liberty of the individual because they hamper the growth of individual’s personality.

Liberty means power to do anything that does not injure others. It does not mean licence. Some restraints are ‘ necessary for the healthy social life and liberty implies freedom of thought and action within those restraints which are necessary for the larger good of society.

There should be no undue restraints on the individual’s freedom of action. Normally the State should – allow its citizens to five freely, have freedom of speech and expression, of thought, freedom of worship, etc.
From liberty we understand the following things:

• Liberty does not mean absence of all restrictions.
• Liberty means absence of unjust and tyrannical restrictions.
• Liberty means legal, moral and resonable restrictions on the functions of man.
• Liberty is an essential condition for the development of individual personality.
• Liberty means the rights of the individual to do things-which are not harmful to others.
• All the individuals are entitled to liberty equally.

Question 2.
Discuss the kinds of Liberty.
Answer:
The term ‘Liberty’ conveys a wide range of ideas, and one can speak of different types of liberty. R.M. Maclver observes in his The Modem State (1950): ‘Liberty itself is not one but manifold. There are many forms of liberty: liberty of thought and of its expression, liberty of action in hundred external spheres, civil liberty, economic liberty and so forth, each of these again having many divisions, such as in the economic field, the liberties of contract and of competition.” To have a clear idea of liberty as understood in various capacities, it is necessary to examine the different types of liberty.

1. Natural Liberty:
As generally understood, natural liberty implies complete freedom for a man to do what he pleases. It is another name for the liberty of the woods that is also known by the name of licence. Natural liberty existed in the State of Nature which existed before the birth of Society. Contractualists like Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau speak in terms of a State of Nature in which there were no restraints. In his social contract theory, Rousseau stated that man enjoyed true liberty only in the State of Nature.

Some other writers also hold that natural liberty is the liberty that existed in the State of Nature. But it must be remembered that the State of Nature was pre-social and pre-political and it is difficult to visualise liberty that existed in the pre-social period of history. It must be governed by the law of the jungle and liberty must have implied “Might is Right” Prof. Gettell has rightly said: “In a State of Nature, each person would possess natural might, but not natural right.”

But natural liberty is no liberty. If every one is in the State of Nature begins to act as he wishes; there will be confusion and chaos. The strong alone will enjoy certain things and the weak will perish. Liberty of this unrestricted character is, therefore, not possible in the society. Thus with the emergence of society and state, and with the rise of several restraints, natural liberty had to end. Liberty can be enjoyed only in a society.

2. Moral Liberty:
Moral Liberty is of great importance in the life of an individual. Moral liberty means freedom to do things according to the dictates of one’s conscience. The ideas of Green, Kant and Bosanquet have supported the idea of Moral Liberty. Moral liberty is not at all concerned with the State. It is concerned with the individual’s own self.

3. Civil Liberty:
Civil liberty is the liberty which a man enjoys in a State or civil society and it consists of the rights and privileges which the State creates and protects for its subjects. It implies the right of each to do as he chooses within the limits set down by law. It may involve protection from interference at the hands of the government.

Civil liberty in the main, consists of freeedom of conscience and belief, freedom of, opinion, freedom of action, freedom of movement and equality in the eye of the law. Lord Bryce says that “Civil liberty has a positive as well as a negative side. It imparts activity, it implies the spontaneous exercise of the powers of willing and doing.” Civil liberty is of immense value to the individual and association in a State.

4. Economic Liberty:
Another sphere in which liberty is demanded and its importance increasingly recognised is the economic sphere. In fact, without economic liberty there can be no political nor true civil liberty.

Economic liberty means security of one’s daily bread and reasonable opportunities for earning it. The individual must be made free from the constant fear of ’unemployment and insufficiency and must be safeguarded against the wants of tomorrow.

Economic liberty consists in the individual’s right to work and to a minimum wage, the right to leisure by the regulation of hours of work in fields, factories and mines, the right to form unions and the right to provision against old age, sickness, unemployment, accidents and also maternity benefits. Democracy can be real only if it rests on economic as well as political liberty.

5. Political Liberty:
Political liberty is considered synonymous with democracy. By political liberty is meant the right of the people to share in the administration of the State. It consists of

• the right to vote
• right to be elected to various legislative bodies in the State
• the right to hold political office and
• the right to make constructive criticism of the government policy. Political liberty thus can exist in democracies.

6. National Liberty:
The term liberty is applied to nations as well as to individuals. A nation or people is said to be free when it has a government of its own choice and when it is not subject to any foreign control.
National liberty exists where the State is a National State, that is, where the community is independent and sovereign. The individual can have little liberty, civil, political or economic unless there is national liberty. India attained national liberty in 1947. In the recent past Bangla Desh attained national liberty with the help of Indian forces. National liberty is more important than all other types of liberty.

7. International Liberty:
The ideal of international liberty covers the world as a whole. It implies renunciation of war, limitation on the production of armaments, abandoment of the use of force and peaceful settlement of disputes. It also desires adequate curbs on the strength of military force so that it may not crush the liberties of the local people or of the people of any other country.

Question 3.
Describe the main safeguards for the maintenance of Liberty.
Or
‘Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.’ In the light of this statement discuss the main safeguards of liberty.
Answer:
Liberty has its importance for every individual. It is regarded as very precious by all people of the world. If the citizens do not enjoy any liberty, they will not be able to develop their faculties. If their actions, movements and speeches are interferred with at every step by a tyrannical authority, life is not worth-living.

Hence many attempts have been made in every country to safeguard the liberty of the individual citizens. Liberty cannot exist under a dictatorship. If the citizens have full liberty of speech and action, the dictator will soon find that his will or power will be questioned and opposed by the enlightened conscience of the citizens. Hence dictators have been forced to curtail the liberty of the subjects in order to retain their power. There was no liberty in Nazi Germany. Liberty will be secured only in a democracy where the sovereign power resides in the masses.

Generally, following safeguards are included in constitution for the protection of liberty:
1. Democracy:
In democracy the people can share the character of the Government as they like because political power lies in their hands. The people are masters of Government. They enjoy full opportunity for safeguarding their rights and liberties. Democracy is a Government of the people, by the people and for the people.

The Government is run according to the wishes of the people and nothing can be done which is against public interest. In no other form of Government the people can enjoy this much liberty. Democracy and liberty are very closely related to each other, therefore, democratic Government should be established for guarding liberty.

2. Declaration of Fundamental Rights:
Another safeguard that is adopted is to include a bill of Fundamental Rights in the constitution. According to this Bill of Rights, the citizens are guaranteed the enjoyment of their rights, free from all interference. In the modern age the constitutions are generally written and rigid and if there is a declaration of fundamental rights in the constitutions, it will serve quite a good purpose. Moreover, the Government cannot violate the right so easily. This way liberty is safeguarded by the constitution and the judiciary.

3. Independent Judiciary:
There should be independent, impartial and honest judiciary for safeguarding liberty. For the protection of rights and liberties of the individuals and for equal justice between man and man and between individuals and Government competent and an independent judiciary is a great necessity. Most of the modern States have made their judiciary thoroughly honest and impartial so that liberty for the people may be fully protected.

4. Rule of Law:
This expression means the equality of all persons before law. Law makes no distinction between the rich and the poor, the high and the low. The rule of law is the most vital principle that guarantees full liberty to the individual and prevents the executive from becoming high-handed and unjust. Rule of law means equal justice for all, no one can be tried by special courts, no one can be punished except for a breach of law and no one can plead the orders of superiors as justification for disobeying the law.

5. Equal Rights:
For safeguarding liberty it is quite essential that all the citizens be given equal rights. No individual or a section of people be given special privileges. Everybody should be equal in the eyes of law. Nobody should be discriminated against on the basis of colour, creed, religion and caste. The same law should apply to all the persons, may he be Prime Minister Or an ordinary person.

6. Economic Equality:
Economic condition of an individual essentially influences his political condition. Liberty has no meaning for a poor person. An individual can enjoy political liberty only if he is free from economic worries. As long as there is great economic inequality there can be no liberty for those who are economically depressed. In an economically divided state, it shall only be liberty of the rich or the poor. Though perfect economic equality is not possible yet the idea is that there should be as little economic inequality as possible.

7. Separation of Powers:
The ‘separation of powers’ is also regarded as one of the most important safeguards of liberty. It is held that if the three branches of government in a State legislature, executive and judiciary are separated from one another and one does not interfere with the other, individual liberty is better safeguarded. If one part of government tends to oppress the people, its actions will be checked by other parts. If the executive encroaches upon the liberty of any citizen, he can appeal to the judiciary or the legislature which will check the executive and protect his liberty.

8. Decentralization of Powers:
Prof. Laski says, “The more wide spread the distribution of power in the State, the more decentralized its character, the more likely are men to be jealous for freedom.” Instead of centralization there should be decentralization of powers. This greatly helps in the promotion of individual liberty. Bryce is of the opinion that local self- government institutions should be established for promoting the spirit of individual liberty among the people.

9. Free and Honest Press:
Democracy is considered the most important condition of liberty. But democracy also depends upon certain other conditions for the attainment of its objectives. Free and honest press plays an important role in making democracy a success. In the modem age the people come to know about all the happenings in the world only through newspapers and journals.

If the news published in the newspapers is not impartial and free from pressure then the people cannot remain well informed about the developemnts in their country as in other countries of the world. Laski has very correctly remarked, “A people without reliable news is sooner or later a people without the basis of freedom.”

10. Political Education:
For safeguarding liberty the people should be politically educated. Political education makes people conscious about their rights and liberties. The people who have political education can well understand and discuss the problems of their State. The people who are politically awakened will not tolerate any interference in their liberty.

11. Well-knit Party System:
Well-knit party system is most essential for safeguarding liberty. In England there is neither separation of powers nor a comprehensive bill of rights. There, the organised political parties, in a permanent state of tension, mutually restraining one another, ensure the continuous popular enjoyment of liberty.

The opposition parties keep a strict watch on the working of the government. The sword of criticism must always hang on the head of the government. The mere existence of political parties is not essential rather the parties should be well-organized and should be based on sound and healthy grounds.

12. Eternal Vigilance:
Prof. Laski says, “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.” The most important safeguard of liberty is enlightened and vigilant public opinion. Individual liberty is best protected when citizens are conscious about their rights and freedom. It is, therefore, said, “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and those who are trained to that vigilance become the conscious guardians of liberty.” They must be active and vigilant and be prepared to stand up to defend their rights, if they find they are in danger.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Give the meaning of Liberty.
Answer:
The term liberty has been derived from the Latin word ‘Liber’ which means free or absence of restraints. But in a true sense Liberty does not mean absence of all kinds of restraints. Absence of all restraints is the meaning of negative liberty but true Liberty exists only when every citizen enjoys the opportunity for self-realization and the state maintains those rights and opportunities which help the citizens to develop all that is best in them. The true test of liberty lies in the extent to which the law of the land help the citizen to develop all that is good in him. Liberty includes the right of the men to do or enjoy something that is worth enjoying.

Question 2.
Define the term Liberty.
Answer:
1. According to Laski, “I mean by liberty the absence of restraints upon the existence of those social conditions which in modem civilisation are the necessary guarantees of individial happiness.” Laski further says, “ By liberty is meant the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be then- best selves.”

2. According to T.H. Green, “Freedom consists in a positive power or capacity of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying.”

3. According to Gettell, “Liberty is the positive power of doing and enjoying those things which are worthy of enjoyment and work.” .

4. According to Mekechnie, “Liberty is not the absence of all restraints, but rather the substitution of rational ones for the irrational.”

Question 3.
Explain four types of Equality.
Answer:
Four types of Equality are as follows:

• Civil Equality: Civil Equality means that every one in the state enjoys the same status in the sphere of private law.
• Social Equality: Social equality means that no distinction is made in the social status of the people on the ground of their riches, race, class or caste.
• Political Equality: Politcal equality means that all the citizens should be treated equal in political sphere.
• Economic Equality: Economic equality means that there should be minimum inequaltiy in the society and everyone should have equal opportunities to develop his natural faculties and power.

Question 4.
Explain-the negative and positive aspect of liberty.
Answer:
Liberty is understood in two different ways negative and positive aspects of liberty. The negative aspect of liberty means absolute freedom of the Individual. Absence of the restraints is the meaning of negative liberty. But true liberty does not mean the absence of restrictions.

True liberty exists only when every citizen enjoys the opportunity for self-realization and the state maintains those rights and opportunity which help the citizens to develop all that is best in them. The positive aspect of liberty includes the rights of the man to do or enjoy something that is worth enjoying. In brief it means the enjoyment of certain important rights such as freedom of life, freedom of thought and freedom of worship, etc.

Question 5.
Explain the meaning of Political Liberty.
Answer:
Political Liberty is considered synonymous with democracy. By political liberty is meant the right of the people to share in the administration of the State. According to Barker, “If a man is free to advocate his thoughts, and to associate himself with others for their common advocacy, he must be free to advocate personal thoughts of his own about the affairs to the Commonwealth and not only so, but also to form or join political parties by which such or similar thoughts are generally advocated.”

It consists of 1. the right to vote, 2. the right to be elected to various legislative bodies in State 3. the right to hold political office and 4. the right to make constructive criticism of the government policy. Political liberty thus can exist in democracies.

Question 6.
Describe any two pre-conditions which are essenstial for an individual to enjoy liberty. *
Answer:
1. Independent Judiciary. There should be independent impartial and honest judiciary for safeguarding liberty. For the protection of rights and liberties of the individuals and for equal justice between man and man, between individuals and government, a competent and an independent judiciary is a great necessity.

2. Rule of Law. The rule of law is the most vital principle that guarantees full liberty to the individual and prevents the executive from becoming high handed and unjust. Rule of law means equal justice for all, no one can be tried by special courts and no one can be punished except for a breach of law.

Question 7.
What is National Liberty?
Answer:
The term liberty is applied to nations as well as to individuals. A nation or people is said to be free when it has a government of its own choice and when it is not subject to any foreign control.
National liberty exist where the State is a National State, that is, where the community is independent and sovereign. The individual can have little liberty, civil, political or economic unless there is national liberty. India attained national liberty in 1947. In the recent past Bangla Desh attained national liberty with the help of Indian forces. National liberty is more important than all other types of liberty.

Question 8.
Political liberty in the absence of Economic equality is meaningless. Explain.
Answer:
According to Laski, “ Political liberty, in the absence of economic equality is held to be a mere myth.” A multi-millionaire and a street beggar, in a formal sense, have the same political rights. But political rights are useless for a starving man. Right use of vote by a poor man is impossible. The poor man may sell his vote to a rich candidate. A poor man cannot afford to spend money on contesting an election. Moreover, political parties are controlled by the rich because the rich people finance the political parties. Press and platform are also under control of the rich. Thus in the absence of economic equality political power tends to become the handmaid of economic power.

Question 9.
Is liberty absolute? Explain.
Answer:
Supporters of negative liberty believe that liberty is absolute and unrestricted. But in practice liberty can never be absolute and unrestricted. True liberty does not mean the absence of restrictions. It is not possible for all persons in society and state to enjoy liberty in the absolute sense. Absolute and unrestricted liberty would mean ‘might is right’ and there will be the law of the jungle.

The utmost freedom of action that each and every individual can enjoy upon like terms at the same time is to be completely unrestrained in his actions in so far as they do not interfere with the like freedom of his fellows. There is not a single country in the world where people enjoy absolute and unrestricted liberty. Thus liberty cannot be absolute and unrestricted. Herbert Spencer rightly observes : “Every man is free to do that which he wills provided he infringes not the equal freedom of any other man.”

Question 10.
“Eternal Vigilance is the price of Liberty”- Laski. Discuss the Statement.
Answer:
Prof. Laski says, “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.” The most important safeguard of liberty is enlightened and vigilant public opinion. Individual liberty is best protected if the citizens of the State are patriotic and vigilant.

Indolent and indifferent citizens cannot enjoy the fruit of liberty. It is, therefore, said, “ Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and those who are trained to that vigilance become the conscious guardians of liberty.” They must be active and vigilant and be prepared to stand up to defend their rights, if they find they are in danger.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of Liberty.
Answer:
The term liberty has been derived from the Latin word “Liber’ which means free or absence of restraints. But in a true sense Liberty does not mean absence of all kinds of restraints. Absence of all restraints is the meaning of negative liberty but true Liberty exists only when every citizen enjoys the opportunity for self-realization and the state maintains those rights and opportunities which help the citizens to develop all that is best in them.

Question 2.
Define the term Liberty.
Answer:
1. According to Laski, “I mean by liberty the absence of restraints upon the existence of those social conditions which in modern civilisation are the necessary guarantees of individial happiness.” Laski further says, “ By liberty is meant the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.”

2. According to T.H. Green, “Freedom consists in a positive power or capacity of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying.”

Question 3.
Mention various types of liberty.
Answer:

1. Names of four types of liberty are:
2. Natural Liberty,
3. Civil Liberty,
4. Political Liberty and
5. Economic Liberty.

Question 4.
Explain two types of Equality.
Answer:
Four types of Equality are as follows:

1. Civil Equality. Civil Equality means that every one in the state enjoys the same status in the sphere of private law.
2. Social Equality. Social equality means that no distinction is made in the social status of the people on the ground of their riches, race, class or caste.

Question 5.
Explain any two pre-conditions which are essential for an individual to enjoy liberty.
Answer:

• Independent Judiciary. There should be independent impartial and honest judiciary for safeguarding liberty.
• Rule of Law. The rule of law is the most vital principle that guarantees full liberty to the individual and prevents the executive from becoming high handed and unjust.

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
From which language has the English word ‘Liberty* been derived?
Answer:
The word ‘Liberty1 has been derived from the Latin word Tiber’.

Question 2.
What does the negative conception of liberty mean? .
Answer:
It means complete independence or absence of any kind of restriction.

Question 3.
What does the positive concept of liberty mean?
Answer:
Every individual has the right to do all those works which do not harm other individuals.

Question 4.
Write down a definition of liberty.
Answer:
According to Laski,“Liberty is the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.”

