PSEB Notes

This PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 10 Light Reflection and Refraction will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 10 Light Reflection and Refraction

→ Light is an external physical agent which produces in us the sensation of sight.

→ When light travelling in one medium falls on the surface of another medium, the following three effects are observed:

• A part of the incident light is turned back (or reflected) into the first medium.
• Another part travels through the second medium along a changed path (i.e the fight is refracted).
• The remaining part is absorbed by the second medium.

→ Objects are always placed in front of the mirror to their left, so u (object distance) is always negative.

→ The focal length of the convex mirror is taken as positive (+) and that of the concave mirror as negative (-).

→ Magnification of a concave mirror forming real image is m = \(\frac{v}{u}\) and that of convex mirror and also a concave mirror forming virtual image is m = \(\frac{-v}{u}\).

→ All distances measured in the direction of the incident light are taken as positive and distances measured in a direction opposite to the incident ray are taken as negative.

→ The phenomenon of bending of a light ray when it travels from one medium to another medium of different optical densities is called the refraction of light.

→ When a ray of light travels from an optically rarer to an optically denser medium, it bends towards normal.

→ When a ray of light travels from an optically denser to an optically rarer medium, it bends away from normal.

→ The higher the refractive index the more is the denser medium.

→ The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (Sin i) to the sine of the angle of refraction (Sin r) is constant, called the refractive index of the medium.

→ The Refractive index of a medium is the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in a medium.

→ The lens is a portion of the transparent and refracting medium.

→ The relation between the object distance (u), the image distance (v) and the focal length (f) of a lens is called lens formula i.e. \(\frac{1}{f}=\frac{1}{v}-\frac{1}{u}\)

→ The power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length. Its unit is dioptre.

→ Mirror: Any smooth and polished surface is called a mirror.

→ Reflection of Light: When light falls on a mirror or a polished surface then without any change in the medium it returns into the same medium along a particular direction. This phenomenon of change of path of light is called reflection.

→ Incident Ray: A ray of light coming from a source of light falling on any surface is called an incident ray.

→ Reflected Ray: After reflection, a ray of light coming back from point of incidence into the same medium is called a reflected ray.

→ Incident Point: The point on the reflecting surface where incident ray strikes is called incident point.

→ Normal: The perpendicular drawn at the point of incidence is called normal.

→ The angle of Incidence: The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of incidence.

→ The angle of Reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal is called the angle of reflection.

→ Ray of Light: The straight path of light is called a ray of light.

→ Spherical Mirror: If the mirror is a part of some hollow sphere whose one surface is polished and the other surface is reflecting then such mirror is called a spherical mirror.

→ Concave Mirror: A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is towards the centre of a hollow sphere of which the mirror is a part, is called a concave mirror.

→ Convex Mirror: A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is away from the centre of a sphere of which the mirror is a part, is called a convex mirror.

→ Centre of Curvature: Centre of curvature of a spherical mirror is the centre of a sphere of which the mirror is a part.

→ Pole: The midpoint of a spherical mirror is called the pole of the mirror.

→ Principal Axis: An imaginary line joining the pole and centre of curvature of a spherical mirror is called the principal axis.

→ The radius of Curvature: It is the radius of a sphere of which the spherical mirror is a part.

→ Aperture: That part of the mirror from where actually reflection takes place is called the aperture of the mirror.

→ Principal Focus: It is the point on the principal axis where the rays of light coming parallel to the principal axis after reflection actually meet or appear to diverge is called the principal focus of the mirror.

→ Focal Length: The distance between pole and principal focus of spherical mirror is called the focal length of the mirror. It is usually denoted by f.

→ Magnification: The magnification of a spherical mirror is the ratio of the length (size) of the image to the length (size) of the object. It is denoted by ‘m’.

→ Refraction of Light: The change of path of light when it goes from one medium to another medium is called refraction of light.

→ Transparent Medium: Mediums like air, water, and glass through which light can pass easily are called transparent mediums.

→ Lens: A portion of transparent and refracting medium bounded by two surfaces is called the lens.

→ Power of Lens: The capacity of a lens to converge or diverge light rays is called the power of the lens. It is denoted by ‘P’.

→ Centres of Curvature of Lens: The centres of spheres of which the spherical surfaces of the lens are part, are called centres of curvature of the lens.

→ Principal Axis of Lens: The line passing through the centres of curvature of the lens, is called the principal axis of the lens.

→ Optical Centre: A point of the lens through which rays of light go undefeated, is called an optical centre.

→ Principal Focus of Lens: The point on the principal axis of the lens, where rays coming parallel to the principal axis after refraction either actually converge or appear to diverge, is called the principal focus of the lens.

This PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 9 Heredity and Evolution will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 9 Heredity and Evolution

→ Heredity: It is the transmission of genetic characters from parents to the offspring i.e., from one generation to the next.

→ Variation: The differences among the individuals of a species and also in the offsprings of the same parents are referred as a variation.

→ Every organism produce offsprings either through asexual or sexual reproduction. The individuals produced through these reproductive processes are similar but subtly different.

→ In asexual reproduction, although all the offsprings resemble each other and also to their single parent, yet very minor differences (variations) arise in them.

→ For example, if we observe a field of sugarcane we find very few variations among the individual plants.

→ The reproductive processes give rise to new individuals that are similar, but subtly different.

→ The number of successful variations is maximized by the process of sexual reproduction.

→ Inheritance from the previous generation provides both a common basic body design and subtle changes in it, for the next generation.

→ The second generation will have differences that they inherit from the first generation, as well as newly created differences.

→ Some amount of variation is produced even during asexual reproduction.

→ The selection of variants by environmental factors forms the basis for evolutionary processes.

→ A child bears all the basic features of a human being.

→ Both the father and the mother contribute practically equal amounts of genetic material to the child.

→ Mendel was the first one to keep count of individuals exhibiting a particular trait in each generation.

→ Mendel used a number of contrasting visible characters of a garden pea. Cellular DNA is the information source for making proteins in the cell.

→ A section of DNA that provides information for one protein is called the gene for that protein.

→ Plant height can also depend on the amount of a particular plant hormone. Genes control characteristics or traits.

→ Each cell will have two copies of each chromosome, one each from the male and female parents.

→ Every germ cell will take one chromosome from each pair and these may be of either maternal or paternal origin.

→ In some animals, the temperature at which fertilized eggs are kept determines whether the animals developing in the eggs will be male or female.

→ In other animals, such as snails, individuals can change sex, indicating that sex is not genetically determined.

→ Human has 23 pairs of chromosomes.

→ Women are XX, while men are XY.

→ The frequency of inherited traits changes over generations.

→ The germ cells of sexually reproducing populations are made in specialized reproductive tissue.

→ Change in non-reproductive tissues cannot be passed on to the DNA of the germ cells..

→ An individual cannot pass on to its progeny the experiences of its lifetime.

→ Charles Darwin formulated in his hypothesis that evolution took place due to natural selection.

→ We often associate Darwin solely with the theory of evolution.

→ J.B.S. Haldane, a British scientist (who became a citizen of India later), suggested in 1929 that life must have developed from the simple inorganic molecules which were present on earth soon after it was formed.

→ Some basic characteristics will be shared by most organisms.

→ The cell is the basic unit of life in all organisms.

→ Bacterial cells do not have nuclei while the cells of most other organisms do.

→ Among multicellular organisms, whether they can undertake photosynthesis or not, is an important level of classification.

→ The skeleton is inside the body or around the body is another fundamental design difference.

→ The more characteristics two species will have in common, the more closely they are related.

→ The more closely they are related, the more recently they will have had a common ancestor.

→ Non-living material must have given rise to life.

→ The characteristics in different organisms would be similar because they are inherited from a common ancestor.

→ Mammals have four limbs, as do birds, reptiles, and amphibians.

→ The wings of birds and bats are more closely related to each other.

→ The preserved traces of living organisms are called fossils.

→ If we dig into the earth and start finding fossils, it is reasonable to suppose that the fossils we find closer to the surface are more recent than the fossils we find in deeper layers.

→ The dating of fossils is done by detecting the ratios of different isotopes of the same element in the fossil material.

→ The complex organs 4vill be created bit-by-bit over generations.

→ Like the wing, the eye seems to be a very popular adaptation.

→ The structure of the eye in different organisms is different. It shows that they have separate evolutionary origins.

→ A flatworm named Planaria has very simple ‘eyes’ that are really just eye spots that detect light.

→ A change that is useful for one property to start with, can become useful later for quite a different function.

→ Feathers, for example, can start out as providing insulation in cold weather but later, they might become useful for flight.

→ The birds are very closely related to reptiles.

→ Humans have started cultivating wild cabbage as a food plant for over more than two thousand years and generated different vegetables from it by selection.

→ Changes in the DNA during cell division would lead to changes in the proteins that are made from new DNA.

→ The organisms which are more distantly related will accumulate a greater number of differences in their DNA.

→ It is not true that human beings have evolved from chimpanzees. The two resultant species have probably evolved in their own separate ways to give rise to the current forms.

→ Evolution is simply the generation of diversity and the shaping of diversity by environmental selection.

→ The tools for tracing evolutionary relationships are excavating, time-dating, and studying fossils, as well as

→ DNA sequences determination has been used for studying human evolution.

→ All humans are a single species. We all come from Africa.

→ The earliest members of the human species, Homo sapiens, can be traced in Africa.

→ The origin of man, like other species on the earth, is an event of biological evolution.

→ Genetics: The branch of biology which deals with the study of heredity and variation is called genetics.

→ Heredity: The transmission of characters from generation to generation is called heredity.

→ Gene: The basic unit of heredity which transmits the traits into the next generation.

→ Sex chromosome: The pair of chromosomes which decide the sex of male and female.

→ Homologous chromosome: The pair of chromosomes each from mother and father together is called a homologous chromosome.

→ Autosomes: The chromosomes other than sex chromosomes are autosomes.

→ Evolution: The slow and continuous process of changing organisms from simple to complex form is called evolution. In simple words descend with modification.

→ Homologous organs: The organs have the same origin and basic structure but are adapted to perform various functions.

→ Analogous organs: The organs have a different origin and basic structures but perform the same function.

→ Transgenic organism: The organism produced by the introduction of foreign DNA or genes.

→ Fossils: The remains of dead animals in earth strata are called fossils.

→ Haploid: The single set of chromosomes obtained from one parent.

→ Nucleotide: A molecule made up of nitrogen base, sugar, and phosphate.

→ Chromatid: When the chromosomes divide into two each part is called a chromatid.

→ Vestigial organs: Organs in our body having no functional importance are called vestigial organs.

→ Genetic drift: The effect on the genetic continuation in a population due to the death of organisms or immigration is called genetic drift.

→ Variations are differences between young one of the same parent: They differ from their parents.

→ Variations arise due to inaccuracies in DNA replication in asexually reproducing organisms.

→ Offsprings: Young ones produced as reproduction are ailed offsprings.

→ Genotype: The internal genetic constitution of an organism is termed genotype. The environment has no effect on it.

→ Phenotype: It refers to externally visible characters of an organism. It is the net result of interactions between genotype and environment. Individuals of the same genotype breed alike are termed phenotype.

→ Recessive traits: An allele (gene) that is not expressed phenotypically when present in heterozygous conditions.

→ Speciation: The origin of species is termed speciation.

→ Acquired characters: The characters acquired during a lifetime are ailed acquired characters.

→ Life: Life is the power that an organism possesses to maintain and reproduce itself.

→ Natural selection: According to Darwin the individual with special traits survive and multiply while others perish is called natural selection.

This PSEB 7th Class Computer Notes Chapter 3 Microsoft Word Part-I will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 7th Class Computer Notes Chapter 3 Microsoft Word Part-I

Introduction:
Word processing is the most commonly used software in computers, with the help of this, we can create documents, save the documents, print the documents and also we can edit the already created document. Let’s learn about these features of word processing.

Wort Processing:
We make a lot of mistakes when typing a document with the help of typewriter, which we can’t correct again, we have to type the document again to make it better, but word processing gives us a facility through which we can easily correct our mistakes in typed documents without having to retype them.
Word processing is a process by which we can create, save and print any type of document in a computer and it can be used anytime in the future and can be edited if required.
The software that is used for word processing process called word processor. For example: MS Word, NotePad, WordPad and word perfect all are word processors.

Features of Word Processing:
Following are the features of word processor:

• A word processor provides an easier and faster method to type the text.
• It offers so many styles, size, color, effects for text.
• Using a word processor, you can apply editing operations to the text.
• It stores all your documents for. future use.
• It allows you to insert photos, music, background etc. into the document.
• It can move any document from one place to another with the help of cut, copy, and paste option.
• You can delete, edit, update the data in the pre-created document at any time.
• It helps us to find and correct mistakes in the typed text.
• It also provide the facility to check the grammar mistakes in the typed text.