Question 5.
Name supporters of negative aspect of liberty.
Answer:
Locke, Adam Smith, Herbert Spencer and J.S. Mill.

Question 6.
Name supporters of positive aspect of liberty.
Answer:
Kant, Fichte, Green and Laski.

Question 7.
Write down any two kinds of liberty.
Answer:

1. Natural liberty
2. Civil Liberty

Question 8.
What do you mean by Natural Liberty?
Answer:
By Natural liberty we mean that liberty which a man enjoyed in the natural state without the emergence of state.

Question 9.
What is Civil Liberty?
Answer:
Civil liberty is that liberty which an individual enjoys because of being a member of organised society.

Question 10.
What is meant by Political Liberty?
Answer:
Political Liberty means that liberty by which a citizen can participate in the governance of the country.

Question 11.
Tell the meaning of Economic Liberty.
Answer:
Economic Liberty means that people must be free to earn their livelihood and they must have adequate means and facilities for it.

Question 12.
What is an Individual Liberty?
Answer:
An individual liberty means that an individual should be free to do all those works which are limited to him and do not harm other individuals in any way.

Question 13.
What is meant by National Liberty?
Answer:
National liberty means that the state should not be in control of any other country. In other words, the state must have an external freedom and it must have sovereignty

Question 14.
Mention any one feature of Liberty.
Answer:
Liberty means the absence of arbitrary, immoral and unjust restrictions.

Question 15.
Is liberty unlimited? Explain.
Answer:
Liberty is possible amidst laws and restrictions. But it must be devoid of unfair and unjust restrictions. .

Question 16.
Name any two means for the protection of liberty.
Answer:
Establishment of Democracy
Declaration of Fundamental Rights.

Fill in the blanks

1. …………… means power to do any thing that does not injure others.
Answer:
Liberty

2. ………….. is the first condition of liberty.
Answer:
Law

3. Liberty is understood in two different ways and positive aspects of liberty.
Answer:
Negative

4. Liberty is not …………. .
Answer:
Absolute

5. Absence of all restrictions is the meaning of …………… liberty.
Answer:
Negative.

True or False statement

1. The term liberty is derived from the Latin word Tiber’ which means ‘free’.
Answer:
True

2. Real liberty has a positive connotation.
Answer:
True

3. According to T.H. Green, “Liberty is the opposite of over government.”
Answer:
False

4. There is a close relationship between political liberty and economic liberty.
Answer:
True

5. Natural liberty means freedom to do things according to the dictates of one’s conscience.
Answer:
False

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Liberty of the individual prevails when there is:
(A) No Policeman
(B) No jedge
(C) Democracy
(D) No law.
Answer:
(C) Democracy

Question 2.
Liber means:
(A) Free
(B) No freedom
(C) Limited freedom
(D) None of these.
Answer:
(A) Free

Question 3.
Positive Liberty means:
(A) Liberty to do any thing
(B) Liberty with restraints
(C) Only restraints
(D) None of these.
Answer:
(B) Liberty with restraints

Question 4.
Economic liberty means:
(A) Freedom from illiteracy
(B) Freedom from poverty and want
(C) Freedom from society
(D) Freedom from religion.
Answer:
(B) Freedom from poverty and want

Question 5.
Which one of the following is the safeguard of liberty?
(A) Subordinate judiciary
(B) Centralisation of power
(C) No fundamental Rights
(D) Rule of Law.
Answer:
(D) Rule of Law.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 5 Law-Meaning, Sources and Kinds Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 5 Law-Meaning, Sources and Kinds

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define Law and give its sources.
Answer:
The State maintains peace and order in Society and regulates the mutual relations among the people. This function is performed through laws. The will of the State is expressed through laws. The State determines the relationship of the individual with the State, relationship of the individual with other associations and the relationship of individuals among themselves through laws. This way the individual has a very close relationship with the laws of the State.

Definition Of Law:
Different writers have defined law differently. The scientists define ‘law’ as the relation of cause and effect. The meaning of law is altogether different in the science of morality. So when we talk of Law of Morality, it means that body of rules which governs the moral conduct of man, being based on the general conscience of the people.

The word ‘Law’ has been derived from the Teutonic word lag which means definite. Therefore, the word law’ is used for a fixed rule. Rules are definite and certain only when they are enforced-by the State. For the maintenance of peace and order in society it is essential that only those rules and regulations should be applied which are recognized by law. Disputes can be decided only by the application of definite rules and regulations.

The following are some of the most important definitions of law given by different writers:
1. According to Aristotle, “True law is right reason, comfortable to nature, universal and external.”

2. The famous British Jurist John Austin says, “Law is a command given by a superior to an inferior.” Austin has further said, “Law is the command of a Sovereign.” Sovereign is superior to all in the State, therefore he issues orders to all other people in the State.

3. According to Willoughby, “Laws are those rules of conduct that control courts of justice in the exercise of their jurisdiction. As distinguished from all other rules of conduct that obtain more or less general recognition in a community of men; they are such as have for their ultimate enforcement the entire power of the State.”

4. According to Woodrow Wilson, “Law is that portion of the established thought and habit, which has gained distinct and normal recognition in the shape of uniform rules backed by the authority and power of Government.”

5. According to T.E. Holland, “Law is a general rule of action, taking cognizance only of external acts, enforced by a determinate authority, which authority is human and among human authorities is that which is paramount in a political society, or, briefly a law is a general rule of external action enforced by a sovereign political authority.”

Of all the definitions of law given above, the definition given by Prof. Holland is the best. In simple words we can say that the rules and regulations framed by the State concerning the external actions of man are called laws.
The law has the following characteristics:

1. A law is concerned with the external actions of the people.
2. A law is enforced by the supreme authority of the State.
3. A law is definite and is applicable to all.
4. The violation of law is a crime and the culprits are punished.
5. Laws are Universal and no discrimination is made by law. Everybody is equal before law.
6. Aim of law is welfare of the whole society.

Sources of Law:
Laws are those rules and regulations which are concerned with the external actions of the people and are habitually obeyed by them. Now the question arises which the sources of law are. John Austin is of the option that a law is a command of the Sovereign. From this thing we can understand that the Sovereign is the source of law but the fact is that there are laws which are not framed by the Sovereign but are only recognized by him.

In the formal sense the State is the main source of all laws. But the modern law has passed through many stages of development and various factors have contributed to its growth. All such factors may be defined as the sources from which law is derived. The following are the sources of law:

1. Customs:
Custom is the earlier source of law. When the State had not come into existence in its present form, the people were guided in their social relations by custom. Even now the courts recognize the force of custom prevailing in a particular comipunity. Custom was the king in the past. A custom is a body of rules universally accepted and followed by the members of the society due to their social utility. In the ancient society when there was no definite law, all the disputes were settled according to the customs and traditions prevailing in the society.

Customs were based on the general usages and practices of the family, class or tribe. But it must be remembered that these rules of conduct based upon customs are not themselves laws but they become laws when recognized by the definite political authority of the State due to their social benefit.

The common law in England is a collection of the customs and traditions of that country. There is great utility of giving recognition to and making laws of customs and traditions. First, the people readily obey such laws and secondly, the state is not to ponder more on the subject of making laws.

2. Religion:
Great seers and prophets in their sayings and writings have prescribed certain rules of conduct for their followers. In most of the states in medieval times, these religious injunctions of prophets formed an important part of law. In the ancient society all rules of conduct had a religious sanction behind them.

It is a historical fact that under the administration of Priest Kings, there was a close relation between law and religion. Moreover, the sacred books (like Quran of Muslims and Vedas of Hindus) have laid down their particular rules for the guidance of their communities. The people follow the laws of religion because of their belief in Divine origin of laws and because of the Godly punishment in the next world.

It can further be proved by the fact that in India still the Hindu and the Mohamedan laws which are enforced by the courts, are based upon religious principles of both the communities. Moreover the laws of Hindus and Muslims in the matters of inheritance, marriage and succession are also based on religion.

3. Judicial Decisions:
Many laws are framed by the judges. Judges while interpreting and applying law in a particular case may modify the provisions of law considerably by their interpretations. Such judicial decisions of eminent judges become precedents and the other courts generally follow them as rigidly as the laws passed by the legislature.

A judge has to interpret laws and apply them to particular cases. Sometimes a law is not clear. The judge gives his own interpretation and in the light of that interpretation decides the case. In this way judges expand or modify laws. The rulings of the Supreme Court, High Courts, etc., are often quoted by lawyers with effect and authority.

In this process they sometimes extend the meaning of a legal provision or modify it according to the growing requirements of the community. It can be further emphasized by the fact that the American constitution is not what the fathers of constitution made it but what the judges of the Supreme Court make it by their own interpretations.

4. Equity:
When there is no definite law according to the provisions of which a particular case may be decided, the judges follow the doctrine of equity or good conscience, and thus create new law. Equity means justice. Judges often decide a case guided by their sense of justice.

They may point out that a certain provision of an existing law is inequitable in character. In this way they help to amend that law according to the principles of equity. This is also a kind of judge-made law. Accordingly the courts in India are directed to apply the doctrine of justice, equity and good conscience in deciding such cases where the existing fixed laws cannot be applied.

5. Scientific Commentaries:
The jurists discuss the different laws and customs, find out their proper interpretation and suggest suitable modifications. In every country the legal writers attain a great importance due to their knowledge on the subject of law. The opinions of these commentators are not at all final conclusions but are only arguments for the elucidation of vague laws.

Moreover, the legal writers by collecting, analysing, comparing and logically arranging the legal principles of law, lay down certain definite guiding conclusions for the particular cases of future. It means that the legal writers interpret the existing law, find out the omissions, remove the vagueness and draw general laws to govern particular cases.

6. Legislature:
This is the most important and prolific source of law. In modem times the legislature of a country composed of the representatives of the people, makes and passes laws for the general welfare of the community. Legislature is at present the most important and direct source of law. Every state has a legislature whose business is to make laws according to the needs of the citizens.

In a despotic state, it is the will of the ruler which makes the law. In a democratic stagte, however the law embodies the wishes of the people through the decision of a majority of the popularly elected legislature. Law so made can be regarded as the true expression of public opinion.

7. Executive:
Nowadays the function of making laws is generally performed by the legislature but under certain circumstances this function is to be performed by the executive also. If the legislature stands adjourned or dissolved then the President in the Union and the Governor in the State, in India, can issue ordinances which have the force of law. These ordinances do not continue to exist permananetly but so long as they do they continue to be force of law.

8. Public Opinion:
Some thinkers are of the opinion that public opinion should also be considered as a source of law. In the modem age of democracy public opinion greatly influences the making of laws in the State. In the modem age the people are considered as the source of sovereign power of the State and laws which are framed keeping in view public opinion are readily and easily obeyed by the people.

In Switzlerland where direct democracy exists in one form or the other, this source of law has a greater role to play. There we find the greater influence exerted by public greater role to play. There we find the greater influence exerted by public opinion in case of the system of Landsgeminde, Referendum and Initiative.

Conclusion: Thus there is not only one source of law but there are many sources of laws. Each source of law has its importance keeping in with the times.

Question 2.
Define the term ‘Law’. Discuss the various kinds of law.
Answer:
Definition of Law:
Different writers have defined law differently. The scientists define ‘law’ as the relation of cause and effect. The meaning of law is altogether different in the science of morality. So when we talk of Law of Morality, it means that body of rules which governs the moral conduct of man, being based on the general conscience of the people.

The word ‘Law’ has been derived from the Teutonic word lag which means definite. Therefore, the word law’ is used for a fixed rule. Rules are definite and certain only when they are enforced-by the State. For the maintenance of peace and order in society it is essential that only those rules and regulations should be applied which are recognized by law. Disputes can be decided only by the application of definite rules and regulations.

The following are some of the most important definitions of law given by different writers:
1. According to Aristotle, “True law is right reason, comfortable to nature, universal and external.”

2. The famous British Jurist John Austin says, “Law is a command given by a superior to an inferior.” Austin has further said, “Law is the command of a Sovereign.” Sovereign is superior to all in the State, therefore he issues orders to all other people in the State.

3. According to Willoughby, “Laws are those rules of conduct that control courts of justice in the exercise of their jurisdiction. As distinguished from all other rules of conduct that obtain more or less general recognition in a community of men; they are such as have for their ultimate enforcement the entire power of the State.”

4. According to Woodrow Wilson, “Law is that portion of the established thought and habit, which has gained distinct and normal recognition in the shape of uniform rules backed by the authority and power of Government.”

5. According to T.E. Holland, “Law is a general rule of action, taking cognizance only of external acts, enforced by a determinate authority, which authority is human and among human authorities is that which is paramount in a political society, or, briefly a law is a general rule of external action enforced by a sovereign political authority.”

Of all the definitions of law given above, the definition given by Prof. Holland is the best. In simple words we can say that the rules and regulations framed by the State concerning the external actions of man are called laws.
The law has the following characteristics:

1. A law is concerned with the external actions of the people.
2. A law is enforced by the supreme authority of the State.
3. A law is definite and is applicable to all.
4. The violation of law is a crime and the culprits are punished.
5. Laws are Universal and no discrimination is made by law. Everybody is equal before law.
6. Aim of law is welfare of the whole society.

Sources of Law:
Laws are those rules and regulations which are concerned with the external actions of the people and are habitually obeyed by them. Now the question arises which the sources of law are. John Austin is of the option that a law is a command of the Sovereign. From this thing we can understand that the Sovereign is the source of law but the fact is that there are laws which are not framed by the Sovereign but are only recognized by him.

In the formal sense the State is the main source of all laws. But the modern law has passed through many stages of development and various factors have contributed to its growth. All such factors may be defined as the sources from which law is derived. The following are the sources of law:

1. Customs:
Custom is the earlier source of law. When the State had not come into existence in its present form, the people were guided in their social relations by custom. Even now the courts recognize the force of custom prevailing in a particular comipunity. Custom was the king in the past. A custom is a body of rules universally accepted and followed by the members of the society due to their social utility. In the ancient society when there was no definite law, all the disputes were settled according to the customs and traditions prevailing in the society.

Customs were based on the general usages and practices of the family, class or tribe. But it must be remembered that these rules of conduct based upon customs are not themselves laws but they become laws when recognized by the definite political authority of the State due to their social benefit.

The common law in England is a collection of the customs and traditions of that country. There is great utility of giving recognition to and making laws of customs and traditions. First, the people readily obey such laws and secondly, the state is not to ponder more on the subject of making laws.

2. Religion:
Great seers and prophets in their sayings and writings have prescribed certain rules of conduct for their followers. In most of the states in medieval times, these religious injunctions of prophets formed an important part of law. In the ancient society all rules of conduct had a religious sanction behind them.

It is a historical fact that under the administration of Priest Kings, there was a close relation between law and religion. Moreover, the sacred books (like Quran of Muslims and Vedas of Hindus) have laid down their particular rules for the guidance of their communities. The people follow the laws of religion because of their belief in Divine origin of laws and because of the Godly punishment in the next world.

It can further be proved by the fact that in India still the Hindu and the Mohamedan laws which are enforced by the courts, are based upon religious principles of both the communities. Moreover the laws of Hindus and Muslims in the matters of inheritance, marriage and succession are also based on religion.

3. Judicial Decisions:
Many laws are framed by the judges. Judges while interpreting and applying law in a particular case may modify the provisions of law considerably by their interpretations. Such judicial decisions of eminent judges become precedents and the other courts generally follow them as rigidly as the laws passed by the legislature.

A judge has to interpret laws and apply them to particular cases. Sometimes a law is not clear. The judge gives his own interpretation and in the light of that interpretation decides the case. In this way judges expand or modify laws. The rulings of the Supreme Court, High Courts, etc., are often quoted by lawyers with effect and authority.

In this process they sometimes extend the meaning of a legal provision or modify it according to the growing requirements of the community. It can be further emphasized by the fact that the American constitution is not what the fathers of constitution made it but what the judges of the Supreme Court make it by their own interpretations.

4. Equity:
When there is no definite law according to the provisions of which a particular case may be decided, the judges follow the doctrine of equity or good conscience, and thus create new law. Equity means justice. Judges often decide a case guided by their sense of justice. They may point out that a certain provision of an existing law is inequitable in character.

In this way they help to amend that law according to the principles of equity. This is also a kind of judge-made law. Accordingly the courts in India are directed to apply the doctrine of justice, equity and good conscience in deciding such cases where the existing fixed laws cannot be applied.

5. Scientific Commentaries:
The jurists discuss the different laws and customs, find out their proper interpretation and suggest suitable modifications. In every country the legal writers attain a great importance due to their knowledge on the subject of law. The opinions of these commentators are not at all final conclusions but are only arguments for the elucidation of vague laws.

Moreover, the legal writers by collecting, analysing, comparing and logically arranging the legal principles of law, lay down certain definite guiding conclusions for the particular cases of future. It means that the legal writers interpret the existing law, find out the omissions, remove the vagueness and draw general laws to govern particular cases.

6. Legislature:
This is the most important and prolific source of law. In modem times the legislature of a country composed of the representatives of the people, makes and passes laws for the general welfare of the community. Legislature is at present the most important and direct source of law. Every state has a legislature whose business is to make laws according to the needs of the citizens. In a despotic state, it is the will of the ruler which makes the law.

In a democratic stagte, however the law embodies the wishes of the people through the decision of a majority of the popularly elected legislature. Law so made can be regarded as the true expression of public opinion.

7. Executive:
Nowadays the function of making laws is generally performed by the legislature but under certain circumstances this function is to be performed by the executive also. If the legislature stands adjourned or dissolved then the President in the Union and the Governor in the State, in India, can issue ordinances which have the force of law. These ordinances do not continue to exist permananetly but so long as they do they continue to be force of law.

8. Public Opinion:
Some thinkers are of the opinion that public opinion should also be considered as a source of law. In the modem age of democracy public opinion greatly influences the making of laws in the State. In the modem age the people are considered as the source of sovereign power of the State and laws which are framed keeping in view public opinion are readily and easily obeyed by the people.

In Switzlerland where direct democracy exists in one form or the other, this source of law has a greater role to play. There we find the greater influence exerted by public greater role to play. There we find the greater influence exerted by public opinion in case of the system of Landsgeminde, Referendum and Initiative.