Word Processing – Software:
A word processor is a software program capable of creating, saving and printing typed documents. Today, the word processor is one of the most widely used software programs on the computer, it can create different types of files and to create these files requires different software such as WordPad, Microsoft Office, Microsoft Word, etc are some examples of word processors.

Today in this lesson we will read about MS Word word processor.

Microsoft Word
Microsoft Word is a word processor software program published by Microsoft Company also called MS Word, WinWord, Word. Microsoft Word provides advanced features for creating and saving different types of documents. For example, we can create letter typing, emails, reports, tables, etc. in Microsoft Word.

Some of the basic applications of MS Word are as follows:

• Creating and saving a text document.
• Editing and formatting existing documents.
• Make the document attractive with the help of different styles, size, colors and effects.
• Creating graphical documents with images, charts, smart art etc.
• Identify grammatical and spelling errors in the document.

Features of Microsoft Word
Some of the special features of Microsoft word are as follows:

• MS Word allows us to include text anywhere in the document.
• We can delete any word, line or page from the document as easily as we erase the words written on paper.
• We can cut and copy the text and paste it anywhere in the same document or any other document.
• MS Word allows us to set the page margin and page size according to our needs.
• We can add Bold, Italic and Underline effects to the text.
• We can change the size, style, color of the text.
• We can add header on the top of pages and footer on the bottom of the page.
• We can add pictures, chart, graphs and smart art.
• We can convert the text into tables.
• You can also set different margins in a document and also determine the different locations to start a paragraph.
• It also provides us with the facility of macro. This is a list of many commands with which our time is saved.
• MS Word also provides us the facility of spelling checks. It shows a red line below the words that are incorrect.
• MS Word also provides us the facility of grammar checks.
• It also provides Find and Replace option.
• It also provides the facility of dictionary with which we can find many words with the same meaning and use them in our document.

Starting MS Word
The steps to start MS Word are as follows:
1. First, click the Start button

on the desktop

2. Now click on All Program from the popup menu as shown in the picture below.

3. Now click MS Office! MS Word.

Or
Type “Word” in the search bar as shown in the picture below and press Enter key from the keyboard

Components of MS Word Window
When you start the Word application then a window opens on the screen as shown in the picture below. Let us understand the different important parts of this window.

1. File Menu: This option is available in the upper left corner of the window, it contains many of the following commands:
(a) Home: It has options like font color, font size, font style, alignment, bullets, line spacing, etc. All the basic elements that someone might need to edit their document are available in the Home option.

(b) Insert: Tables, sizes, images, charts, graphs, headers, footers, page numbers, etc. are available in insert options.

(c) Design: The template (pre-created document design) or the design in which you want your document to be created can be selected under the Design tab.

(d) Page layout: Under the Page Layout tab we can find the options such as Margins, Orientation, Columns, Lines, Indentations, Spacing, etc.

(e) Reference: This tab is most useful for those who are preparing thesis or writing books or working on a long document. Footnote, table of content, bibliography, captions etc. options can be found under this tab.

(f) Review: Spell check, grammar, thesaurus, word count, language, translation, comments, etc. can all be tracked under the Review tab.

2. Quick Access Toolbar: Collection of buttons that provide one click access to commonly used commands such as Save, Undo or Redo. You can also customize this according to your preference.

3. Title Bar: This bar window is at the top of the screen and the name of the open document appears on it. Above this bar are three control buttons:

minimize, maximize, close button

4. Ribbon: The ribbon consists of three organized commands:

(a) Tabs: These appear on the top of the ribbon and contain groups of related commands. For example: home, insert, page layout ribbon, references, mailings Review etc. all are tabs. We have already read about them.
(b) Group: They handle related commands; the name of each group appears below the group on the ribbon. For example, a group of commands related to fonts (Font Group) or a group of commands related to alignment (paragraph group), etc.
(c) Commands: Commands appear in each group as described above. For example: Cut, Copy, Paste, Font Size, Color, Alignment etc. are all commands.

5. Ruler: There are two rulers in the word window – a horizontal ruler and a vertical ruler. The horizontal ruler appears just below the ribbon and is used to set margins and tab stops. The vertical ruler appears on the left side of the word window and is used to determine the vertical position of the page.

6. Help: The help icon can be used whenever you want to get help related to MS Word. It provides excellent tutorials on various topics related to Word.

7. Document Area: Right below the ruler, there is a large space called the text area. This is the area where we type our document; the blinking line in this area is called the insertion point which indicates that your typing will start from this place.

8. Status Bar: It displays the information of the document as well as the position of the insertion point. From left to right, this bar contains information on the total number of pages and words, document language, etc.

9. Dialog Box Launcher: This appears as a very small arrow in the lower-right corner of most groups of the ribbon. Clicking this button opens a dialog box or task pane that provides more options about the group.

10. View buttons: At the bottom right of the window screen is a set of 5 buttons that allow us to view the document in a different view.

(a) Prints Layout: This is the default document view in Word. The Print Layout view shows the document as it would appear after printing.
(b) Full-Screen Layout View: This view opens the document to a full screen. This layout helps us to make our document easily readable above the screen.
(c) Web Layout: This view displays a document on the screen the way it will look when viewed in a Web browser if you saved it as a web page.
(d) Out Line View: The outline view shows the document as an outline form.
(e) Draft View: This is the most commonly used view, in this view we can edit our document very quickly and easily.

Creating a New Document
Follow these steps to create a new document:

• Click the office button and then click File menu
• Now click on New option from the drop down menu, as shown in the picture.
• A New Document dialog box will appears on the screen.
• Click Blank Document option from this dialog box and then Click Create Option as shown in picture.
• Now a blank document will appear on the screen

Or
You can create a new document by pressing the Ctrl + N keys from the keyboard.

Open an Existing Document
Follow these steps to open an existing document:

• Click the File tab or Office Button.
• Click Open option. The Open dialog box appears.
• As shown in picture below select a document which you want to open and then Click Open button.
• Now your document will open on the screen.

Or
You can open an existing document by pressing the Ctrl + 0 keys from the keyboard.

Saving a Document
To save a newly created document follows these steps:

• Click the File tab or Office Button.
• Click Save option. The Save dialog box appears. As shown in picture below.
• Now type the name of your document in File name box and then click Save button.