Conclusion: Thus there is not only one source of law but there are many sources of laws. Each source of law has its importance keeping in with the times.

Kinds of Laws:
Laws are the outcome of the sovereign power of the State. The will of the State is formulated and expressed through the laws of the State. Many writers have given a classification of law. Prof. Gettell has classified law on the basis of the ruler and the ruled. According to Gettell, laws are of three types Private law, Public law and International law. Prof. Holland does not admit the existence of international law.

According to Holland, laws are of two types-Private Law and Public Law:
He further sub-divided the private law into

• Law of Property and Law of Contract,
• Law of Corporation,
• Law of Personal Relation, and
• Civil Procedure.

Holland sub-divided the public law into:

• Constitutional law,
• Administrative law, and
• Criminal law.

Prof. Maclver has classified law on the basis of its sphere. He first of all classifies law into two types International law and Municipal Law or National Law. Then he divides National Law into Constitutional Law and Ordinary Law. Ordinary law is also of two types Private Law and Public Law. Public law is also of two types General Law and Administrative Law. The following chart makes the classification quite clear.

Laws are also classified on the basis of the source of law, for example, Statutory Law, Common Law, Judge-made Law and Ordinances.
1. International Law: The rules which regulate the relations of civilised states with one another constitute international law.

2. National Law:
National law consists of all laws that govern relations within a State. It is the law enacted by the State and governs rights and duties of citizens towards one another and towards the State.

3. Constitutional Law:
It is the type of law which is embodied in the constitution of a country and as such is supreme law of the land. It gives us the basic structure of the government and leaves details to be worked out by various organs of government and leaves details to be worked out by various organs of government, it is through constitutional law that various organs of government are regulated and relations between State and citizens are established.

4. Ordinary Law:
It is that part of the National Law by which the mutual relations of the individuals are determined. This law is enacted by the legislature in an ordinary way.

5. Private Law: Private law is that law which explains the relationship between the individuals themselves.

6. Public Law: It is that law which is applicable to the individuals and it determines the relations between, the State and the individuals.

7. General Law: It is a law which is equally applicable to the citizens as well as the government officials. It determines and regulates
activities of all individuals.

8. Administrative Law:
According to Dicey, Administrative law means rules which determine:

• the position and liabilities of all State officials,
• the civil rights and liabilities of private individuals in their dealing with officials or representatives of the States.
• the procedure by which these rights and liabilities are enforced. These laws prevail in France and they are quite different from the common law of England.

9. Statutory Law: A law passed by the legislature of a State is known as statutory law.

10. Common Law:
Common law is not framed by the legislature and, therefore, it is not written. The rules which are enforced by the Courts in England and U.S.A. but are based upon customs and not on legislative enactments, are collectively called common laws.

11. Judge-made Law: While interpreting the laws, the judges also expand and develop the laws and this way they make laws.

12. Ordinances:
These are temporary laws issued by the executive for dealing with some extraordinary and emergent situation. It is in fact command of the head of the State issued at intervals when legislature is not in session and the nation is in immediate need of a particular law.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand by Law?
Answer:
The word ‘Law’ has been derived from the Teutonic word “lag’ which means definite. Therefore, the word law is used for a fixed rule. Rules are definite and certian only when they are enforced by the State. For the maintenance of peace and order in society it is -essential that only those rules and regulations should be applied which are recognized by law. Disputes can be decided only by the application of definite rules and regulations.

• According to Holland, “A law is a general rule of external human action enforced by a sovereign political authority.”
• According to Green, “Law is that condition of rights and duties which is introduced by the state.” ‘
• The famous British Jurist John Austin says,” Law is a command given by a superior to an inferior.” Austin further said, “ Law is the command of a soverign.”
• According to Aristotle. “True law is right reason, comfortable to nature, universal and external.”

Question 2.
Mention four sources of Law.
Answer:

1. Customs: Custom is the earliest source of law. Even in modem time custom is a important source of law.
2. Religion: In the ancient society religon was the most important source of law. The laws of Hindus and Muslims in the matter of inheritance, marriage and succession are based on religion.
3. Judicial decisions: In modern times many laws are enacted by the judges.
4. Legislature: In modern times ligislature is the most important source of law. Every democratic state has a legislature whose main function is law-making.

Question 3.
Distinguish between Municipal Law and International Law.
Answer:
Municipal Law consists of all laws that govern relations within a state. It is the law enacted by the state and governs rights and duties of citizens towards one another and towards the state. Municipal law is applied by the court of the state.

On the other hand, International law is that body of common rules and principles which determines and regulates the rights and mutual obligations of states and their conduct in their dealings with one another. International law applies to the international organisations such as the United Nations, I.L.O., U.N.E.S.C.O. etc. International law is applied by the International Court of Justice.

Question 4.
What do you understand by Constitutional law?
Answer:
It is the type of law which is embodied in the constitution of a country and as such is supreme law of the land. It gives us the basic structure of the government and leaves details to be worked out by various organs of the government. It is through constitutional law that various organs of government are regulated and relations between State and citizens are established. Constitutional law can be amended by the parliament by following certain procedure.

Question 5.
Describe the four elements of Law.
Answer:

• In the first place, a law is concerned with the external action of the people.
• In the second place law prescribes a set of rights and obligations as between one individual and another and between the individual and the state.
• In the third place, law is a general principle or rule of action. A law is definite and is applicable to all.
• Fourthly, a law is recognised and enforced by the State. The violation of law is a crime and the culprits are punished.

Question 6.
Mention four points of importance of Law.
Answer:

• The will of the state is expressed through law.
• Law maintains peace in the state. Without law there will be complete anarchy in the state.
• Law establishes equality. Everbody is equal before law.
• Law protects the life and property of the citizens.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand hy Law?
Answer:
The word ‘Law’ has been derived from the Teutonic word ‘lag’ which means definite. Therefore, the word law is used for a fixed rule. Rules are definite and certian only when they are enforced by the State. .

Question 2.
Define the term laws.
Answer:

1. According to Holland, “A law is a general rule of external human action enforced by a sovereign political authority.”
2. According to Green, “Law is that condition of rights and duties which is introduced by the state.”

Question 3.
Mention two sources of Law.
Answer:

• Customs: Custom is the earliest source of law. Even in modem time custom is a important source of law.
• Religion: In the ancient society religon was the most important source of law. The laws of Hindus and Muslims in the matter of inheritance, marriage and succession are based on religion.

Question 4.
Describe the two elements of Law.
Answer:

• In the first place, a law is concerned with the external action of the people.
• In the second place law prescribes a set of rights and obligations as between one individual and another and between the individual and the state.

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
From which language has the word ‘Law’ been derived?
Answer:
The English word ‘Law’ has been derived from the Teutonic language word ‘Lag’.

Question 2.
What is the meaning of Law?
Answer:
Law means the fixed rules. Those rules are given the name of Law which are fixed and enforced by the state. If anyone violates these laws, he is punished.

Question 3.
Write any one definition of Law.
Answer:
According to Austin, “Law is a command given by a superior to an inferior.”

Question 4.
Explain Statute Law.
Answer:
Statute Law is that law which is framed by Legislature of the state. This law is made to regulate the mutual behaviour and conduct of the citizens.

Question 5.
Give the most accepted definition of law.
Answer:
According to Holland,“A law is a general rule of external human action enforced by a sovereign political authority.”

Question 6.
What are the main kinds of law?
Answer:
Law is mainly of four kinds

1. International Law
2. National Law
3. Public Law
4. Private Law.

Question 7.
What is the main objective of Law?
Answer:
The main objective of law is to maintain peace in the state.

Question 8.
Describe any one source of law.
Answer:
One of the important sources of law is custom. Most of the laws of the state are based on customs. In India, the Hindu Law and Muslim Law are based on customs of the people.

Question 9.
What is an Administrative Law?
Answer:
An Administrative Law is a part of public law. It regulates relation between state and governmental employees.

Question 10.
What do you mean by an Ordinance?
Answer:
An Ordinance is that law which is enforced by executive, when legislature is not in session, to control a particular situation.

Question 11.
Distinguish between Public and Private Law.
Answer:
A Public Law applies to all those people who live in a country whereas a Private Law is concerned with a particular institution, class or area.

Fill the blanks

1. Rule and regulations framed by the are …………. called law.
Answer:
State

2. Legislature, is a main source of …………. .
Answer:
Law

3. The will of the state is …………. through law.
Answer:
Expressed

4. The word ‘Law has been derived from the …………. word “Lag’ which means definite.
Answer:
Teutonic

5. Rules are definite and certain only when they are enforced by the …………. .
Answer:
State.

True or False statement

1. Law is a not a general rule of action.
Answer:
False

2. A law is’definite and is applicable to all.
Answer:
True

3. The violation of law is not a crime.
Answer:
False

4. Custom is the earliest source of law.
Answer:
True

5. Executive has no role in framing the law.
Answer:
False

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Laws are made by:
(A) The people
(B) The legislature
(C) The minister
(D) The officers.
Answer:
(B) The legislature

Question 2.
Who said this, “Law is a command given by a superior to an inferior”?
(A) Willoughby
(B) Wilson
(C) Austin
(D) Holland.
Answer:
(C) Austin

Question 3.
Which one of the following is not a source of law?
(A) Political Parties
(B) Customs
(C) Religion
(D) Legislature.
Answer:
(A) Political Parties

Question 4.
The book “The Spirit of Laws” is written by:
(A) Adam Smith
(B) Mountesquieu
(C) Hobbes
(D) Bentham.
Answer:
(B) Mountesquieu

Question 5.
“Where there is no law, there is no liberity,” who said it?
(A) Hobbes
(B) Locke
(C) Rousseau
(D) J.S. Mill
Answer:
(B) Locke

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 11 Social Change Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 11 Social Change

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The nature of social change is ……………..
(a) personal
(b) collective
(c) social
(d) culture
Answer:
(c) social

2. Change in the culture of a particular society is known as
(a) social change
(b) collective change
(c) cultural change
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) cultural change

3. If change comes into the lives of most of the people in society, it is known as ………………
(a) social change
(b) collective change
(c) cultural change
(d) none of these
Answer:
(a) social change

4. The change which comes suddenly to change social system is known as …………..
(a) progress
(b) development
(c) revolution
(d) evolution
Answer:
(c) revolution

5. The change which comes according to our wish and creates fruitful situation is known as …………….
(a) evolution
(b) progress
(c) revolution
(d) development
Answer:
(b) progress

6. When change comes in a definite direction and traits and structure of anything changes, it is known as …………..
(a) evolution
(b) revolution
(c) development
(d) progress
Answer:
(a) evolution

7. Who gave the concept of cultural lag?
(a) Maclver
(b) Ginsberg
(c) Ogburn
(d) Weber
Answer:
(c) Ogburn

8. Give one feature of Revolution.
(a) Sudden result
(b) Symbol of power
(c) Quick change
(d) All of these
Answer:
(a) Sudden result

Fill in the Blanks:

1. ……………. is law of nature.
Answer:
Change

2. The meaning of ………………. is sequal change from internal point of view.
Answer:
Evolution

3. ………………. brings sudden and fast change in society.
Answer:
Revolution

4. ……………., ………………… and …………………. are the basic sources of social change.
Answer:
Innovation, discovery, diffusion

5. ……………… is the process in which cultural traits spread from one culture to another.
Answer:
Diffusion

6. When we move towards achieving our desired objectives, it is known as …………….
Answer:
Progress

True/False:

1. Revolution brings sudden change in society.
Answer:
True

2. Cultural traits do not spread with diffusion.
Answer:
False

3. No social change comes with innovation.
Answer:
False

4. Increase or decrease in population brings social change.
Answer:
True

5. Revolution is not a type of social change.
Answer:
False

6. Whole of social structure changes with revolution.
Answer:
True

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
What is social change?
Answer:
The change which comes in social relations is called social change.

Question 2.
Give one reason of social change.
Answer:
Geographical factors such as earthquake, flood can cause social change.

Question 3.
Can we predict about social change?
Answer:
No, we cannot predict about social change.

Question 4.
In how many parts, can we divide the factors of social change?
Answer:
The factors of social change can be divided into two parts—natural and human factors.

Question 5.
What is the nature of Social Change?
Answer:
The nature of social change is social. It means change comes in the most part of society.

Question 6.
What is cultural change?
Answer:
Change in culture of a particular society is called cultural change.

Question 7.
What is evolution?
Answer:
When change comes in a definite direction and even it comes in the traits and structure of an element, it is called evolution.

Question 8.
hat is progress?
Answer:
The changes which come according to our aspirations and always create a fruitful situation, it is called progress.

Question 9.
What is revolution?
Answer:
When a sudden change comes to change present social system, it is called revolution.

Question 10.
What reason of social change is given by Karl Marx?
Answer:
According to Karl Marx, economic reason is the only reason of social change.

Question 11.
Give one feature of revolution.
Answer:
A sudden and quick change comes due to revolution.

Question 12.
What are the factors of social change?
Answer:
Geographical factor, demographic factor, biological factor, technological factor etc.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Give one definition of social change.
Answer:
According to Jones, “Social change is a term used to describe variations or modifications of any aspect of social process, social pattern, social interactions or social organization.

Question 2.
Give two features of social change.
Answer:

• Social change is a universal process because no society is completely static and change is the law of nature.
• No definite prediction can be done about social change because social relations are not definite.

Question 3.
Social change is comparable. How?
Answer:
When we talk about change, we generally compare the present situation with the earlier situation to see what change has taken place. This difference is only visible after comparing the two situations. So we can say that social change is comparable.

Question 4.
What are the factors of social change?
Answer:

• Social change comes due to geographical factors.
• Biological factors also bring social change.
• Demographic factors are one of the reasons for social change.
• Cultural and technological factors also bring change in society.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Meaning of Social Change.
Answer:
Change is the law of nature. With this, we can come to know about differences. Social change is not related with all the changes which come in our society but the meaning of social change is that change that comes in our social system, social institutions, processes, relations, behavior, social structure etc. In this way, social change is related to social life of social individuals.

Question 2.
Characteristics of Social Change.
Answer:

• Social change is universal. It is the need of every society. That’s why this is a continuous process. We cannot find any society in history where change has never come. Change was there in ancient society and is also in modern society.
• Rate of social change is not uniform. Yet social change is universal but its rate is different in different societies.
• We cannot predict definitely about social change because social relations, which exist in society, are not definite.
• Social change is the result of influence of many factors. It cannot come because of one factor because our society is complex in nature.
• Social change is law of nature because we cannot control the natural forces and they bring changes with them.

Question 3.
Social change is unpredictable.
Answer:
It is impossible to predict exactly about social change. Whenever we are giving definite views about solution of any problem then we cannot definitely keep the system of social relations. For example, we can say that caste system or unemployment in India will come to an end. But because of non-static nature of social relations, it is not necessary that our prediction would be right. So we can say that exact prediction is not possible in social change.

Question 4.
Main factors of social change.
Answer:

• Technological factor
• Cultural factor
• Biological factor
• Demographic factor
• Psychological factor
• Educational factor
• Economic factor

Question 5.
Social Evolution.
Answer:
Social Change is one of the types of social change. Word Evolution is an English word that has come out of the Latin word ‘Evoluere’ whose meaning is to expand externally. With the evolutionary change, not only everything increases but knowledge of structural change also comes. In this way evolutionary change is that change in which continuous change comes in a definite direction. It is a process that moves from simplicity to complexity.

Question 6.
Three characteristics of Evolution.
Answer:

• Social evolution is a continuous process in which change comes about continuously.
• With continuity, definite direction is also there in social evolution because it not only comes in size but also comes in structure.
• Social evolution doesn’t have any external pressure because internal features of everything comes out in it.
• Evolutionary change always goes from simplicity to complexity and it comes in definite direction.

Question 7.
Revolution.
Answer:
Revolution is also a type of social change. Through revolution change in society comes in a way that it not only affects the present time but it affects the future also. Actually sometimes situation arises in society that society goes on the way of disorganization. To remove this type of situation, revolutionary change comes in society. This revolutionary change comes at once and very quickly. It is also affected by external forces. At once change comes in revolution with which social structure changes at once.

Question 8.
Three characteristics of Revolution.
Answer:

• In revolution, at once change comes in social system because of which very quick results come out.
• Very quick change comes in both parts of culture, material or non-material, with revolution with which society changes completely.
• Revolution is a conscious process, not an unconscious process in which conscious efforts are being done for a long time and authority of the state changes with this.
• In revolution, old system is generally thrown out of power with peaceful or violent method and a new system is established after this.

Question 9.
Development.
Answer:
Social development is a process in which many things are moving forward towards their larger and bigger size. It means that development is that type of change in which specialization and differentiation are increased and that thing, which is being evaluated by us, always moves towards progress.

Question 10.
Characteristics of Development.
Answer:

• Development is a universal process.
• One thing in development changes from one position to another position.
• Development is a process moving from simplicity to complexity.
• Development comes in all the aspects of life.
• Continuous efforts are always there for development.

Question 11.
Three measurements of Social Development.
Answer:

• When equality in front of the law increases then this is a symbol of development.
• When all the adults of the country will get the right to vote and country becomes democratic then it is the symbol of political development.
• When every male and female of the society will get equal rights then it is the symbol of social development.
• When there will be equal distribution of wealth and money in the society then it is the symbol of economic progress.

Question 12.
Any two changes due to the result of technological factor.
Answer:

• Urbanization. With the development of industries, people living at far-off places started to accumulate at industrial places for employment. Later on, they started to live at those places. Many cities like Tata Nagar, came into being because of this.
• New Methods of Agriculture. New methods of agriculture came into being because of new discoveries and inventions. It has resulted in more production and improvement in the lifestyle of the people.

Question 13.
Technology and Urbanization.
Answer:
Big industries came into being because of technique with which in dustrialization was started in India. Because of industrialization big cities were developed around these industries. In the beginning, people from villages came to these centres and with that small shops and markets were opened to take care of the needs of those people. Then hotels for people, school, business companies were opened, offices came into being. With this, slowly and slowly cities were developed and urbanization was increased. So, in this way technology has played an important role in increasing urbanization.