Or
You can also save your document by pressing the Ctrl + S keys from Keyboard Now your document is safe for future use.

Note:

• Word processing is a process by which we can create, save and print any type of document
• The software that is used for word processing process called word processor.
• MS Word, NotePad, WordPad and word perfect are all word processors.
• Microsoft Word is a word processor software program, provides advanced features for creating and saving different types of documents.
• Tabs appear on the top of the ribbon and contain groups of related commands.
• Group handle related commands; the name of each group appears below the group on the ribbon.
• The large area at the bottom of the ruler is called the text area. We can type our document in this text area.
• Text can be viewed on a computer screen before it is printed, errors can be detected and corrected.
• A dialog box launcher is present in the lower right corner of each group.
• Word allows us to view the document in 5 different views. Prints Layout. Full screen layout view, Web Layout, Out Line View, Draft view.

This PSEB 7th Class Computer Notes Chapter 2 Windows Explorer will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 7th Class Computer Notes Chapter 2 Windows Explorer

Introduction:
Windows Explorer is an important part of Windows. It manages files and folders. You can cut, copy, paste, rename and delete your files and folders. Explorer puts your files and folders in the correct order.

There are two types of Explorer:

1. Windows Explorer
2. Internet Explorer.

Windows Explorer:
The main function of Windows Explorer is to provide a graphical interface for navigating the computer’s hard disk and associated media. It is used to view, organize and manage the files / folders on the computer’s hard disk. Windows Explorer is automatically launched any time you open a folder in Windows XP.

Windows Explorer is also called File Explorer. It is used to view files and folders on our computer. We can open the data, folder and library of the disk in the computer and also search for an item. We can use it to open, delete, rename, copy, move and create new folders.

Opening the Windows Explorer
We can open Windows explorer in many ways. Some of these are as follow:

Or
By default, Windows 10 includes a File Explorer shortcut on the taskbar. Its icon looks like a folder. Click or tap on it and File Explorer is opened.

Components of Windows Explorer
Components of the windows explorer are files, folders, and drives. With the help of Explorer we can easily find any file or folder.

• File: File is the smallest unit of data storage.
• Folders: Folders are used to store related files in one place.
• Drive: Hard disk storage areas are called drives. For example Local Disk C, D, E, F, and G: drives.

With Windows Explorer we can easily access files, folders and drives. Windows Explorer is divided into following parts.

• Left Pane: This is called the navigation pane. Here we can see drives, files and folders
• Right Pane: When a file, folder is selected, its details appear in the right pane.

• Forward and Back buttons: Enables you to go to folders you’ve already opened. If you go to a different folder, you can choose the Back button to return to the last folder you accessed.
• Address Bar: Enables you to go to a different folder in the same Explorer window.
• Search Box: Allows you to search for subfolders, documents, images, programs, Web pages, and bookmarks in the current folder.
• Status Bar: Displays information about a selected folder and its contents, such as the total number of items in the folder, the number of items selected and total file size.
• Ribbon: Enables you to perform layout, formatting, and sharing tasks, as well as how File Explorer displays your files and folders.

Series of Locations:
The folders and drives in the computer, the computer connected to the network and its shared folders, drives and printers are arranged in a tree shape. This sequence is called a series of locations. It contains the following items:
Favorites: The top most folder in this series is the Desktop folder. It contains desktop, downloads and recent place items.

2. Library Folder: By default this folder contains four libraries, such as; Documents, music, photos and videos. These folders contain related items; Such as pictures in pictures folder, related videos in video folder, etc.

3. Personal Folder: Your personal folder is named after the user name to which you have logged in to the computer and by default it contains the following folders; such as Contacts, Downloads, Favorites, Links, My Documents, My Music, My Pictures, My Videos, Saved Games and Search.

4. MY Computer: Disks in a computer; such as C: drive, D: Drive, E: Drive etc. and other connected devices such as Printer, USB, memory stick and camera are attached to the computer, they are visible here.

5. Network: If you are connected to a local network, you see other computers and devices in it.

6. Control Panel: Control Panel is used to configure hardware and software of computer system and to change settings of computer system.

7. Recycle Bin: It contains deleted files/folders or programs.

View means how files and folders appear in a computer system. Explorer views show the direction in which files and folders will appear. It has five types of views. These are thumbnails, tiles, icons, lists and details.

• Small, Medium, Large and Extra Large Icons View: Items in this view are in more than one row and each item appears in the shape of an icon. Each item has a name.
• Tiles Icon View: Items in this view are in more than one row and each item appears in the shape of an icon. Each item has a name. It contains other information, such as the type of file and its size.
• List Icon View: Items in this view are in more than one column. Each item has a name and the icon is to the left of the name.
• Content Icon View: Items in this view appear in the column. Each item is in the shape of an icon. It has a name and type of the file is written below it. Some other properties such as modification date and size below it are also visible, By default this view is used for search.
• Detail Icon View: Each item appears as a table row. The first column contains the name of the item in the form of a small icon and the rest of the column lists its properties such as its size and the date and type of modification.

Change Display for a Single Folder

• Open File Explorer.
• Click the View tab at the top of the window.
• In the Layout section, select Extra large icons, Large icons, Medium Icons, Small icons, List, Details, Tiles, or Content to change to the view you want to see.

There are many different types of files you can use. For example, Microsoft Word documents, digital photos, digital music, and digital videos are all types of files. When you use different applications, you’ll often be viewing, creating, or editing files. Files are usually represented by an icon. In the image below, you can see a few different types of files.
Windows uses folders to help you organize files. You can put files inside a folder, just like you would put documents inside a real folder. In the image below, you can see some folders on the desktop.

Selecting the Items
Usually before doing any work on a file or folder such as opening a file, closing a file, deleting file, copy a file etc. we have to select it. There are different ways to select a single file/folder or multiple files/folders.
1. Selecting a Single Item: If more than one item is available and you want to select one of the items in it, it can be selected by clicking with the mouse on that file.

2. Selecting More Than One File ; There are a few ways to select more than one file at a time:
(a) If you’re viewing your files as icons, you can click and drag the mouse to draw a box around the files you want to select. When you’re done, release the mouse; the files will be selected. You can now move, copy, or delete all of these files at the same time.
(b) Selecting All Items: If you want to select all files in a folder at the same time, open the folder in File Explorer and press Ctrl+A or click “Select all” option from the “Select” group on the Home tab. All of the files in the folder will be selected.
(c) Select items using the Shift key: To select a group of files from a folder, click the first file, press and hold the Shift key on your keyboard, then click the last file. All of the files between the first and last ones will be selected.
(d) Selecting an item using (Ctrl key): To select specific files from a folder, press and hold the Control key on your keyboard, then click the files you want to select.