Question 14.
Effects of technology on the change in condition of women.
Answer:
Technology has also contributed a lot in improving the condition of females. With the increase in technology, education started to spread and females started to get education. After getting education they started to move fory$r4.m economic sector. Now they are going to offices, factories and are earning a lot of money. With the advent of machines, burden of household work over females has reduced. They are doing almost every work with machines. All this has happened because of technology.

Question 15.
Effects of technology on marriage.
Answer:
Marriage was a religious sacrament in ancient times. Because of advent of technology in modem societies, marriage is not a religious sacrament but has taken the form of social contract. Now, base of the marriage is contract and in case of problem this contract can be broken. Now area of selection of marriage has been increased. Person can marry in any caste with his wish. Partners can be separated with divorce. Now females are standing equally with males in economic sector. That is why now marriage is a contract which can be broken at any time.

Question 16.
Demographic factor.
Answer:
Demographic factor puts a lot of effect on social organization, traditions, institutions, customs etc. Increase and decrease of population, change in ratio of male and female affect the social relations. Change in demography becomes an obstacle in economic progress of society and produces many social problems.

Question 17.
Two effects of Demographic factor.
Answer:

• Effects on Economic Life. Demographic factor’has a lot of effect on means of production, ownership of property, economic progress etc. With the increase in population production of agriculture should be increased.
• Effects on Social Life. More population and unemployment create the condition of starvation with which corruption and conflicts are increased in society.

Question 18.
Meaning of Educational factor.
Answer:
The socialization of man can happen due to education and it affects the ideals, views, values etc. Progress of a person depends upon education. It makes the person literate and removes the superstitions of the person. Educational factor is important in bringing change in every aspect of life.

Question 19.
Two effects of Educational factor.
Answer:

• Change in caste system: Illiteracy makes a person useless and humans are bounded in superstitions, traditions etc. Caste system has weakened due to modern education. This education is secular. It gives stress upon values like liberty, equality and fraternity.
• Change in status of women: Condition of women has improved due to educational factor. She has come out of four walls of the house and now is aware about her rights and duties. They are also motivated towards economic self-dependence.

Question 20.
Literal meaning of Education.
Answer:
Education is an English word which has come out of Latin word ‘Educere’ whose meaning is to bring up. Meaning of education is not only related with giving bookish knowledge but to make a future person by making good habits in him. According to Anderson, “Education is the social process by which an individual learns the things necessary to fit him to the life of his society.”

Question 21.
Effects of Education on Family.
Answer:
Educational factor has a great effect on family. With education people start to develop and awareness comes in them. They start to live according to new values. Now they start to do different functions according to their wish and ability with which fiuclear families come into being instead of joint family. Now people have started to move out of the village for jobs in cities. Now people have become individualistic and materialistic. Children have started to get formal education because of which they have started to go to schools, colleges, universities. Now smaller family is known as good for society. Education plays an important role in socialization of child because he spends most of his time in educational institutions.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you know about Social Evolution? Write in detail.
Or
Define Evolution.
Or
What is Evolution?
Answer:
Social Evolution is one of the kinds of social change. Evolution is an English word which has come out of Latin word ‘Evolvere’. Evolutionary change is not only development but structural knowledge also increases with this change. In this way evolution is a change which happens in continuous and definite direction. Maclver and Page are of the view, “When there is not only the continuity of change but direction of change, we mean Evolution.”

At another place Maclver has written, “As the purpose of men grew, the social structure within which they are realized, changes in accord with these and that is the meaning of Evolution.” According to Herbert Spencer, “Evolution is the integration of matter and concomitant dissipation of motion during which matter passes from an indefinite incoherent homogeneity to a definite coherent heterogeneity.”

So from these definitions it is clear that social evolution is not the change due to external pressure but is the change due to internal forces. According to Auguste Comte, social evolution passes through three stages and these are:

1. Theological stage, 2. Metaphysical stage, 3. Scientific stage. Morgan was of the view, “Development of civilization and society has happened in same sequence. To understand social evolution we should know about the different stages of development of social institutions, organizations etc.”

Spencer gave four rules of evolution:

1. Social evolution is the physical and cultural form of the rule of developments of universe.
2. Social evolution comes in same way as the other developments of the world.
3. Process of social evolution is very slow.

4. Social evolution means development from earlier situation. Maclver was of the view, “Wherever in the history of society, we can see increasing specialization in different parts of society, we call it social evolution.” In short, we can say that the change which comes due to internal hidden forces is called evolution. In this development is there from earlier situation. On the basis of given explanation of evolution, we can give certain features of evolution and these are given below:

Characteristics or Features:

1. Evolution is related with the change in living beings or with humAnswer: Spencer gave it the name of biological evolution. This development comes in same way in all the societies. For example, Amoeba is an organism whose all the bodily functions are being done only by cell. Human body is the more developed form of organism whose different functions are being done by different parts. The way in which biological development of organism increases, in that same way its nature also becomes complex.

2. Social evolution is a continuous process which always goes on continuously.

3. With continuity, definite direction is also there in the evolutionary change because it not only comes in size but it also comes in structure. This development signals towards definite direction.

4. There is not any type of external pressure on social evolution but its internal traits come out, Many elements exist in changing things. That’s why change in it comes due to these elements.

5. Change in internally existed elements comes with a very slow speed. It is so because we cannot come to know easily about the internally hidden elements. Every changing element has some internal traits.

6. Evolutionary change is from simplicity’to complexity. In earlier times human society was very simple. With the pessage of time, division of labour and specialization were developed in society with which human society became complex in nature. In this way we can say that social evolution is the change from unclarity towards clarity. The way in which after some time of birth, the body parts of child become clear and bigger, in that same way in evolution society becomes complex and clear. This type of change has definite direction and it is so because of internal elements of any thing.

Revolution:

Question 2.
What is Revolution? Write in detail.
Or
What is Revolution? Explain its definitions, characteristics and stages.
Or
Define Revolution. What are its characteristics?
Answer:
Revolution is also a type of social change. With this the society changes in a way that not only present time is affected by this but future is also affected by this. Actually sometimes in society, some conditions occur because of which society starts to move on the way of disorganization. So to remove this type of situation, revolutionary changes come in society. These revolutionary changes come at once and at a great pace and it is affected not only by internal factors but by external factors as well. Change, with revolution, comes at once with which social structure changes very quickly. According to famous sociologist Karl Marx, “Society goes through the results of the process of revolutionary change in different stages. That’s why one social structure takes place of other social structure.”

Society changes collectively with revolution. Society comes out of one condition and enters in other condition with this change. Speed of this type of change is very quick. We can never imagine about what will happen in near future. Our social organization also changes with this. Elements of both advantages and disadvantages are included in revolutionary change. Sometimes, society gets advantage from this change and it starts to do progress, but some times society changes towards the course of disorganization. New social structure takes place in society and nothing can be found of old social structure. This change generally comes due to the wish of the people. According to Maclver, at once and quick change comes in its complete form in society.

Definitions:

1. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Revolution is a rapid change of some magnitude in culture?
2. According to Guy Rochar, “Revolution means a fierce and violent popular uprising whose aim is to overthrow an authority or a regime to modify a situation.”
3. According to Kimball Young, “Revolution is an abrupt shift to new forms of power or authority within a nation state.”
4. According to Crane Brintindtion, “In sociological terms revolution is transvaluation of attitudes and the values towards the existing social structure.”
So on the basis of given definitions we can say that revolution is a change which comes with great speed, very quickly in social structure. Present authority, in revolution, is generally thrown out of power and revolutionaries establish new authority in the state. Revolution can be full of blood-shed. So the use of violence is necessary in it. Whichever power will be obtained with power, that also comes to an end with power.

1. Contingency Results. Revolution is that means in which violence is used. It can take any form like religious, economic or political. Result of this revolution is that social system and structure changes at once. That’s why social revolution is a very important means of change in the social values.

2. Rapid Change. Revolution has one feature and that is that change comes in both aspects of culture, material and non-material, with this. Whatever change comes due to revolution, it comes with the great speed. That’s why society changes in its complete form.

3. Means of Invention. Revolution is a means with which society breaks completely. New classes come into being due to breaking up of system. New rules are
formed to maintain the existence of new classes. In this way many new classes and rules come into existence due to revolution.

4. Symbol of Power. Use of Power is necessary in revolution. Political revolution only depends upon blood-shed and killing of humAnswer: For example, the French Revolution of 1789 and the Russian Revolution of 1917. Violence is used as a method to overthrow the existing authority of the state. Power or Force has a very big hand in the success or failure of revolution. If the power of revolutionaries is more then they will over-throw the authority of the state unless their revolution is suppressed by the state.

5. Revolution is a Conscious Process. Revolution is not an unconscious process but is a conscious process. Conscious efforts are being done in it and the authority of the state is overthrown by revolutionaries. Efforts of revolution start from a long time and at the end they do revolution with full strength. Revolutionaries are aware of the fact that what would be results of their revolution.

6. Revolution is because of Social Dissatisfaction. Revolution is the result of social dissatisfaction. Whenever dissatisfaction starts in society then it moves on slowly and slowly. It takes its speed with the passage of time and when this dissatisfaction goes out of control then it takes the form of revolution. A major portion of society stands against the present authority and this dissatisfaction throws present authority out of power by taking the form of revolution.

7. Establishment of New System. In revolution old system is thrown out of power with violent or non-violent means and new system comes in power. We can see many examples ofthis in the French revolution of 1789, the government of national assembly was made by throwing authority of Louis 16th out of power. In the Russian Revolution of 1917, authority of Czar was thown out of power and the authority of Bolshvic party was established. In this way old system comes to an end and new system takes its place.

Question 3.
Explain the causes of Revolution.
What are the reasons behind Revolution?
Answer:
1. Social Causes. Many social reasons are responsible for revolution. Sociologists are of the view that if the prevailing customs, rituals etc. of society are not good then they can become the reason of revolution. There are some customs and traditions in every society which are totally against the unity and integrity of the society. For example in 19th century in India, Sati Pratha, Child Marriage, No Widow remarriage and in 20th century dowry system, untouchability etc. Sometimes the aim of revolution is to eliminate these customs. In this way some customs of the society produce disorganization in it. Morality of the person comes to an end due to prostitution, gambling, drinking etc. They hardy care about the prevailing values, traditions, customs etc. of the society. In this way the disorganization spreads in the society. When this disorganization crosses its limits then revolution comes in society. In this way there are many social reasons because of which revolution takes place in society.

2. Psychological Causes. Some times psychological causes become the main reasons of revolution. Some times people are unable to fulfil their basic wishes or needs. They try to eliminate these wishes in their mind. But wish has one feature that it cannot be eliminated or it never comes to an end. It remains there in any corner of ’the mind of the person. If any one tries to motivate him then that wish comes out very quickly. In this way these suppressed wishes produce the revolution in society.

Some sociologists are of the view that instincts accumulate within humAnswer: It means all the wishes of humans are unable to fulfil. They accumulate within the minds of humAnswer: With the passage of time they become instincts. In the end these instincts collectively become the reason of revolution. Except this some problems unconsciously come among humans and these problems shows their effect with the passage of time. Every person has some instinct of violence which unconsciously occurs within the minds of humAnswer: When time comes then this violence comes out of person with an explosion. When revolution takes place then people start to do violence. In this way reasons of revolution occur in the unconscious mind of person.

3. Political Causes. If we look at the history, then we will come to know that generally the political reasons were there behind revolutions and specifically these reasons were there against the existing authority of the state. Many times the authority of state becomes so authoritative that they start to work in their own way. They never take care of the wish of the people. They suppresses the wishes of common people. Dissatisfaction arises in common people due to suppression of their wishes. Slowly and slowly this dissatisfaction spreads in the whole society and this dissatisfaction becomes the reason of revolution. In this way sometimes it happens that corruption spreads among government servants. They use their status and post to earn more and more money and never take care of the problems of common people. Dissatisfaction spreads among people against those officers and they try to remove those corrupt officials from their posts. This effort takes place in the form of revolution.

Sometimes government in any country is based on any specific religion and the people of that religion are given special privileges. Because of this thing, dissatisfaction comes among the people of other religions and they start to think about removing this type of government. Their this type of thought takes the form of revolution. With this if government starts to interfere in the customs and traditions of common people then the people go for revolution against the government to save their customs and traditions. The Revolt of 1857 was also based on this type of reasons. Today’s age is of democracy. In democracy, one party is in the power and one is out of power. Whichever party is out of power, it tries to motivate the people to go against the other party and some times this motivation takes the form of revolution.

4. Economic Causes. Sometimes economic reasons are also responsible for revolution. According to Marxist ideology, history of society of humans is the history of class struggle. According to Karl Marx, there are always two types of classes in society. First is capitalist class and the other one is labour class. Capitalist class always exploits the labour class with the help of its money, wealth and political power. Labour class is unable to get a proper meal because of this exploitation. A very big gap or economic difference comes in labour and capitalist class. Capitalist class lives its life with all means of pleasure and labour class hardly gets the meal of two times. He wants to become free from the clutches of this type of life. That’s why slowly and slowly dissatisfaction spreads in the labour class because of which they go for revolution and throw away the capitalist class. In this way economic resources also force the people to go for revolution.

In this way we can see that revolution is a process which comes at once with which the structure and system of society changes at once. Revolution never comes due to one reason but it comes due to many reasons. Generally political causes are responsible for revolution but other reasons also contribute towards it.

Question 4.
What is Social development? Write in detail.
Answer:
Social change has many types like evolution, progress, revolution, development etc. So development is also one of the types of change. All these processes are so much intermixed that it is very difficult to differentiate them. In modern age, development word is used for economic development. Increase in income of person, more use of natural resources, increase in capital, increase in production, increase in industries are some of the concepts which are used for complete development. But we cannot call development only to increase in these concepts. In society traditions, religion, structure, culture are also there. They also develop. If social relations expand then social structure, habits, values ideas etc. also change and develop. Independence of person, income of“group, morality, co-operation also increase. In this way, economic development is accepted as social development and it is easy to see different bases on this base.

According to Botomore, “Refer to the distinction between two types of present day societies, on the one hand, industrial societies, and on the other hand, all the societies of very different types in other respects which are predominantly rural and agricultural and have relatively low level of income.” According to Oxford Dictionary, “In ordinary usage development means a gradual unfolding, a further working out of the details of anything, the grown of what is the germ.” So in sociology the concept development shows that state in which person controls more and more over natural atmosphere with the help of his increasing knowledge and technical knowhow. With this person moves forward in every sector of social life. In other words he becomes better and develops from his earlier life.

Characteristics of Development:

1. Development is a universal process which exists in every society. The process of development is going on in modern soceity. Todays modern society is the result of development of ancient society. Development took place in ancient societies and that is why today’s modern society came in front of us. Society from feudal times to industrial times has reached only because of development.
2. One thing changes from one position to another position in development. This change can be right or wrong. That’s why it has been said that the relation of human development is with the change from one condition to another.
3. Good and bad. both types of senses are there in development. It means that development never comes only in right direction. It can happen in a wrong direction also.
4. Development is the process of moving from simplicity to complexity. If development will take place in any thing then that thing definitely becomes complex from simple. That’s why development is a complex process.
5. In development, all those means should be kept in mind which can help in the process of development.
6. Development never comes only in the economic sector but it comes in all sectors of life like social, political, moral etc.
7. Process of development is that process in which the knowledge of social and gender change is necessary.
8. Efforts of development are always going on.

Measurement of Social Development:

Many sociologists have given many measurements of social development. Their mixed form is given below:

1. When the equality of people increases in front of law then it is the symbol of development.
2. When any movement will start to increase literacy and to decrease illiteracy then it is the measurement of cultural development.
3. When all the. adults of the country will get the right to vote and democracy will be established in a country then it is the indicator of political development.
4. If females are given equal rights and all the persons of the society are given equal rights then it is the indicator of social development.
5. When there will be equal distribution of money and capital in society then it is the indicator of economic development.
6. When every member of the group or community are given the right of expression and right to do any work then it is the indicator of social freedom.
7. When the sense of co-operation and service will increase among people then it is the indicator of social morality.Progress:

Question 5.
What do you know about Progress? Explain its features.
Answer:
Progress on one side is related with material development and on another side it is related with the new ideas of knowledge. Progress is an English word which has come out of Latin word ‘progredior’. It means that to move forward. The word Progress is taken in the relative meaning. When we say that the family is moving forward or progressing then the meaning of this thing can be known at that time when we will come to know that in which direction it is moving. If it is moving from poverty to richness then from this direction we can come to know that this family is progressing. Here one thing should be kept in mind that if we find any one’s downward trend then it is not progress. For example if any rich businessman becomes poor after losing his business then it cannot be called as progress. Its reason is that progress is always related with the achievement of any aim. Whenever we achieve our aims then we can say that we have achieved the progress. In this way the achievement of our aims is known as progress like progress in the educational sector, progress in economic sector etc.

Different sociologists have given different definitions of progress which are given below:

1. According to Groves and Moore, “Progress is movement towards a desired end in terms of accepted values.”
2. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Progress means change for the better and hence implies a value judgement.”
3. According to Park and Burgess, “Any change or adaptation to an existing environment that makes it easier for a person or a group of persons or other organized form of life to live may be said to represent progress.”
4. According to Fairchild, “Movement in the direction of a recognized and desired goal or objective is progress.”
   In this way on the basis of given definitions we can say that progress is the change in desired or approved and accepted direction. We can imagine about this change even before it comes.

Characteristics of Progress:

1. Progress is desired change. Progress is the desired change because whenever we want this change can be brought. Society always progresses with this change. Our desired aim can be any thing in progress and change which comes with progress is always useful. Actually no one wants to damage itself. That’s why this change is for social welfare.

2. Progress is always comparative. Meaning of progress is different in different societies. If any society has got advanatage from the progress then it is not necessary that other society will also get the same advantage from the progress. Actually every society has different desired aims because every society has different needs. Needs of people living in mountainous region are very much different from the needs of people living in plains. That’s why their aims are also different. In this way meaning of progress is used in comparative meaning. Different historical ages, places are defined in a different way.

3. Progress is changeable. Progress is always related with different countries and ages and it never remains same in all the ages. It is so because whatever we think today as a symbol of progress that can be taken as a symbol of downfall in any other country. It means that progress never remains the same. It changes according to the time, age, country, circumstances etc. It is quite possible that any thing which was known as the symbol of progress in ancient times, today it might not have any importance. In this way progress is always changeable and it changes all the times.

4. Progress is concerned with group. Progress is never personal. If some persons, in society, have achieved desired results then this process cannot be called as progress. Actually progress is a concept in which change comes in the life of most of the people. From sociological point of view when the whole group moves forward towards any desired direction then it can be called as progress.

5. More advantages are there in progress. We can see both advantages and disadvantages in progress but there are more advantages. If the quantity of disadvantages is more then it cannot be called as progress.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 10 Social Stratification Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 10 Social Stratification

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. What is meant by the stratification of castes?
(a) Division of society in different parts
(b) To unite .society
(c) To divide society
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Division of society in different parts

2. Disadvantage of caste system is …………….
(a) Division of society
(b) Obstacle in the way of social progress
(c) Obstacle in social reform
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

3. Marriage within caste or sub-caste is known as ……………….
(a) Anuloma
(b) Pratiloma
(c) Endogamy
(d) Exogamy
Answer:
(c) Endogamy

4. Caste system is a ………………..
(a) state
(b) social institution
(c) property
(d) government
Answer:
(b) social institution

5. Ancient Indian society was divided into ………….. parts.
(a) four
(b) five
(c) six
(d) seven
Answer:
(a) four

6. What is the function of caste system?
(a) To control behaviour
(b) To give occupation
(c) To provide social security
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

7. What is the impact of class system on society?
(a) Caste system is weakening
(b) Lower caste people are moving upward
(c) One gets a chance to show his individual abilities
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

8. Which of these is not a feature of class system?
(a) Completely achieved
(b) Change in status of groups
(c) Membership based on birth
(d) Openness
Answer:
(c) Membership based on birth

9. What is the difference between caste and class?
(a) Caste is based on birth and class is based on ability
(b) One can change class but not class
(c) Many restrictions are there in caste but not in class
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

10. Which of these-is a feature of class?
(a) Feeling superiority and inferiority
(b) Social mobility
(c) Development of sub-classes
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

11. The system in which individuals get different social status on different bases is known as …………….
(a) Caste system
(b) Class system
(c) Community system
(d) Social system
Answer:
(b) Class system

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 10 Social Stratification

Fill in the Blanks:

1. …………….. is the process of dividing society into different layers.
Answer:
Social Stratification

2. Caste is an ……………… group.
Answer:
endogamous

3. Ghurye gave …………….. features of caste.
Answer:
Six

4. Varna system was based on ………………
Answer:
occupation

5. Caste system is based on …………………
Answer:
birth

6. …………….. explained about capitalist and labour class.
Answer:
karl Marx

7. There were ……………….. major castes in caste system.
Answer:
four

True/False:

1. Caste is an exogamous group.
Answer:
False

2. Ghurye gave six features of caste.
Answer:
True

3. The concept of untouchability came forward due to caste system.
Answer:
True

4. Jyotiba Phule did a lot to bring reforms in caste system.
Answer:
True

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
Which system has divided our society?
Answer:
Caste system has divided our society.

Question 2.
From which language’s word, the word caste came?
Answer:
Word ‘caste’ has originated from a Portuguese word ‘CASTA’.

Question 3.
Which type of class is caste?
Answer:
Caste is a closed class.

Question 4.
Who were given the highest place in Caste system?
Answer:
Brahmins were given the highest place in caste system.

Question 5.
Which caste was greatly exploited in Caste system?
Answer:
Fourth caste was greatly exploited in caste system.

Question 6.
What is meant by Endogamy?
Answer:
When marriage is done within own caste then it is known as endogamy.

Question 7.
Which type of occupation of an individual is there in caste system?
Answer:
In caste system, occupation of an individual is based on birth. It means one is required to adopt the occupation of his family.

Question 8.
On what, mutual relations in caste system are based?
Answer:
In caste system, mutual relations are based on superiority and inferiority.

Question 9.
What is meant by closed caste system?
Answer:
The class tvhich cannot be changed is known as closed caste system.

Question 10.
What is used to make Kachcha food and Pakka food?
Answer:
Water is used to make Kachcha food and oil is used to make Pakka food. Question 11. How many features of caste system are given by G.S. Ghurye? Answer: G.S. Ghurye has given six features of Caste system.

Question 12.
When was Untouchability Offence Act passed?
Answer:
Untouchability Offence Act was passed in 1955.

Question 13.
When was Civil Rights Protection Act passed?
Answer:
Civil Rights Protection Act was passed in 1976.

Question 14.
When was Hindu Marriage Act passed?
Answer:
Hindu Marriage Act was passed in 1955.

Question 15.
Which thing was restricted in Untouchability Offence Act?
Answer:
It was restricted that no one will be called as untouchable.

Question 16.
How many castes approximately are available in India?
Answer:
Approximately 3,000 castes are available in India.

Question 17.
Which type of marriage is allowed in caste system?
Answer:
Endogamy is allowed in caste system.

Question 18.
In how many parts, ancient Indian society was divided?
Answer:
Ancient Indian society was divided into four parts.

Question 19.
What was the merit of caste system?
Answer:
It has protected Hindu society, has given stability to society and definite occupation to the people.

Question 20.
Which type of change is coming in caste system?
Answer:
Prestige of Brahmins is declining, untouchability remains no more and traditional occupations are coming to an end.

Question 21.
Give main features of caste system.
Answer:
Membership of caste remains for life, segmental division of society is there and one has to adopt his traditional occupation.

Question 22.
What is the demerit of caste system?
Answer:
Lower castes are exploited, untouchability increased and personality of an individual is unable to develop.

Question 23.
How is caste a closed group?
Answer:
Caste is a closed group because one cannot change it even if he has the ability to do so.

Question 24.
How occupation is fixed in caste system?
Answer:
Occupation in caste is traditional. It means one has to adopt the occupation of his family.

Question 25.
Which two laws have helped in the weakening of caste system?
Answer:

• Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.
• Untouchability Offence Act, 1955.

Question 26.
How has industrialization affected the caste system?
Answer:
In industries, people of different castes started to work together with which caste based restrictions came to an end.

Question 27.
Inter-caste Marriage.
Answer:
When people, of two different castes marry each other then it is known as inter-caste marriage.

Question 28.
Is caste system changing?
Answer:
Yes, caste system is changing due to a number of factors like education, industrialisation, urbanisation, laws etc.

Question 29.
Maintenace of Purity of Blood.
Answer:
When one marries within his own caste then it maintains the purity of blood as blood of other castes never mixes with one’s caste.

Question 30.
Endogamy.
Answer:
When an individual does marriage within his own caste or group then it is known as Endogamy.

Question 31.
Is class intermarriageable?
Answer:
Yes, class is intermarriageable. It means endogamous as well as exogamous.

Question 32.
Hierarchy in Caste.
Answer:
There were four castes—Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Lower castes. This was the hierarchy in caste.

Question 33.
What is the basis of class?
Answer:
Money, wealth, prestige, education, occupation etc. are the bases of class.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Hierarchy of Castes.
Answer:
Society was divided into four castes and due to this division, there was a definite system of high or low social status in society. This system of division of society into four castes is known as hierarchy of castes.

Question 2.
How is the social status of an individual determined?
Answer:
In caste system, the social status of an individual was determined by the caste in which he was born. But in class system, the social status of an individual is based on his individual ability.

Question 3.
Caste develops the sense of Co-operation.
Answer:
It is a fact that caste develops the sense of co-operation among its members. As members of one particular caste has same occupation, that’s why they work in co-operation with each other.

Question 4.
What is Kachcha food?
Answer:
Kaccha food is that food in whose making, oil or ghee is not used, only water is used. In caste system, it is fixed that from which caste one can take kaccha food and from which caste one can take pakka food.

Question 5.
What is Pakka food?
Answer:
Pakka food is exactly opposite to Kachcha food. Pakka food is that food in whose making ghee or oil is used. It is fixed that from which caste one can take Pakka food.

Question 6.
Modern Education and Caste.
Answer:
Now people are taking modern education which is based on Science and reason. That’s why gradually people come to know about demerits of caste and it leads to removal of caste restrictions from the society.

Question 7.
Social Security in Caste.
Answer:
If any problem comes to an individual then all the members of one caste collectively solve that problem. In this members of each caste get social security from their respective castes.

Question 8.
Membership of caste based on birth.
Answer:
It is a fact that membership of caste is based on birth. One cannot leave the caste in which he is born. At any cost he cannot leave his caste even if he is having the ability to do so.

Question 9.
To maintain purity of blood.
Answer:
Caste is an endogamous group in which one needs to marry in his own caste. It helps in maintaining purity of blood as blood from all the castes never mixes with each other.

Question 10.
Give one definition of caste.
Answer:
According to Martindale and Mona Chesi, “A caste is aggregate of persons whose share of obligations and privileges is fixed by birth, sanctioned and supported by magic and religion.”

Question 11.
Exploitation of lower caste.
Answer:
In caste system, lower castes were exploited by the upper castes. They were misbehaved and were not given any rights. They lived their lives in hell like conditions.

Question 12.
Discuss two changes in the Caste System.
Answer:

• Due to the passing of many Legislations, the discrimination of untouchability is coming to an end.
• Due to the advent of many new occupations, the hierarchical order of the caste system and the superiority of many castes is changing.

Question 13.
Caste as Segmental division of society.
Or
Give the number and name of castes.
Answer:
In caste system, whole of the society was divided into different parts. First part comprised the Brahmins, second part comprised the Kshatriyas, third part was Vaishyas and the fourth part comprised the people of lower castes.

Question 14.
Change in the caste regarding marriage.
Answer:
Now people work with each other and come closer to each other. It led to increase in inter-caste marriages. People started to marry according to their own wish. Child marriage no more prevails, widow marriage is increasing day by day.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Stratification?
Or
Social Stratification.
Answer:
Stratification is a process in which high and low groups have been divided in social structure and their roles and statuses have been determined. Every group has its definite place and all the groups are related with each other with inferiority and superiority relations. English word ‘Strata’ is originated from the Latin word ‘Stratum’ whose meaning is layer. Its meaning is that any specific object has been divided in different layers and these layers have system of superiority and inferiority.

Question 2.
Two characteristics of Social Stratification.
Answer:

• Universal Process : Stratification is a universal process. We cannot find any human society where stratification was hot there.
• Inequality of Status : Every member doesn’t have equal status. Anyone has superior position and anyone has low position.

Question 3.
Main bases of Social Stratification.
Answer:

• Social Stratification can be divided in two parts:
• Biological basis.
• Socio-cultural basis.

Question 4.
What are the Biological bases of Social Stratification?
Answer:

• Sex
• Age
• Race
• Birth

Question 5.
Give the names of Socio-cultural bases of Stratification.
Answer:

• Economic Basis
• Occupational Basis
• Political Basis
• Religious Basis

Question 6.
Age as the base of Social Stratification.
Answer:
Persons have different positions in society on the basis of age like-child, young, elder. Age is the most important factor in India to give a vote, to become adult, to become M.P. or to become President of India.

Question 7.
The educational base of Social Stratification.
Answer:
Literate persons are known as intelligent in the society and illiterate people are known as idiots. Persons who get higher education have more respect in society as compared to others and even are known as the members of higher class. Illiterate people don’t have respect in the society. In this way society has been divided in literate and illiterate persons on educational basis.

Question 8.
What is the result of stratification according to Marx?
Answer:
Marx was of the view that there are two classes in society. First one is the owner of means of production and other class is not the owner of means of production. On the basis of this ownership, owner class gets higher status and non-owner class gets lower status in society. Marx has given the name of capitalist class or Bourgouise to owner class and labourer class or proletariat to non-owner class. Capitalist class always exploits the labourer class and labourer class always struggles with capitalist class to get its rights. This is the result of stratification according to Marx.

Question 9.
Which type of relations are there in different classes?
Answer:
According to Marx, the mutual relations of classes are of inter-dependence and struggle. Capitalist and labourers both depend upon each other for their existence. Labourer class has to sell its labour to earn meal. It sells its labour to capitalist and depends upon capitalist to earn its meal. Capitalist gives the rent of his labour for this capitalist also depends upon labourers because without labourers, he can neither produce any thing nor he can accumulate wealth. But struggle also goes on with dependency because labourer always struggles with capitalist to achieve his rights.

Question 10.
Class Struggle.
Answer:
Karl Marx lias studied two classes in each society. According to him, there exist two classes in each society. One class is the exploitive class and the other class is exploited class. There always exists conflict between them which Marx calls class struggle. Exploitive class is capitalist class which has all the means of production and with the help of which it suppresses the other classes.. Second class is labour class which doesn’t have any means of production. To earn bread and butter, it needs to sell its labour. This class i.e. labour class is always exploited by the first class i.e. the capitalist class because of which struggle is always there between these two groups. This struggle is given the name of class struggle by Karl Marx.

Question 11.
Means of Production.
Answer:
Means of production are those means through which money is earned to live a happy life. A person uses means of production and production talent to produce material things and all these elements colloectively form the production forces. Means of production are owned by the Capitalist with the help of which he produces surplus value and exploits the labour class. Capitalist becomes more rich with these means of production and he uses these means to suppress the labourers.

Question 12.
Meaning of Caste.
Answer:
Hindu social system has one of the important complex and interesting institutions which is known as caste system. Word Caste has been taken from Portuguese word ‘Casta’ whose meaning is birth. Caste is an endogamous group whose membership is based on birth. Occupation is hereditary and traditional, many types of restrictions are there regarding ways of living, eating, relations and marriage. According to Risley, “Caste is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from mythical ancestor, human or divine. Professing to follow the name hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”

Question 13.
Give any four characterises of Caste.
Answer:

• Membership of caste is based upon birth.
• Caste is an endogamous group.
• Restrictions on social relations are there in caste.
• Restrictions are there in caste regarding feeding.
• Occupation of a person is hereditary in caste. It means that no one can adopt an occupation of his choice.
• Society is divided in different segments.
• There is a definite hierarchy in caste system.

Question 14.
What is Hierarchy?
Answer:
There was a definite hierarchy in caste system. Society was divided in different segments on the basis of their higher or lower status. Brahmins got the higher status in all parts of India. Kshatriya were coming at second place and third place was of Vaishyas. Fourth and the last place was given to lower castes. Social status of any person in society was determined on the basis of this hierarchy.

Question 15.
Membership based on birth.
Answer:
Membership of any caste is based upon birth. No one can determine his caste according to his- wish. Social status of a person was determined by that caste in which caste that person was born. No one can change his caste even if he has the ability to do so. In this way the person used to get social status according to the caste in which he was born, not on the basis of individual ability.

Question 16.
Which type of restrictions are there in caste regarding food?
Answer:
Some clear rules are there in caste system which tell us that with which caste we can establish relations regarding food or feeding. Whole food has been divided into two parts-Kachcha food and Pakka food. Kachcha food is that food which can be made with the help of water and Pakka food is that food which can be made with the help of oil or ghee. A general rule is that any person never takes kachcha food till that time until it has not been made by the person of his own caste. Brahmins accept Pakka food from any specific caste.

Question 17.
How occupation is fixed in caste?
Answer:
According to the rules of the caste system, all the castes have their traditional, specific and hereditary occupations. Every person has to adopt the occupation of that caste in which he is born even if the other occupations are more profitable. Person had no choice instead of adopting his traditional and hereditary occupations. Main function of the brahmins was to perform religious rites and to give education to people. Function of Kshatriyas was to protect the country and rule over the country. Vaishyas were doing agriculture and business and the function of lower castes was to serve the people of three higher castes. All of them had to adopt traditional occupations.

Question 18.
Describe the functions of caste.
Answer:

• Caste determines the occupation of a person.
• Caste provides social security to a person.
• Caste gives mental security to a person.
• Caste maintains purity of the blood.
• Caste provides political stability to the country.
• Caste saves the technical knowledge.
• Caste determines the rules related to education.

Question 19.
Caste is a closed group.
Or
Is Caste a closed group?
Answer:
Yes, caste is a closed group. Meaning of closed group is that the membership is based on birth. Social Status of a person was determined by that caste in which he was born. Person can neither leave his caste nor can he change his caste. Anyone cannot change his caste even if he has enough ability. Membership of caste was not based upon the ability and wish of the person but was based upon birth. In this way it is a closed group.

Question 20.
Give merits of Caste.
Answer:

• Caste does division of labour.
• Caste maintains the social unity.
• Caste maintains the purity of blood.
• Caste makes the rules of education.
• Caste produces cooperation in society.
• Caste provides mental and social security to the person.

Question 21.
Causes of change in caste.
Or
Why is caste changing?
Answer:

• Socio-religious movements.
• Efforts of Indian government and making of legislations.
• Contribution of Britishers towards change.
• Change in caste due to industrialization.
• Because of the spread of education.
• Because of development in the means of transport and communication.

Question 22.
Is caste changing?
Or
Future of Caste.
Answer:
Yes, caste is changing rapidly. Now importance is given to money instead of caste. The policy of reservation is being adopted in jobs for scheduled castes. Now a person can adopt any occupation. Inter-caste marriages have been started. Many changes have taken place in the rules of feeding. Now elections are fought in the name of caste. In this way after looking at this we can say that the caste is changing.

Question 23.
Demerits of Caste.
Answer:

• Position of women is lower in the caste system.
• Caste system increases untouchability.
• Caste system increases casteism.
• Caste system increases cultural conflict.
• aste system is a hindrance in social unity and social mobility.
• Caste system produces hindrance inefficiency of the person.
• It is against the democratic values of the country.

Question 24.
Meaning of class system.
Answer:
Class is a group of people which are equal to each other and every class has its own status in society. According to this, every member of class has some responsibilities, rights and powers. Class consciousness is the main necessity of class. Person in class thinks about others as higher or lower than him.