3. Reverse selection: To reverse the selection, select the “Invert Selection” option in the Edit menu.

Creating a Folder
If you want to create a new folder, it is created in the current location. Here are some ways to create a folder:

• Open the File explorer, click on the “New Folder” button option.
• The new folder will appear. Type the desired name for the folder and press Enter.

Or
Press the Ctrl + Shift + N keys together from the keyboard. The new folder will appear. Type the name of the folder and press Enter key.
Or
Right-click on a blank space, click “New” ⇒ “Folder” in the context menu. The new folder will appear. Type the name of the folder and press Enter key.

Or

• Place the cursor where you want to add your folder.
• In File Explorer, click on the Home menu item.
• From the Home riibbon, click on the New folder button.
• Enter the name of your new folder and press enter key.

Re-naming the Item
You can change the name of any file or folder. Here are the steps to rename an item:

• Click the file or folder, wait about one second, and click again. An editable text field will appear.
• Type the desired name on your keyboard and press Enter. The name will be changed.
  Or
• You can also right-click the folder and select “Rename” copy option from the menu that create shortcut appears. An editable text field will appear.
• Type the desired name from , keyboard and press Enter. The name will be changed.

Delete a File or Folder
If you no longer need to use a file, you can delete it. When you delete a file, it is moved to the Recycle Bin. If you change your mind, you can move the file from the Recycle Bin back to its original location. If you’re sure you want to permanently delete the file, you will need to empty the Recycle Bin.

Following are the Steps to delete file/folder:

• Select the file or folder you want to delete.
• Press the Delete key from the keyboard. A message will appear asking for deletion.
• Click on “Yes”. Item will be deleted.

Or

• Click and drag the file to the Recycle Bin icon on the desktop.
• To permanently delete the file, right click the Recycle Bin icon and select “Empty Recycle Bin”. All files in the Recycle Bin will be permanently deleted.

Copying or Pasting Items
To copy a file/folder the steps are as follow:

• Select the item to be copied.
• Select the “Copy” option from the “Clipboard” group on the “Home” tab.

Or
Press ctrl + c keys from the keyboard.
Right click on the file/folder you want to copy. A menu will open. From this menu select “copy” option. Now your file/folder will be copied.

Steps to paste the file/Folder are as follow:

• Place the cursor where you want to paste the file/folder.
• Select the “Paste” option from the “Clipboard” group on the “Home” tab.
• Your copied item will now be pasted.

Or
Press the Ctrl + V key from the keyboard.

Or
Locate and right-click the desired location, then select “Paste” option from the menu appeared.

Move Items by Cut and Paste
Move items from one place to another is similar to copy and paste but in this the cut option is used instead of copy. The important difference between copy / paste and cut / paste is that when we copy and paste an item, a duplicate item of that specified item is created in a new location which does not move from its original location. An item moved by cut or paste does not move from its original location but moves to its original location.

Cut and paste is used as follows.

• Select the item to be cut.
• Select the “Cut” option from the “Clipboard” group on the “Home” tab.

Or
From the keyboard Press the Ctrl + X key.
Or
Right-click the mouse and select Cut from the menu that appears. Steps to paste the file/Folder are as follow:

• Place the cursor where you want to pasite the file/folder.
• Select the “Paste” option from the “Clipboard” group on the “Home” tab.
• Your copied item will now be pasted.

Or
Press the Ctrl + V key from the keyboard.
Or
Locate and right-click the desired location, then select “Paste” option from the menu appeared.

Copying Items with Send To
The Send to Option is an easy way to copy one or more items or programs to a new location. Following are the steps to use Send to option:

• Select the item to be copied.
• Press the right mouse button; select the option “Send To” from the menu.
• Now select the specified location. By default, the Send To submenu contains the following locations:
  (a) Compressed (zipped) Folder
  (b) Desktop (Create Short-cut)
  (c) Documents Library
  (d) Fax and Mail recipients
  (e) Removable devices, such as: USB, Memory Sticks Select the option as needed.

Searching
Search commands can be used to find files, folders, etc. Sometimes we save an item and forget its location and in the future when we need that item we can’t find it, but with searching we can easily find our item we search for.

• Press the Ctrl + E key from the keyboard in Windows Explorer or click in the search box that appears in Windows.
• Type one or more search terms. If you use more than one search term, vour file must match those search terms.
• The results appear automatically in the item view as you type the search term. We do not need to press Enter key to do this.

Run Command:
The run command is obtained by clicking on Start button. Run commands are used to run a program or open folders and documents directly. Steps to use Run command are as follow:
1. Click on Start button.
2. Select All apps and expand Windows System, then click Run to open it. The run box will open.
Or
Just press the Windows key and the R key (win+R) at the same time, it will open the Run command box immediately.

Or
Type the word run inside search box in the taskbar, and then click Run from the search result. A Run dialog box will appear on the screen.

To open any program, type name in Run dialog box and click Ok. For Example type “Calc” to open the calculator.

Calculator:
Calc is the name of the spreadsheet program used in OpenOffice. A Calculator is an electronic hardware device or software capable of performing mathematical calculations, such as addition, multiplication, subtraction, or division. The calculator can also be used to calculate dates, convert currency, and if you’re using the Standard mode, you can keep the calculator window on top of other windows.

The steps for opening the calculator are as follows:
1. Click Start.
2. In the programs list, find and click the Calculator program.

Click Start.
Type “calc” in search box and press Enter.
Or
Press the shortcut keys Windows key+X.
In the Power User Task Menu, click the Run option.
Type “calc” in Run box and press Enter.

Customize Desktop:
Customizing is the process of changing the settings of a desktop.

Themes:
Themes are a combination of pictures, colors, and sounds. It has background, screen saver, border color and sound scheme.

Windows has the following themes:
(a) My Themes
(b) Arrow Themes
(c) Basic and High Contrast Themes

Following are the steps to apply the theme:

• Open Settings.
• Click on Personalization.
• Click on Themes.
• Click the Get more themes in the Microsoft Store option.
• Select the theme you want.
• Click the Get button.
• Click the Apply button.
• Click the newly added theme to apply it from the “Themes” page.

Desktop Background
It is a wallpaper image that appears behind the icons on your computer’s desktop. It can be in JPEG or Gif format. The following are steps to change the desktop background:
(а) Right-click the desktop and choose Personalize from the shortcut menu. The Personalization window appears.
(b) Click the Desktop Background link. The Desktop Background dialog box appears.
(c) Select a category of desktop background options from the Picture Location list box and then click the image from the background preview list that you want to use.
(d) The background is previewed on your desktop. Click Save Changes.

Screen Saver:
Screen saver is the graphics that appear on the screen after not working on the computer for some time. It is used for security and protection of the screen. We can set our own screen saver.

Steps to set the screen saver : Here are the steps to set up a screen saver


(a) Right-click the desktop and choose Personalize from the shortcut menu. The Personalization window appears.
(b) Click the Lock Screen option. The lock screen dialog box appears.
(c) In the Screen Saver Settings window, choose a screen saver from the drop-down list.
(d) Click on the Preview button to preview the screen saver.
(e)The screensaver has to be set to run auto-matically from the desktop. So type the time setting in the Wait option that appears in the picture.
(f) Click on Apply button and press Ok button.

Note:

• Windows Explorer is an important part of Windows. It manages files and folders.
• Windows Explorer is also called File Explorer. It is used to view files and folders on our computer.
• Win key + E is used to open window Explorer .
• File is the smallest unit of data storage.
• Folders are used to store related files in one place.
• Hard disk storage areas are called drives.
• On navigation pane, we can see drives, files and folders
• Address Bar enables you to go to a different folder in the same Explorer window.
• Search Box allows you to search for subfolders, documents, images, programs, Web pages, and bookmarks in the current folder.
• Control Panel is used to configure hardware and software of” computer system and to change settings of computer system.
• Recycle Bin contains deleted files/folders or programs.
• Explorer views show the direction in which files and folders will appear. O Explorer has five types of views.
• Thumbnails, tiles, icons, lists and details views.
• Ctrl+A keys are used to select all files and folders in explorer windows.

PSEB 7th Class Computer Notes Chapter 1 Typing Tutor

This PSEB 7th Class Computer Notes Chapter 1 Typing Tutor will help you in revision during exams.

Introduction:
Typing tutor is the software with the help of which we learn to type fast and type correctly. It is a technique by which we learn the correct ways of typing.

Touch Typing:
This is a technique by which we learn how to type correctly without looking at the keyboard. The keyboard is divided into two parts, left side and right side. Typing is done by placing the fingers on right position accordingly.

Fingers Position on Keyboard:
To type on a QWERTY keyboard, the left side keys are pressed with the left hand and the right side keys with the right hand. The keyboard has four lines. The fingers of both hands are placed on the line A.

This line is called the home row.
1. Home Row: The “home row” is the center row of keys on a keyboard. It starts from the alphabet A. The fingers are always rest on this line. The position of the fingers on this row is as follows:
First of all, the fourth finger (little finger) of our left hand is on the ‘A’ key, then third finger on the ‘S’ key, then second finger on the ‘D’ key and then first finger on the ‘F’ key and alternately on the ‘7’ key. The fourth, third, second and first fingers of the right hand should be on ‘L’, ‘K’, ‘J’ and ‘H’ respectively. Thumb of right hands should be on space bar.

Left Hand
Little/ Pinky Finger	A
Ring Finger	S
Middle Finger	D
Index Finger	F & G

Right Hand
Little/ Pinky Finger	;
Ring Finger	L
Middle Finger	K
Index Finger	J & H

Fingers Position on first Row

2. Second Row: The keys on the above line of the home row are called the keys on the second line. It starts with the letter ‘Q’. Turn the fourth finger (little finger) of your left hand on the ‘Q’ key, the third finger on the ‘W’ key, the second finger on the ‘E’ key and the first finger on the ‘R’ key or the ‘T’ key. Similarly, place the fourth finger of the right hand on the ‘P’ key, the third finger on the ‘O’ key, the second finger on the ‘I’ key and the first finger on the ‘U ‘or’ Y ‘key alternately.

Left Hand
Little/ Pinky Finger	Q
Ring Finger	W
Middle Finger	E
Index Finger	R & T

Right Hand
Little/ Pinky Finger	P
Ring Finger	O
Middle Finger	I
Index Finger	U & Y

Fingers Position on Second Row

3. Third Row: The row below the home row is called the third row. It starts with the ‘Z’ key. The fourth finger of the left hand (Little Finger) will go to the ‘Z’ key and then return to the home row.

Similarly, place the third finger on the ‘X’ key, the second finger on the ‘C’ key and the first finger on the ‘V’ key or the ‘B’ key alternately.

Similarly, place the fourth finger of the right hand on the ‘/’back slash key, the third finger on the ‘.’dot Key, the second finger on the V comma key and the first finger on the ‘M’ key or the ‘N’ key alternately.

Left Hand
Little/ Pinky Finger	Z
Ring Finger	X
Middle Finger	C
Index Finger	V & B

Right Hand
Little/ Pinky Finger	/
Ring Finger	.
Middle Finger	?
Index Finger	M & N

Fingers Position on Third Row

4. Fourth Row: The fourth row corresponds to the numeric keys. Be careful while typing the numbers. Our fingers should be on the home row. To type the numbers 100% correctly, it is recommended to press the numeric key with the corresponding finger and then bring it back to the home row. If all work is related to numbers, keep your fingers on the fourth line.

Left Hand
Little/ Pinky Finger	1
Ring Finger	2
Middle Finger	3
Index Finger	4 & 5

Right Hand
Little/ Pinky Finger	0
Ring Finger	9
Middle Finger	8
Index Finger	7 & 6

Fingers Position on Fourth Row

Numeric Keyboard:
The numeric keypad is located on the right hand side of the keyboard and has a total of 17 keys. They act as a calculator. While using the numeric keypad Num lock key must be turned on. Use the right hand when typing numbers on the numeric keypad.