Question 25.
Two characteristics of class system.
Answer:

• Class consciousness : Every class is conscious about the fact that its status or prestige is higher than the other class. It means person knows about higher, lower or equal status.
• Restricted social contracts : In class system people like to establish close contacts with the members of their own class and have very limited relations with members of other class.

Question 26.
Bases of Division of Class.
Answer:

• Family and kinship
• Property income and wealth
• Occupation
• Direction of place of living
• Education
• Power
• Religion
• Race
• Caste
• Status symbols.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Explain different bases of social stratification.
Answer:
Stratification, in every society has diffemt features because they are based upon the social values and the important ideologies. That is why the bases of social stratification are also different. Nature of the process of social stratification is different in different societies. It is related with the social values which exist in that society. That is why social stratification has many bases. But we can divide these bases in two parts

1. Biological Basis
2. Socio-Cultural Basis

Now we will explain both of these basis in detail.

1. Biological Basis. Humans, on the base of their Birth, are given higher or lower position in society in biological basis. In simple words, the relation which exists in different humans and groups can be determined on biological basis.
Biological base, in social stratification, is related with the birth of the person. Some times persons get higher or lower status in society on the basis of their birth. Some of the biological bases are given below:

1. Birth. Stratification, in the society, also exists on the basis of the birth. If we look carefully at the ancient Hindu society then we can see that humans were getting higher or lower social status on the basis of their birth. There were mainly 4 castes existing in Hindu society. Persons related with those castes in which they were bom were getting status on the basis of their birth. Persons were not allowed to change their castes even if they had the ability to do so. In this way there was a hierarchy in caste system. So on the basis of this description we can say that humans were not getting social status according to their ability or wish. The main base of social startification in caste system was birth. Humans were getting higher or lower social status on the basis of the birth.

There was no value of personal ability of the person in this. Person’s ability was neither helpful in changing caste nor it was helpful in taking up his social status. Maximum what a person was able to do was that he was free to take his position up only in his caste. But his position was definitely lower from other castes even if he had the higher status in his own caste. Social Status of person in caste stratification is not determined on the basis of his ability but is determined by his birth. Even today we can find this ype of stratified life on the basis of caste in Indian rural societies.

2. Age. After birth, social stratification also exists in society on the basis of age. Famous sociologist Harry M. Johnson has given different stages of human age in his book ‘Sociology’ and these are :

• Childhood stage
• Adolescence stage
• Adult stage
• Old stage

Many other scholars also have given different stages of life of the person. Status of a small child is never higher in any society because a child doesn’t have complete development. The way in which he becomes older his mental level also develops. Maturity also comes in it with the development of mental level. That is why mature persons are also given preference over younger ones. If we look at the Indian government then we can see that most of the people in it are of older age. Minimum age of 35 years is required to become the President of India. If we look at the family system in ancient Indian society then we can see that the control of the family was in the hands of people of more or higher agd. In India minimum age to give vote is 18 years. But many changes were brought in modem society by Indian government. Like age of giving vote is now 18 years instead of 21 years. Today more and more young people are coming in politics like Rahul Gandhi, Naveen Jindal, Omar Abdullah etc.

But the older people are the pillars of politics. They prepare the younger generation to take the responsibility of the country. In this way government has fixed the age of marriage so that the custom of child marriage could be stopped. People of more age has more respect in all the societies. In many tribes a council is made with the people of more age and they take many decisions related to their societies. In Australian tribes, Administrative rights are in the hands of people of more age.

In ancient Indian Society a scheme of Ashramas existed in which age of 100 years was fixed for every person. Age was fixed for every Ashrama. For example age of 1— 25 years was fixed for Brahmcharya ashrma, 26—50 years for Grihastha ashrama, 51—75 years for Vaan-Prashta Ashrama and the age of 75 years till death was fixed for Sanyasa Ashrama. In this way we can see that stratification exists in every society on the basis of age and person gets status in the society on this base. So age is given enough importance in determining responsibility of different status. Any function of more responsibility is neither given to any child nor it is given to any young one. It is definitely with age. That is why age is fixed to become President, Prime Minister or M.P. and even to give vote. It is so because it is believed that mental level and experience increases only with age.

3. Sex. Sex is also the basis of stratification. Difference on the base of sex is of male and female. If we will see the history then earlier societies were divided only on the base of sex. Females were doing household works and males were going out of the house to collect the eatables.

Family is divided in two parts on the basis of authority :

• Patriarchal Family.
• Matriarchal Family.

Both types of families exist on the basis of sex. Father’s authority is very important in Patriarchal family. But family is under the control of mother in matriarchal families. But if we look at the ancient societies then we will see that males have got higher status in society. Functions of males and females are also different. Even in modern societies differntiation still exists on the basis of sex. The government has done a number of efforts to bring females in many sectors. Some states are giving free education to females. But still we can see many differences on this base. In western countries females are considered as equal to male but even till today no female has been able to become the President of U.S.A. Some roles are different naturally in males and females. Like only female can give birth to child. In this way we can say that sex is also a very old base of startification through which status of male and female is determined in society.

Right from the ancient times females were considered as inferior to males becuase of which their social status and functions remained differnt. After independence, many laws were made,in India with the help of which many disabilities of females were removed. Now the girl has the right to take share from the father’s property. But still in many states, females are considered as inferior to males and discrimination is there on the basis of sex. Yet females are doing every type of work these days and are working with males but still discrimination is there on the basis of sex.

4. Race. Race is also one of the biological hases of the process of social startification. Society has been divided in different groups on the basis of race. Mainly three types of races of humans exist and these are :

• Caucasion
• Mangoloid
• Negroid

A system of hierarchy exists in these three classes. White race means Caucasion has got a higher status in society. Yellow race means Mangoloid comes at the middle level and black race means Negroid has got the lowest status in society. In U.S.A., even today, white race is considered as superior to black race. People of white race are sending their children to different schools to study. Even they never marry in each other’s race. Yet some changes have come in this base but still it is one of the bases of social startification. Blacks are discriminated by whites. Even discrimination is there between them while giving certain facilities. White people even discrminate with Asian people because they consider themselves superior to yellow and black people.

2. Socio-Cultural Basis. Stratification, in society, not only exists on biological basis but it also exists on socio-cultural basis. There are many socio-cultural bases which are given ahead

• On the basis of occupation
• Political basis
• Economic basis
• Educational basis
• Religious basis
• On the basis of blood relations.

Now we will explain them in detail.

1. Basis of occupation. Society has been divided in many parts on the basis of occupation. Some occupations in society are considered as very important and some are considered as less important. In the varna scheme, society was stratified on the basis of occupation. Humans were getting the social status according to the occupation which they had adopted. For example if any one was getting education of vedas and adopted the occupation of giving education to the people then he was included in brahmin varna. The wish of adopting occupation was of person himself. According to Kingslay Davis, the achievement of able person for any specific occupation affects the status of that occupation. Some sociologists have considered it as the main base of social startification.

In modern society, person adopts his occupation according to his ability to do work. For example, in modern Indian society, the occupations of Doctor, Professor, Engineer etc. have a better place in society than the occupation of clerk or suprintendent. Those occupations have higher social status in society which are considered as important in controlling the society. In this way society gives them status by checking the abilities, disabilities etc. of different occupations.

Yet the occupations in earlier societies were based upon caste and the status of person was also determined according to caste but in modem societies, occupation is considered more important than the caste. The position of an I.A.S. officer will definitely be higher than the peen. In the same way some officers, Judges, Megistrates etc. don’t have same status even if their occupation is same. In short, stratification in society exists on the basis of different occupations. For example, the occupation of a prostitute will be considered as lower even if she has a lot of money.

2. Political base. Different types of stratification exist in every society on political basis. Stratification, in Indian society, exists on this base. Political system in India, remains important on the basis of family or lineage. India is a democratic country. The main power in it is in the hands of President. Position of Vice-President is lower than that of President. Two types of groups exist in every class.

• Ruling class
• Ruled class or Suppressed Class.

The position of ruling class is higher than that of ruled class. Even in administrative system different officers get social status according to their job. According to famous sociologist Sorokin, “If political organization spreads then political stratification also increases. Complexity also increases in social stratification with political system. If any sudden change comes in political system due to any revolution then political stratification also changes. There are many political parties in India but the status of that political party is higher which rules over the country. In ancient tribal societies, every tribe had one head who takes care in solving the problems of the tribe and was loyal towards the tribe. Administration in the kingdoms was in the hands of kings end they were running the administration according to their wish.”

Politics also exists in family. Father has the highest position in family. Higher place in the administration of country is of President, then is of Vice President, Prime Minister, cabinet ministers, state ministers and deputy ministers. Some leaders in every political party have higher status and some have lower status. Some leaders are of National Level and some are of regional level. Some political parties also are of national level and some are of regional level. Position of that political party will definitely be higher which has political power in its hands. For example, today the status of B.J.P. is definitely higher then that of Congress because it has political power in its hands.

3. Economic base. Famous sociologist Karl Marx has considered economic base the alone base of stratification in society. According to him, two classes always exist in every society.

1. Owners of means of production i.e. capitalist class
2. Those who don’t have means of production i.e. labour class. Position of those persons is higher who own the means of production. Marx has given them the name of capitalist class. On other side labour class is there which works under the control of capitalist class. Capitalist class always exploits the labour class. On the basis of wealth, three classes are there in society :

• Higher Class
• Middle Class
• Lower Class

In this way the relations of inferior and superior exist in them. According to Sorokin as base of social stratification, economic elements are moving up and and down. This moving up and down is of two types—progress and downfall of any group in economic sector and the more or less importance of economic element in the process of stratification. Its result comes in the form of going upwards like economic pyramid and spreading after reaching at one level and not to go more high. According to Sorokin, the average income of every society and group is different. This average income of groups keeps on changing in different times with which status of these groups also changes. In this way position always moves higher or lower in socio-economic sector.

Generally having or not having property is the main base of stratification in society. Person with more property will definitely have higher status in society and person with less property will have lower status in society. We can take example of capitalist and labour class in modern society. Society generally is divided in three classes-higher, middle and lower class and these classes are very much conscious about their membership. They never like that any lower class people would enter their class. Every class has many sub-classes because difference of income is always there. One millionaire is also rich and one multi-millionaire is also rich but the position of multi-millionaire is higher than that of millionaire. Because income is the base of this class that is why a person can change his class and membership by increasing his income. If a person can move to higher class with more income then he can also move to lower class in the absence of more income. This type of society is also known as open society.

Relations between economic based classes are quite limited in nature. Many sub classes exist in one class like in capitalists class one is multi millionaire and one is billionaire. Persons are free to achieve higher status in class system which is based on economy. Poor person can achieve middle or higher class by earning more and more money.
In short, modern society is known as industrial society. Hierarchy of high or low exists in society on the basis of having or not having property. In this way it is also one of the important bases of social stratification.

4. On the basis of Education. We can also stratify society on the basis of education. Society can be stratified in two parts on the basis of education i.e.

• Literate Class
• Illiterate Class

Status of literate class is definitely higher than that of illiterate class. Person who gets education, with hard work, gets more respect in society. It is one of the important bases of stratification in modern society. Literate person gets more respect than that of illiterate person. Position of a Professor, who has done Ph.D., is definitely higher than that of a Matric pass person. Status of an engineer, doctor or teacher is higher than that of a peon because they are more literate than a peon. In this way stratification is there in society on the basis of education.

5. Religious base. Society is also stratified on religious base. In ancient Hindu society, brahmins had got the highest place in society according to religious system. It is so because they were getting education of religious vedas and were giving education to others. Shudras had got the lowest position because according to Hindu religious system, they are considered as untouchables. Many religions exist in India. Members of every religion consider themselves superior to the members of other religions. In this way social stratification also exists on the basis of religion. There are many religions in India which consider themselves superior to the other religions. Any religion, whose members are more than the other religion, is definitely considered as higher than that of other religion. We can take example of Hindu religion and Christianity in India.

6. Basis of blood relations. Person also gets higher or lower status in society on the basis of the family in which he is born. For example son of any king is given the status of king when he becomes younger. In., this way sometimes human gets social status on the basis of the family or blood relations. Position of any child who is born in the Gandhi family is definitely higher than that of child of any ordinary people. In this way there are many bases of stratification in society on the basis of which inequality exists in society.

Question 2.
What is Caste System? Explain the features given by G.S. Ghuriye.
Answer:
Caste system is one of the most important social institutions which is coming on from ancient times. It was one of the important bases of social stratification on the basis of which status and role of the person was determined in society. Meaning of caste system. The word ‘caste’ originated from the Portuguese word ‘Casta’ which means Race. It is also closely related with the Latin word ‘Castus’ whose meaning is Pure race. Actually, caste system is based upon birth. The caste in which the person takes birth, he needs to live with that caste only for the whole life. With the birth of the child, his ways of living life are determined. It keeps some restrictions on its members which are necessarily to be obeyed by the person. This caste system was one of the main bases of Indian social system and all the aspects of Hindu social life were affected by this system. Its effect was so powerful that it affected every group and community living in India. Word caste has been taken from the Sanskrit word ‘Jana’ whose meaning is birth. Yet this system prevailed in other societies also but its developed form was available in India.

Definitions of Caste System:

(1) According to Risley, “Caste is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from mythical ancestor, human or divine. Professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”

(2) According to Robert Bierstdt, “When a class system is a closed group on one or more than one issue then it is known as caste system.”

(3) According to Blunt, “A caste is an endogamous group or collection of endogamous groups, bearing a common name, membership of which is hereditary, imposing on its members certain restrictions in the matter of social intercourse, either following a common traditional occupation or claiming a common origin and generally regarded as forming a single homogeneous community.”

(4) According to Ketkar, “Caste is a social group having two characteristics :

• Membership is confined to those who are born as members and includes all persons so born.
• The members are forbidden by a social law to marry outside the group.”

G.S. Ghuriye has given features of the caste system which are more acceptable :

• Segmental division of society
• Hierarchy
• Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse
• Civil and religious disabilities and privileges of various castes.
• Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation
• Restrictions on marriage.

Now we will see these features in detail:

1. Segmental division of society : The caste system divides the Hindu society in many parts in which it determines or fixes the status, position and functions of the members of every part. That is why members of any specific group are conscious about their position and because of which they think themselves as unbreakable part of that group. The area of interaction of members of one caste is limited to its own caste because of this division of society in parts. Every caste has its own ways of living, traditions, values etc. Generally members of one caste interact with the members of its own caste. In this way according to Ghuriye one caste is a social unit in which person lives his whole life.

2. Hierarchy : In most of the parts of India, Brahmin varna has got the highest status. We can see a definite hierarchy in caste system in which all castes are kept in a definite hierarchy. In this system the status of highest and lowest caste is definitely determined but there is some unclarity between the middle caste.

3. Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse : There are some definite and detailed rules in caste system which tell us that with which caste a person can keep social relations and with which caste he can keep relations of feeding. Whole food has been divided in two categories of‘Kacha Food’ and ‘Pakka Food’. We need water to cook ‘Kacha Food’ and we need oil to cook Pakka Food. There are a number of restrictions in giving and taking food to different castes.

4. Civil and religious disabilities and privileges of various castes : Different castes have special civil and religious disabilities. In ancient times impure castes were kept out of the limit of the village. There were restrictions on social intercourse with impure castes. They were restricted to go to the temples of higher castes, they were restricted to take water from the wells. They were restricted to read religious books. Children of lower castes were restricted to get education. Higher castes had special privileges over lower castes.

5. Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation : According to the rules of caste system, some castes had traditional occupations. Members of the caste had to adopt the traditional occupation. But some occupations like trade, agriculture, job etc. were free to be done by anyone. But still with that a number of castes had definite occupations like carpenter, blacksmith, potter etc.

6. Restrictions on marriage : Castes were again divided into sub-castes. These sub-castes were restricting their members to marry out of their group. The characteristic of caste is that it is an endogamous group. Person has to marry in his own sub-caste. If any one was breaking this rule then he was generally thrown out of his caste.

Question 3.
Give features of Caste System.
Answer:
1. Membership is based on birth : Membership of caste is based upon birth and no one can fix his caste with his own wish. Person used to get social status according to the caste in which he was born. One cannot change his caste even if he has the ability to do so. Is this way membership of caste is based upon birth and not on the ability of an individual.

2. Restrictions in social relations : In earlier times, whole of the society was divided into different castes and their status was pre-determined. There were a number of restrictions regarding keeping relations with other castes. People of upper castes were keeping relations only with upper castes. They were not allowed to keep relations with lower castes.

3. Restrictions on eatables : Several clear rules are there in caste system which tells that with which caste one has to keep feeding relations or not. Whole of the food was divided into two categories and these were Kachha food and Pakka food. Water was used to make Kachha Food and oil was used to cook Pakka food. There was a general rule that one never eats the Kachha food unless it is made by the member of his own caste or the food must be made by the Brahmin or his Guru. That’s why most of the castes accepted the food given by Brahmins. But Brahmins never accepted Kachha food made by any one of the other caste. Pakka food was accepted only by a specific caste. In this way restriction on feeding was one of the major features of caste system.

4. Restriction on occupation : According to the rules of caste system, castes had their specific traditional occupations. Person had to adopt the occupation of his own caste even if the other occupations were more profitable. Man had no choice except adopting his caste’s occupation. But some occupations were free to be adopted by any one like trade, agriculture, job in military etc. Even many castes were free to adopt any occupation but many castes used to do their traditional functions like carpenter, blacksmith, barber, potter etc. Main function of Brahmins was to give education and to perform religious rites, function of Kshatriya was to protect the country, function of Vaishyas was to do agriculture and trade and lower castes used to serve the higher castes. They had to perform their traditional functions.

5. Restrictions on marriage: Caste system was again divided and different castes were divided into sub-castes. These sub-castes used to restrict their members to marry out of their group. Endogamy is the important feature of caste system. It means to marry in the group. Yet in some specific conditions, there were some relaxations. But generally they had to marry in their own caste. If anyone was breaking this rule then he was generally thrown out of his caste and was restricted to enter any other caste. In this way everyone used to marry in his own caste or sub-caste.

6. Segmental division of society : Hindu society was divided into many parts by caste system and the status, place and function of every part were determined by it. That is why members had some consciousness of being members of a group and used to think themselves as the unavoidable and unbreakable part of the group. Because of this segmental division of society the area of interaction for a person was generally restricted to his own caste. Panchayats were free to give punishment to the person who will break the rules of caste. Different castes had different traditions and way of living. People of one caste were generally interacting with the persons of their own caste.

7. Endogamy : There were strict restrictions related to marriage. Man was not allowed to marry out of his caste but he had to marry in his own sub-caste. If anyone was breaking this rule then he was generally thrown out of his caste. Anulom marriage was also allowed to a certain extent. That is why boy of higher caste used to marry girl of lower caste. So endogamy was the main base of caste system.

Question 4.
Explain the functions of caste system.
Answer:
1. To control individual’s behaviour: Rules of the caste system were forcing the person to live acoording to the rules made by society. Caste used to tell the person about his behaviour of occupation, restrictions of feeding, social intercourse and marriage and man was working according to them.

2. To provide social security : Caste provides social security to all its members. Members of a caste were ready to give help .to the* other members of their caste from any aspect. Whenever person was in great problem, caste always comes forward for his help. In this way all the members of caste were joining their hands at the time of problem. At every moment they were ready to give help to each other.

3. To provide occupation : Occupation of a person, in caste System was pre-determined even at the time of his birth. Different castes had different functions like function of Brahmin was to give education, function of Kshatriya was to protect the society, function of Vaishya was to do business and the function of lower castes was to serve higher castes. People believed in Karma theory that person will take next birth according to the deeds of his birth and he will get functions according to that. In this way every person had to adopt his traditional occupation.

4. Functions related to Marriage : Rule of Endogamy exists in caste system. Person has to marry in the same caste in which he is born. Caste puts certain restrictions on its members to marry in the caste only and if he tries to break the rule then he is thrown out of the caste.

5. To provide Mental Security: Persons don’t have any individual responsibility in the caste system because whatever caste is determined for him he has to accept that. The person used to get status according to his caste in which he was born. There was no mental pressure on him of occupation or marriage. In this way he was getting mental security from the caste.

6. It develops the feeling of co-operation : Members of the caste were always ready of give help to each other. Every person obeyed the rules made by caste. Rule breaker was thrown out of caste. In this way all the members of caste lived with each other with which stability was maintained in caste.

7. Educational Function : Caste always tried to tell about the rules related to education of its members. Education was confined only to the people of higher castes. Only Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas were allowed to take education.

8. Preservation of culture : Every caste has its own culture. Members of caste preserve their culture from generation to generation. Every caste has its own rules and traditions of eating, living, marriage, education etc. Children adopt these traditions from their parents. In this way it is an important function of caste system to preserve the culture of the caste.

9. Maintenance of the Purity of blood : Rule of endogamy exists in caste system. According to this rule man has to marry in the same caste in which he is born. On the basis of this rule members of higher castes marry in higher caste and members of lower castes marry among lower castes. In this way this rule maintains the purity of blood.

10. Security of Religious customs : Religious customs are also related with i ;aste. Every caste has’its own different religious customs. It is necessary to perform religious customs among Brahmins. So caste system helps in securing religious functions of caste.

Question 5.
What are the merits and demerits of caste system?
Answer:
Merits or Advantages of Caste System:

1. It gives Social Security. The biggest advantage of caste is that it provides social security to all its members. Members of one caste are always ready to give help to other members of the caste. That is why there is no need to worry for anyone because he knows that if any problem comes on him then .his caste will definitely give him help. Caste system determines social status of man and reduces the Impossibility of competition.

2. Fixation of Occupation : Another characteristic of caste system is that it cletermines the occupation or function for the person. This occupation is according t o his family and is transmitted from one generation to another generation. Occupational qualities come automatically in the child of the family. In this way specialization comes in the person without any formal education. Except this it also reduces the competition of occupation in society and provides economic security. but this way it is an important advantage of caste system.

3. Purity of Blood : Caste System is an endogamous group. The meaning of (endogamy is that man has to marry in his own caste and if any one was trying to 1 break this rule then he was forced to leave the caste. Advantage of this thing is that : it stops the blood of other castes to come in their caste and it maintains the purity i af blood. In this way its advantage is that it helps in maintaining purity of blood.

4. Division of Labour : Another important advantage of caste system is that it i produces feeling of love and dedication among humans towards their duties. Humans vvith lower duties were doing their functions properly. Caste system fills one feeling within its members that every person has got his function according to the deeds of 1 lis previous birth and if he will do good deeds in this birth then he will get next birth in higher caste. It reduced the sense of hatred towards their functions and toward others. With this people did their functions properly. Caste system has divided the society in four varnas. Everyone knows about its functions properly. All of them do their functions properly and transmit their trade secrets to their next generations. In this stability is maintained in the society towards their functions and it helps in increasing division of labour and specialisation.

5. To make rules of education : Another important merit of caste system is that it has made definite rules regarding getting education and has made religion as the base of education. Education helps the person in learning self control, knowledge about occupation and to live in discipline. Education also gives knowledge about daily routine and occupation. Caste system determines that who will get education and which rule he has to obey. In this way caste system arranges the education for person according to the social status of his caste.

6. It maintains Social Unity : Another merit of caste system was that it kept the Indian society in unity. Caste system has divided the whole society in four parts and has given different functions to different parts. The way in which everyone has s different functions in division of labour, in that same way caste system has producec t division of labour in society. These different parts do different functions but he each other and fulfill each other’s needs. In this way even after this division, the are tied in the thread of unity.

7. It gives Mental Security : Caste gives mental security to its members. Fron n the rules of caste, every person comes to know that which occupation he has t o adopt, in which group he has to marry and perform religious customs and wit] a which groups he has to establish social relations^In this way when a person is fre e from these burdens then he feels secured himself mentally.

Demerits or Disadvantages of Caste System:

1. Low Status of Women : The main reason of the low status of women is cast e system. Because of controls of caste system, the position of Hindu women was no t more than a maid in the family. Because caste is an endogamous group, that is wh y to find a match for their children in their own caste, they advocated the child marriage;. It has resulted in polygamy. Kuleen Vivaha has also produced many evils in societ; y like polygamy, dowry system. Females used to work only in the house. They had n o rights. In this way the main reason behind all the problems of women was cast e system. Even it had not given the permission of widow remarriage and female wa s a server for the family only.

2. Untouchability: Problem of untouchability came into being because of divisioi i of society by caste system. A big portion of total population was made untouchablt e and they were generally disgraced by the higher castes because their function wan known as non-sacred. Their position was even less than servants. They were restrictec l in many ways. They were not allowed to take part in economic sector. In this way J i large portion of population was just like a burden on society. That is why poverty r came in society. It produced the sense of hatred in society and the problem of casteism came into being.

3. Casteism : With caste system, our thinking has been shrinked. Too much dependence upon caste related to marriage, occupation, social relations etc. increase d the sense of casteism among people. It has increased the sense of prestige and hatred among people. It has increased the social and physical farness among the people. Because of this we have to face the problem of casteism. People only think about their caste.

4. Cultural Conflict : There are many restrictions in the relations of different castes and because of this every caste is a closed group which has its own ways of living. This differentiation has given birth to cultural conflict. Different castes have been divided in different cultural groups. We can see a number of conflicts in these groups. Higher castes think that their culture is superior and that is why they keep themselves away from other castes.

5. It stops Social Mobility : Distribution of status in caste system depends upon birth. No one can change this with his ability. Every member knows that he cannot change or improve his position. This system never motivates to do hard work because person knows that he cannot change his position even with hard work. It is an obstacle in economic progress. People cannot invent anything even if they have ability to do so because people have to adopt their traditional occupation. Many occupations are running at very less pace because of caste system.

6. It stops efficiency among persons : The main reason of people lacking in efficiency is that they are under the control of caste and caste system. All the members of all the castes ard not working by coordinating with each other instead they try to create obstacles in the way of other caste. Their occupation is hereditary and even if they don’t have any ability to do that work, they have to adopt their ancestral occupation. It reduces efficiency in person.

Question 6.
Which changes are coming in Caste System? Write in detail.
Answer:
Many changes are coming in caste system. These changes are not the result of any factor but are the result of many factors like industrialization, urbanization, modem education, development in means of transport, governmental efforts, new laws etc. They have completely changed the caste system and these changes are given below:

1. End to the discrimination and untouchability. In 1955, Indian government passed a law ‘Untouchability Offence Act’ and tried to eradicate untouchability. Now if any one says ‘Untouchable’ to any person of lower caste then he will be considerd as criminal. Government adopted the policy of reservation in government institutions to uplift the lower castes. On the basis of this policy, special provision is kept to give jobs to lower caste people. In modern times person of every caste is doing every type of work. Government gave scholarships to the people of backward classes so that they should be able to get any status in society with some hard work. In this way the discrimination of untouchability has been reduced to a great extent.

2. Change in caste hierarchy. The hierarchy which was determind by the caste system in Indian society, has been changed completely. Lower castes have been uplifted in society by a number of processes like urbanization, industrialization, sanskritization etc. In modem times, no caste considers itself inferior to the other castes. Even people of higher castes are ready to marry in the lower castes. Some want to obtain the facilities given to lower castes by the government and some want to marry in them after looking at their richness. In this way social mobility came into being in Indian society and now we cannont find the hierarchy of castes anywhere.

3. Changes in restrictions of food and drink. In ancient times, feeding of the caste was determined by the caste. Food was divided into two parts and feeding relations of a caste were pre-determned. But in modern times it was very difficult to adopt these restrictions. When people of differnt castes came in contact with each other in cities then these restrictions slowly and slowly came to an end. Cooks in hotels belong to different castes and people eat in hotels by sitting with each other and without asking each other’s caste. In cities people work with each other and that is why they start to eat with each other. In this way a number of changes have come in the feeding restrictions of a caste.

4. Decline in the status of Brahmins. Changes in caste system were started even under the rule of Britishers on Indian society. First of all British government started to behave equally with all the people of different castes. According to them all of them are IndiAnswer: They started to give western education to Indian people instead of religious education. Every one was free to get education in these educational institutions. In this way there was no question of superiority of brahmins because humans started to attain social status according to their ability and not on the basis their caste. Lower castes have taken their status upwards by doing progress in economic sector. After Independence, Indian government tried to remove the superiority of upper castes by making some laws. Now every one can get higher status in society by getting higher education. In this way the importnce of the birth of the person has come to an end. Importance of money has reduced the superiority of upper castes. Now the rich person gets more respect and prestige in society.

5. Freedom in Selection of Occupation. In ancient Indian society, occupation of person was determined right after his birth and it was according to his caste. Person had to adopt the occupation of his caste, even against his wish. He was not allowed to adopt any other occupation except his pre-determined occupation. But because of many reasons, society started to give importance to personal ability. Now humans are free to adopt occupation of their choice. It means that person can select the occupation according to his ability. Even the concept of profit has been tied with this. No occupation is higher or lower in their eyes. Now they adopt that occupation in which they see more profit. In this way the freedom, which a person has got in selection of occupation, has brought changes in caste system.

6. Change in Status of Woman. The status of woman was not good under the influence of caste system. She used to spend her life only by living in the four walls of the house. She was neither free to get education nor she was free to speak on any subject. In this way she had to spend her life in a suppressed way. But in modern times, she has got freedom in all sectors of life and she is now no more under the control of males. Now she is economically self-dependent. Status of females have been completely changed. Now people feel happy in case of birth of a baby girl. Now there is no differnce in boy or girl child. Even government has given reservation to females for their upliftment. Now every female is free to marry anywhere she wants. Even her parents are not interfering in her decisions.

7. Change in the Marriage System. In ancient times, caste system had made many tough rules related to marriage. No one was free to marry out of his sub-caste. But in modern times people have started to work with each other with which they came closer to each other. Inter-caste marriage has got sanctions of society. Now person can marry anywhere with his wish. Second change which came in the sector of marriage is that earlier child marriage was very popular. Widow had to live as a widow for the whole life and she was not allowed to remarry. But government has banned child marriage and has set the age for mariage i.e. 18 years for girl and 21 years for boy. Widow remarriage was also given sanction by society and governments.

Question 7.
Explain different bases of class distribution.
Answer:
There are many bases of class distribution which are given below.

1. Family and Kinship
2. Property, income and money
3. Occupation
4. Location of Residence
5. Education
6. Power
7. Religion
8. Race
9. Caste
10. Status Symbol

1. Family and Kinship : Family and kinship are very important in determining status of class. According to Bierstdt, “As a base of social class, importance of family and kinship is not eqiial in all societies, but it is one of the base out of those bases which can be used as a part of the whole system.” Status given by family goes from generation to generation. For example the children born in the family of Tata, Birla will remain capitalist because their ancestors have earned a lot of money for them and they can live their life happily without doing anything. In this way person will get higher status who is born in a rich family. So in this way person gets higher status in class system due to his family and kinship.

2. Property, income and money: Property, income and money are the important base of class. That is why modern society is known as capitalist society. Money is a source which can take person to higher class in quick succession. Karl Marx has also believed that money is the alone base of class determination. Here more money doesn’t mean that person is rich, the thing which is important is how this money has been earned. Smugglers have a lot of money but their status is very low. Prostitutes also have a lot of money but their way of earning is not good. So the means is also important for determination of class.

3. Occupation : Occupation is also known as the determinant basis of social class. Which type of occupation a person is doing in society, is also related with class system. Some occupations in our class system are very important and some are less important. The social status of Doctor, Engineer, Professor is always higher irrespective of their family status. People give them a lot of respect. Occupation of an illiterate person is always lower in society. In this way occupation is an important determinant in class system. Every person has to do some work in life to live and he does this1 work according to his ability. He gets social status in society according to his occupation. If any one accumulates money with wrong deeds then his position is always low in society. In modern Indian society occupations related to education are of more importance.

4. Location of Residence : Where the person is living, is also a determinant factor of his class. We can see that people are very choosy, about their place of living. Some areas in the city are ‘posh areas’ and some are backward areas. Persons who are living in posh areas have higher status and persons living in backward areas,slums and small colonies are of low status. Labourers, sweepers are generally making their colony in any area. Rich people are living in big and clean houses but poor people are living in slums.

5. Education : Modern society has been divided in two classes on the basis of education:

• Literate Class
• Illiterate Class

Importance of education exists in every society. We can generally see that literate people have more prestige in society irrespective of money. That is why today every person is trying to get education according to his present position. Nature of education is also responsible for the determination of class status. Status of technical persons is higher in industrial societies as compared to a simple person.

6. Power : Because of development of industrialisation and with the advent of democracy, power has also become a base of class structure. More or less power also determines the class of the society. With power, the social, economic and political status is also determined. Power is in the hands of people of higher strata and these can be politicians, military officers, rich people etc. We can take example of Indian Government. Status of Narendra Modi or Arun Jaitley is definitely higher than the position of Sonia Gandhi or Rahul Gandhi because they have power and authority in their hands. In the same way the position of B.J.P. is definitely higher than the Congress because today B.J.P. government is there in centre.

7. Religion : According to Robert Bierstdt, religion is also one of the important factors of social status. Some societies exist in” the world where traditional fundamentalist views have great influence. Status is determined on the basis of higher or major religion. In modem times, where.society is developing very quickly, the importance of religion has been reduced due to industrialization, western education, modernization etc. In ancient Indian society, Brahmins had highest status but today it is not so. Status of Muslims in Pakistan is definitely better than that of Hindus and Christians because Islam is the religion of Pakistan. In this way sometimes, religion also plays an important role in the determination of status of class.

8. Race : Race is also a determinant of class in many societies of the world. White people are considered as of higher class and black people are considered as of lower caste. Asian countries are seen with the sense of hatredness in western countries. We can see racial conflict commonly in these countries.

9. Caste : In Indian Society, where caste system has played an important role from centuries, caste is also an important factor in determining class. Caste is based on birth. You cannot change your caste even if you have the ability. The membership of caste in ancient times was based on one’s birth.

Difference and Interface Between Caste and Class:

Question 8.
Give difference between Caste and Class.
Or
What are the differences between Caste and Class? Write in detail.
Answer:
1. Caste is based on birth but class is based on action : Membership of a person in caste system was based upon birth. Person was related with that caste for the whole life in which he was born. For example, a person, who was born in Kshatriya caste, will remain Kshatriya for the whole life an d he cannot change his membership. Membership of a person in class system is based upon income, education, occupation, ability etc. Person can change his membership according to his wish. A person can relate himself to the higher caste with hard world. Member ship of class is based upon ability. If the person does have ability but he never does any work can go from higher caste to lower caste. But if he does his work then he can change hi.s position from lower caste to higher caste. In this way cash is based upon birth class is based upon action.

2. Occupation of caste is determined but not of class : In caste system occupation was determined by the birth of the person. It means that occupation a were related with different castes. Person had to adopt the occupation of the caste in which he was born. He cannot change his occupation for this whole life. In this way he had to adopt the occupation of his caste even against his wish. Scope of selection of occupation in class system is very wide. It if 5 the wish 0f the person to choose the occupation. He adopts that occupation in which the is expert or which is more profitable. He can change his occupation at any time this way the selection of occupation deponds upon the ability of the person.

3. Membership of caste is ascribed but members! hip of class is e achieved : Status of person in caste system was; related with his cas te. It means status was not achieved by him but was related with his birth. That is why the – word ascribed was used for his status and that is why stability was there in caste system. Status of person was determined by the status; of the family.Status of person in class system is achieved. It means has to achieve his position in society. That is why the person in hard working righ from the start. Person can get higher or lower status in society with his ability. Birth i & of no importance. Person’s ability and hard work are important in changing his position.

4. Caste is a closed system but class is an open syste. Caste system is a close system of stratification because person has to live in its restrictions for the whole life. He can neither change Inis caste nor his occ upatir jn. Class system is an open group of stratification. Person has every type of indej jendence in it. He can move forward in any area with hard work. He gets full ch and to change his position from lower to higher. Class is open for everyone. Person car . become member of any class according to his ability. Perseverance and hard work can change his class many times in his life.

5. There are many restriction in caste system but at in class: Caste system puts various restrictions on its members. There were ma ny restrictions related to feeding, social intercourse. Caste had full control over the 1 ife of the person. One was not in a position to break these re strictions. Person has individual freedom in class system. There is no control or restriction over feeding, marriage, social int ercourse etc. Person if any class can establish contacts with person of any class.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 9 Social Structure Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 9 Social Structure

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which of these is the feature of social structure?
(а) Structure tells us about external structure of anything
(b) There are many elements of social structure
(c) Different societies have different structures
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

2. What type of social structure is?
(a) Stable
(b) Moveable
(c) Slowly moving
(d) Moving fast
Answer:
(b) Moveable

3. Social structure is a ……………….
(a) permanent concept
(b) temporary concept
(c) breakable concept
(d) changing concept
Answer:
(a) permanent concept

4. The term social structure was used first time by …………..
(a) Naddel
(b) Herbert Spencer
(c) Talcott persons
(d) Malinowski
Answer:
(b) Herbert Spencer

5. Who forms social structure?
(a) Community
(b) Religion
(c) Values
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

6. Sequal form of different units is known as
(a) interaction
(b) system
(c) structure
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) structure

7. What type of structure modern societies have?
(a) Simple
(b) Complex
(c) Systematic
(d) Modern
Answer:
(b) Complex

8. Give any feature of role.
(a) One person can have many roles
(b) Roles are regulated by our culture
(c) Roles are functional in nature
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

9. Give any feature of social status.
(a) Each status has a place in society
(b) Roles are determined with status
(c) Roles are determined by society
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

10. The status given on the basis of birth is known as ………………
(a) ascribed status
(b) role status
(c) achieved status
(d) fixed status
Answer:
(a) ascribed status

11. Status which one gets according to his ability is ……………..
(a) role status
(b) fixed status
(c) ascribed status
(d) achieved status
Answer:
(d) achieved status

12. What is the base of ascribed status?
(a) Birth
(b) Age
(c) Sex
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

13. What is the base of achieved status?
(a) Education
(b) Money
(c) Individual ability
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

Fill in the Blanks:

1. The systematic form of different but interrelated parts of society is known as …………….
Answer:
Social structure

2. When an individual gets many roles at a time, it is known as ………………
Answer:
Role set

3. ……………. is the position which one gets and he needs to fulfil.
Answer:
Status

4. …………… status is given on the basis of birth.
Answer:
Ascribed

5. …………… status is that which one gets with his ability and hard work.
Answer:
Achieved

6. ………….. and …………….. are two sides of same coin.
Answer:
Status, Role

True/False:

1. Herbert Spencer used the word Social Structure for the first time.
Answer:
True

2. All the parts of society are interrelated.
Answer:
True

3. Spencer wrote a book ‘The Principles of Sociology’.
Answer:
True

4. Status is of three types.
Answer:
False

5. One gets ascribed status with his hard work.
Answer:
False

6. One gets achieved status according to his birth.
Answer:
False

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
Which part of society is expressed in social structure?
Answer:
External aspect of society is expressed in social structure.

Question 2.
Which units form social structure?
Answer:
Important units of society such as institutions, groups, associations etc. form social structure.

Question 3.
What do we get from the units of structure?
Answer:
We get sequence from the units of structure.

Question 4.
What type of concept is social structure?
Answer:
Social structure is a permanent concept which exists everywhere.

Question 5.
What is the base of social structure?
Answer:
The base of social structure is ideal system.

Question 6.
How many types of social structure are given by Talcott Parsons?
Answer:
Talcott Persons gave four types of social structure.

Question 7.
Name the sociologist who explained social structure in comparison with human body.
Answer:
Herbert Spencer explained social structure in comparison with human body.

Question 8.
Is structure of all the societies same?
Answer:
No, structure of all the societies is not same.

Question 9.
Name the two important elements of social structure.
Answer:
The two important elements of social structure are idealistic system and status system.

Question 10.
What type of structure modern societies have?
Answer:
Modern societies have complex structure.

Question 11.
What type of structure ancient societies had?
Answer:
Ancient societies had simple structure.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Structure?
Answer:
Sequal form of different units is known as structure. It means that if different units are kept in a sequence, a systematic form comes in front and it is known as structure.

Question 2.
Who forms social structure?
Answer:
Social structure is formed by different units such as family, religion, community, organisations, groups, values, status, institutions, normes etc. Except this normative system, position system, sanction system, system of anticipated responses and action system also give great contribution in it.

Question 3.
Is social structure abstract?
Answer:
Yes, social structure is abstract in nature as it is formed by units such as institutions norms, values, ideas etc. which are abstract and we can’t see them, That’s why social structure is also abstract in nature.

Question 4.
Name the type of social structure given by Talcott Parsons.
Answer:
Talcott Parsons has given four types of social structure and these are:

• Universalistic achieved pattern
• Universalistic ascribed pattern
• Particularistic achieved a pattern
• Particularistic ascribed pattern

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Social Structure?
Answer:
Our society has been made with the co-operation of many units. These units are institutions, associations, groups, status, roles etc. Just with’the collection of these units, society cannot be formed but is formed because of a specific system which exists in these units. For example, we cannot call wood, nails, fevicol, polish a chair. But when all these things will be joined in a specific system, then it can be called as a structure of a chair. In this way, all the units of society, which we can only feel, will be kept in a system then it is known as social structure.

Question 2.
Give four elements of Social Structure.
Answer:
According to Talcott Parsons and Harry M. Johnson, there are four main elements of social structure and these are:

• Sub-group
• Social norms
• Roles
• Social values

Question 3.
How is social structure the product of interactions?
Answer:
No specific design is formed to tell the institutions, groups, norms in social structure but they are developed because of the result of the social interactions. That’s there is no need to do any effort in this regard consciously.

Question 4.
Meaning of Sub-group.
Answer:
Different parts which exist in social structure are sub-groups. It means that many sub-groups like college, school, family etc. exist in a big group like a community. The structure of social groups is determined by the roles and status of their members. Sub-groups stay for a longer time than the members. For example, a teacher has a definite role and status in school but these roles and status never come to an end even after his death. But these roles and statuses are taken by any other person. In this way, even after the death of many persons, sub-groups stay for a very long time.

Question 5.
Meaning of Sequence.
Answer:
Many units like an institution, caste, norms, values co-exist in society. Just with the joining of these units social structure cannot be formed unless a definite type of sequence exists in these units. It is this sequence because of which we can see any form. Like, if the bricks, sand, cement, iron will be put in a sequence, then the form of a house will come in front of us. This is known as a sequence.

Question 6.
What is Social Status?
Answer:
Position of a person which exists in society, has been given the name of social status. This position is that by which person is known by his rights and patterns of his roles on the basis of his gender, age, birth, occupation etc. For example, if any officer is coming in office then everyone stands up, this respect is given to him, because of his position. A specific pattern related with his function is known as social status.

Question 7.
Any two elements of Status.
Answer:

1. Status is determined by the cultural position of the society because functions related with needs exist in society, with which stability is maintained in society. For example, in ancient times status of Brahmans was higher in caste system but according to modern culture, status of a rich person is higher.
2. Every person has to do his role according to his status. It means that role is related with every status.

Question 8.
Types of status given by Ralph Linton.
Answer:
According to Linton there are two types of status:

• Ascribed status
• Achieved status

Question 9.
Two characteristics of Social Role.
Answer:

• These are determined by social sanctions because these are the basis of culture. Any role done against social values is not accepted by society.
• Norms and values of society are changeable because of which roles also change. Different roles in different times have different importance.

Question 10.
Characteristics of Social Status.
Answer:

• Every status has a place in society.
• Status is determined by the culture of the society.
• Status is always comparable.
• Every status has a psychological base.
• The role is determined by status.

Question 11.
Characteristics of Role.
Answer:

• One person has many roles.
• The role is determined by our culture.
• The role is functional.
• The role is determined by social sanctions.
• Different roles have different importance.
• The role is changeable.

Question 12.
Importance of Role.
Answer:

• It maintains a social system and balance.
• It regulates the actions of individuals.
• It divides the functions in society.
• It regulates social interaction.
• It makes an individual active and affects his behaviour.

Question 13.
Role Conflict.
Answer:
Role Conflict is a situation that starts at the time when one individual needs to perform many roles at a given time and he is unable to maintain a balance between these different role. A person has many roles and certain expectations are associated with each role. When a person is not in a position to maintain a balance between these roles and conflict starts between roles then this process is known as role conflict.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of social structure given by different sociologists.
Answer:
Different sociologists have defined it in their own way which are given below:

1. View of Herbert Spencer. Herbert Spencer was the first Sociologist who threw some light on the structure of the society but was unable to give a clear definition of the social structure. He explained the meaning of the social structure in his book ‘Principles of Sociology on a biological basis. Spencer tried to clarify the meaning of social structure on a the basis of ‘Organic Structure’. Durkheim also used this word but he also left it in halfway.

According to Spencer, the human physical structure has many parts like legs, ears, mouth, hands etc. and one organised system is there in these parts on the basis of which all these parts work for body. It means that our body works only because of collection of interrelation and interdependence of these parts. Social structure is also of same type. Yet different parts of social structure are like parts of the body but their type is different. Because of which some people are fat, thin, tall and, short.

“Social structure is of same type. Yet its all Parts are same in all societies but their type is changed. That’s why social structure of one society is different from other society. In this way Spencer has kept these parts interrelated on the basis of their function but with function mutual relations are also necessary. That’s why this meaning is very much unclear.

2. Views of Radcliff Brown. Radcliff Brown was a famous Anthropologist of England. He belongs to the structural functional school of sociology. According to him, “The components of social structure are human beings, the structure itself being an arrangement of persons in relationship institutionally defined and regulated.” Brown has taken many examples from Australian and African tribal societies to clarfiy his definition. According to him the system of kinship which exists in them is the sequence of institutionalized relations. According to Brown, “Human beings are connected by a complex network of social relations. I use the term ‘Social Structure’ to denote this network of actually existing relations.”

According to Brown, the way in which changes come in human physical structure, in that same way change comes in social structure but the basic element in both remains the same. It means that the units of making the structure keeps on changing. In this way if we look at the two societies then we will come to know that the basic elements of making them remain the same but units keep on changing because of which difference com6s among them. But with difference we cannot say that these both societies are completely different from each other. It is so because their basic elements are same and similarities remain among them.

According to Broyvn, social structure is not static but is a mobile continuity. Social structure also changes like human body but basic elements never change. Parts of making social structure are changing but basic elements never change. Structure remains the same but sometimes form of general structure changes.

3. Views of S.F. Nadal. According to S.F. Nadal, “We arrive at the structure of society through abstracting from the concrete population and its behaviour the pattern or network (or system) of relationship obtaining between actors in their capacity of playing roles relative to one another.” According to Nadal, “Structure is the systematic arrangement of different parts. These are related only with the external aspect of society and are completely different from functional aspect of society. According to him, society has three elements

• Group of people.
• Institutionalized rules according to which the members of the groups interact.
• An institutionalized pattern or expression of these interactions.

To understand the concept of structure we have to understand the concept of one society given by Nadal. According to Nadal, ‘One society is a group of people in which different humans are related with each other on the basis of social institutionalization that social rules control and direct human behaviour.’ In this way there are three elements in Nadal’s concept of one society and these are persons, their interactions and social relations which come out of those interactions.

According to Nadal, a system is related to the structure of anything but not with its functional aspect. In this way, society is a group of people in which different humans and their behaviour is regulated and controlled by institutionalised social rules. According to Nadal, human system in group is not necessary but the functions done by them should be systematic and regulated. In short, we can say that definite sequence or system of interrelations of different parts of society are known as social structure.

According to S.F Nadal, “ Structure can be transposed irrespective of the concrete data manifesting it, differently expressed, the parts comprising any structure can vary widely in their concrete character without changing the identity of the structure.”

4. According to Harry M. Johnson, “Social structure is made with the mutual relations of different parts. Yet change comes in the parts of social structure but stability remains among them. According to him, structure of any thing is the relative and permanent interrelations which exist in the different parts of that thing.” So according to him, the structure of anything consists of relatively stable inter-relationship among its parts, moreover the ‘part’ itself implies a certain degree of stability since a social system is composed of the interrelated acts of people, its structure must be sought in some degree of regularity or recurrence in these acts.”

5. According to Talcott Parsons,“Social structure is a term applied to the particular arrangement of the interrelated institutions, agencies and social patterns as well as the status and roles which each person assumes in the group.”

According to Parsons, the way in which different parts of the body are interrelated, in that same way different units of social structure are interrelated with which one specific system comes in front of us. Under this system every person obeys his role and status. Social relations are abstract and that’s why social structure is also abstract. We cannot touch or see social relations but alone can understand and feel. He gave one thing that status and roles are determined by the customs, traditions, beliefs etc. of society * Different agencies and institutions come out from these status and when all these are interrelated and organized in a specific system then social structure is formed.

According to Parsons, structure is not a single united unit but structure is made of different parts. These different parts are related with one another. If the relation between them would be temporary then they will not be able to give necessary co-operation in the formation of structure. That’s why co-operation of permanent parts is necessary for the formation of the structure. In this way the structure is the total of permanent parts. We cannot include changeable elements in it. But here one thing is important and that is that change often comes in different parts of structure and Social structure gets stability from these changes.

Types Of Status:

Question 2. How many types of status are there? Explain them.
Or
Explain Ascribed and Achieved status briefly.
Answer: Ralph Linton divided status into two parts:

1. Ascribed Status
2. Achieved Status

These two types of status are used in every society. Every person is different from each other. They are different from each other on the basis of birth and ability. Status based on birth is known as Ascribed status and the status based on ability is known as Achieved status because person gets this status on the basis of his ability. That’s why status in society are of two types.

1. Ascribed Status. Ascribed status is that which a person gets by birth without any work. We get this status automatically from the customs, values, traditions of society. Even exactly after his birth person starts getting these status. Firstly, he becomes member of the family and gets status related to gender. Then he relates with his kins and society because of which he gets relative status. He gets these status at that time when the society hardly knows about his qualities. Person gets status through socialization. Person gets these status on the basis of some rules and these bases are given below:

1. Sex: Humans are differentiated in society on the basis of sex like boy, girl, male, female. Some biological differences are also there between these sexes. In ancient times the base of division of labour was only sex. Females used to take care of house, males used to go out to arrange the food. Physically there are many differences among them. Some functions are limited only to biological extent. Yet the abilities of both male and female are similar these days but the situation on the basis of gender is same even today. That’s why, even in today’s age, many status are given according to gender and the position of female is very much lower as compared to male. But still many status are there which a female cannot get. Female was not allowed to enter the Brahmacharya Ashrama. According to Hindu religious books, person should have son to get salvation. In this way status of father, son, mother, daughter is given on the basis of sex.

2. Status on the basis of age: Age is also one of the important factors in determing status of a person in different societies. It is a biological base which a person gets without any hard work. Status of a person changes in different circumstances with the change of age. These stages are also related with the cultures of society. In ancient times, society was controlled by the eldest person of the society. Age is one of the important factors in India for marriage or to give vote. Person gets authority in society in a different way with age. We can take example of the family. Children are given higher or lower status according to the age. People make fun with the children in the family. At ypung age parents takes care of the habits of their children and often it is said that, “Now you are not a small child, behave, speak and work properly.” Persons are given punishment according to their age.

In modern times, status given on the basis of age have been changed because children with less age but more ability are given more prestige and respect in society. Young people work on the higher posts and people with more age work under them. In this way yet changes have come with base of age but still this base has a lot of importance. This base has great importance in maintaining balance in society. Person get his position without any effort.

3. Kinship. In the ancient times, kinship was so important that humans got responsibility on the basis of kinship. Son of the king was known as Prince. Prince used to get equal respect which the king was given. Identity of the child was being done on the basis of family or kinship. There was a special relation between child and the family. Child used to get caste right after his birth, in caste system, in which he was born. It means that he used to get position of the family in caste system. Person was known by his family. Princes were getting education and training of weapons, horse riding etc. They had to take responsibilities of the family. Every child has to carry forward the work of his family. Community membership, religion etc. of the child were related with ascribed status.

4. Social factors. Humans were classfied in different groups in many societies and there was a system of hierarchy in these groups. It means that these groups were considered as higher or lower groups. Classification of these groups was being done on the basis of different occupations or abilities like officer, teacher etc. People of one group used to keep relations with other group.

2. Achieved Status. In ancient times and in modern times ascribed status is of great importance. Person used to get ascribed status through the process of socialization. But in modern times man cannot limit himself to only ascribed status. If the ability of a person will not come out properly then society cannot develop. Ability of the person gives him the chance to move forward and person gets social position on the basis of his ability and even society gives him status.

Ancient societies were simple and classless, that’s why ascribed statuses were of great importance. But slowly and slowly societies started to become complex and with this importance was started to be given to individuals abilities. Person started to get achieved status with his hard work and society gave him enough opportunity to show his abilities.
In this type of status the ability of the person is evaluated on the basis of social values. The way in which society is changing, achieved status are also changing. These are limited according to the needs of society. Division of labour and specialization give many chances to person to achieve position. Money is of great importance in capitalist societies because of which position of a person is high or low. Because of industrialization, occupations are related with technology because of which distribution of status cannot be done on the basis of ascribed status. For example, a person cannot become doctor without taking relative education.

A person achieves status with the help of his hard work and efforts which can be kept on the basis of money, occupation, education etc. Person can develop his personality fully with this status. Achieved status is of great importance in changing conditions of modern society. Now individual’s abilities are of great importance in society. Lundberg was of the view, “The ascription of a particular status with the intensive training that such ascription makes possible, is a guarantee that the role will be performed even if the performance is mediocre. The ascription of status sacrifices the possibility of having certain roles performed brilliantly for the certainity of having them performed possible.”