The position of the fingers on the numeric keypad is as follows:

• The thumb of the right hand is on the ‘0’
• On the first finger of the right hand ‘4’
• The second finger of the right hand on the ‘5’
• The third finger of the right hand on the ‘6’

Special Keys on Keyboard:
The special keys of the keyboard are as follows:

• Enter Key: This key is used to move to a new line. We use the smallest finger of our right hand to press the Enter key.
• Space Bar: The space-bar key is used to leave a space in two words. We use our thumbs to press the space key.
• Shift Key: This key is located on both side of the keyboard. It is used to write capital letters. If you want to type a capital letter with your left hand, press the shift key with the fourth finger of your right hand Similarly, to write a capital letter with the right hand, press the shift key with the fourth finger of the left hand.
• Backspace: This key is used to delete a character to the left of the cursor. We use the little finger of our right hand for this.
• Caps Lock Key: If the whole word, line or paragraph is to be written in capital letters, keep the Caps Lock Key in ON position. We use the little finger of our left hand for this.

Punjabi Typing with Anmol Lipi:
We can easily type in Punjabi with Anmol Lipi font. We can also practice typing in Punjabi depending on the position of the fingers used in English language typing. Before typing, we have to choose the Anmol Lipi font. The Anmol Lipi font key-map is as follows:

Instructions to Increase Typing Speed:
Typing speed can be increased by keeping the following in mind:

• Concentrate in consistently, comfortably and correctly typing.
• The position of our hands/fingers should always be on the home-row. We should always start from this position and come back to the same position. We should move from the home-row position to other keys.
• As we press each key, we should repeat that letter in our mind,
• We should focus on pressing the right key rather than speed. Speed will increase automatically with time and practice.
• Do not look at the keyboard.

Sitting Position for Typing:
While typing, we should follow the following instructions for proper seating:

• The computer monitor should be in front of our eyes.
• Our focus should be on the monitor.
• Our fingers should be on the home-row keys.
• We should sit straight and in front of the keyboard.
• We should quickly press each key and return to the home row position.
• Our feet should be straight on the ground.

How to Avoid the Stress of Typing:
Stress and mistakes while typing on computer can be avoided as follows.

• Set your keyboard so that it is straight and slightly raised at the back. Do not keep your keyboard tilted downwards.
• Sit properly in front of your computer. Our screen should be two feet away from us and our copy should be in front of our eyes.
• Stretch your arms before starting work and also during intervals and strengthen your arms with exercise.
• We should rest our wrists when we are not typing.
• When typing, keep your wrists straight and bend your elbows at a 90 degree angle. Our wrists should not rest on the table while typing.
• If sitting on a chair, our knees are bent 90 degrees and our feet are straight on the ground, then the height of our chair is perfect.
• Exercise daily. This helps our body avoid stress after typing.
• Rest for a short time instead of a large interval while typing

Note:

• Typing tutor is the software with the help of which we learn to type fast and type correctly.
• Touch Typing is a technique by which we learn how to type correctly without looking at the keyboard,
• The keyboard is divided into two parts, left side and right side.
• Typing is done by placing the fingers on right position.
• The “home row” is the center row of keys on a keyboard.
• Home Row start from the alphabet A,
• The keys on the above line of the home row are called the keys on the second line.
• The row below the home row is called the third row.
• The fourth row corresponds to the numeric keys.
• The numeric keypad has a total of 17 keys.
• Enter key is used to move to a new line.
• The space-bar key is used to leave a space in two words.
• Shift key is used to write capital letters.
• Backspace key is used to delete a character to the left of the cursor. Caps lock is used to type the word, line or whole paragraph in capital letters.
• We can easily type in Punjabi with Anmol Lipi font.

This PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 7 Marriage, Family and Kinship will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 7 Marriage, Family and Kinship

→ Every society forms a few institutions to fulfill the basic needs of its member.

→ The institution is a structure of the social system which directs the individual behaviour of a community.

→ It fulfills a few basic needs which are very much necessary for social existence.

→ There are certain features of institutions such as they fulfill particular needs.

→ They are collections of rules, they are abstract, universal, social, and permanent. They cannot be changed very easily.

→ Marriage is one such institution that exists in every society. It is one of the basic social institutions.

→ With marriage, two individuals of opposite sexes are permitted to live with each other as husband-wife.

→ They establish sexual relations, produce children and contribute to the continuation of society.

→ Many types of marriages exist in our society but monogamy and polygamy are quite famous.

→ Polygamy is further divided into two parts, polygamy, and polyandry. Polyandry type of marriage exists in tribal society and polygamy existed in our society some time ago.

→ Many rules of mate selection prevail in our society out of which endogamy and exogamy are quite common.

→ In endogamy, one needs to marry within a particular group and in exogamy, one needs to marry out of a particular group.

→ During the last few decades, many changes have come in the institution of marriage.

→ Many reasons are there behind these changes such as industrialisation, urbanisation, modern education, new laws, freedom of women, the impact of western societies, etc.

→ Family is one such universal institution that exists in almost all societies.

→ Individual life is greatly affected by family and one cannot live without one’s family.

→ Family is having many features such as it is a universal institution, it is small in size, it is both permanent and temporary, it controlling individual behaviour.

→ There are many types of family that can be divided on the basis of authority, place of living, members, etc.

→ During the last few decades, changes have also taken place in the institution of the family such as small in size, breaking up of families, change in the status of women, changes in functions, etc.

→ Kinship is a system of human relationships and many relations are included in it. Kinship can be divided into two bases—affinal and consanguinity.

→ On the basis of nearness and distance, there are three types of kins-primary, secondary and tertiary.

→ Primary relatives are father, mother, brother, sister.

→ Secondary kins are primary kins of our primary kins such as the father of father- grandfather.

→ Tertiary kins are primary kins of our secondary relatives such as the son of uncle-cousin.

→ Patriarchal: The family in which authority and control are in the hands of the father.

→ Matriarchal: The family in which authority and control are in the hands of the mother.

→ Nuclear Family: The family in which husband, wife, and their unmarried children live.

→ Joint Family: The family in which members of more than two generations live under one roof and eat in a common kitchen.

→ Endogamy: Marriage within a particular group i.e. caste.

→ Exogamy: Marriage out of a particular group, i.e. family, gotra, etc.

→ Monogamy: Marriage of one male with one female.

→ Polygamy: Marriage of one male or female with many females or males.

→ Affinal kinship: This type of kinship is made after marriage such as son-in-law.

→ Consanguineous kinship: This type of kinship is made due to blood and right after birth i.e. son, brother, sister, etc.

→ Kinship: Social relations, real or imaginative, made according to marriage or blood.

This PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 6 Socialization will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 6 Socialization

→ When a child takes birth, he is unaware of his surroundings. Gradually, he becomes older and learns the ways to live in society. This process of learning ways of living in society is known as socialisation.

→ The process of socialization starts with the birth and goes on for the whole of one’s life.

→ The life of an individual comes to an end but this is a never-ending process.

→ If there will be no process of socialization, humans will start behaving like animals and there will be nothing called society.

→ The process of socialisation is a never-ending process. Gradually a child grows older, becomes independent and at this stage, this process becomes quite necessary.

→ At this stage, a need is required to control his behaviour. Here the advantage of socialisation is visible to us.

→ There are five stages of the socialization-infant stage, childhood stage, Adolescent stage, Adulthood stage, and old age.

→ The infant stage starts with birth and goes till one year. The childhood stage goes till 13-14 years, the adolescent stage till 17-18 years, the adulthood stage from 18-50 years, and old age start after this.

→ There are many agencies to complete the process of socialisation and these can be divided into two parts-formal and informal.

→ Family, playgroup, religion, etc. come under informal agencies. Law, legal system, political system, etc. are included informal agencies of socialisation.

→ Socialisation: A continuing process in which an individual acquires a personal identity and learns the values, norms, behaviour, and social skills appropriate to his/her social position.

→ Self: The distinct identity of an individual.

→ Play Group: A group of people, having the same age, background, and social status, with whom individual associates and who are likely to influence his beliefs and behaviour.

→ Formal means of Socialisation: Those means of socialisation, also known as institutional means, provide formal socialisation such as school, law, political system, etc.

→ Informal means of Socialisation: These means of socialisation are also known as social group agents which include individual and social institutions that socialise an individual in an informal manner.

This PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 5 Culture will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 5 Culture

→ The thing which differentiates humans from animals is the culture that they have but animals do not.

→ If human culture is taken away from them, they will become animals. So culture and society, both are deeply related.

→ Whatever humans have achieved, from an early age till today is their culture, Culture is a learned behaviour transmitted from one generation to another.

→ An individual can only get culture at a time when he is a member of any society.

→ Culture is of two types, namely material and non-material.

→ In material culture, all the things are included which we can see or touch such as a chair, table, car, pen, home, etc.

→ In non-material culture, all such things are included which we cannot see or touch such as views, ideas, values, norms, etc.

→ Culture and traditions are deeply related. In the same way, social worries and values are also important parts of culture.

→ If they will be taken out of culture, nothing will be left in culture.

→ There are two aspects of culture-material and non-material. Changes often come in both of these aspects.

→ Change in material aspect comes very quickly but not in non-material aspect.

→ Consequently, a difference occurs among them. Material aspect moves ahead and non-material aspect lags behind. This difference is known as cultural lag.

→ The meaning of change in culture is a change in the pattern of society. This change comes due to internal and external factors.

→ Culture: Whatever man has achieved till today is his culture.

→ Material Culture: That aspect of culture which we can see or touch.

→ Non-material Culture: That aspect of culture which we can’t see or touch.

→ Cultural Lag: Due to change in both aspects of culture, the material aspect moves ahead and the non-material aspect lags behind. This difference between the two is cultural lag.

→ Norms: Established standards of behaviour shared by members of a social group.

→ Value: A principle considered worthwhile or desirable.

→ Cultural Change: That way in which society changes its patterns of culture.

This PSEB 12th Class Physical Education Notes Chapter 6 Sociological and Psychological Aspects of Physical Education will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 12th Class Physical Education Notes Chapter 6 Sociological and Psychological Aspects of Physical Education

→ It is a well-known fact that man is a social animal by nature and possesses innate social tendencies to create a conducive social environment around him.

→ The term ‘Sociology’ comprises of two words ‘Socius’ meaning associate or social and ‘logos’ meaning science or study.

→ Hence, sociology means the science of society.

→ According to Ogburn, “Socialization is the process by which the individual learns to conform to the norms of the group.”

→ Physical education and sports works as building blocks for inculcating the social qualities in an individual.

→ This field provides varied experience to learn social qualities such as character and moral qualities, group feeling and responsibility, punctuality and dedication and social communication, etc.

→ There are several social institutions that affect human behaviour in many ways such as family, educational institution i.e. school or college, etc, peer group, religious institution or national culture, etc.

→ Physical education and sports programme play a vital role in inculcating a deep understanding of cultural diversity, equal opportunities, respect for nation and patriotism, sense of responsibility, etc.

→ This ultimately serves as an important means to develop national integration among the countrymen.

→ The other aspect which has been discussed in this chapter is the psychological behaviour of a sportsperson and its impact on learning skills.

→ The word ‘Psychology’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘Psyche’ and ‘logos’ which means ‘soul or mind’ and ‘to talk about’ respectively.

→ Hence, psychology deals with the study of the human soul or mind in relation to their behavioural aspects.

→ In physical education and sports, the term sports psychology deals with the study of the behaviour of sportsperson in or outside the playfield.

→ It is very important to understand the behaviour of sportsperson when it comes to performance-oriented sports.

→ In addition to this, the behaviour of adolescents also needs to be recognized and understood for their proper growth and development.

This PSEB 12th Class Physical Education Notes Chapter 5 Disability will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 12th Class Physical Education Notes Chapter 5 Disability

→ The term disability is the state of being unable to use any part of the body properly, which may be due to injury or disease.

→ This restricts an individual to perform daily activities with comfort and ease.

→ The special ability or disability can be either structural disability or functional disability.

→ There are various causes of disability i.e. it can be inherited or caused by environmental factors.

→ The environmental factors are very vast. it can be due to disease, occupation, physical factors, social factors, chemical factors or psychological factors and accidents, etc.

→ There are many occupational diseases that may cause disability to a person.

→ These occupational diseases can be due to physical agents like dust, noise, radiation, and dust or chemical hazards, etc.

→ These diseases can be prevented to some extent by various means such as medical examination of the workers, maintenance of workplace, control of air or noise pollution, use of protective devices, etc.

→ Another term that has been discussed in this chapter is rehabilitation which means, “the act of restoring something to its original or normal state.

→ The literal meaning came from the Latin words ‘re’-mean again and ‘habitable meaning ‘make fit’. It is the process of keeping a person who suffered an injur}’ or illness to come to a self-sufficient state.

→ There are many societies that are actively engaged for the rehabilitation services such as the Indian Red Cross Society, All India Blind Relief Society, Tuberculosis Association of India, Indian Council for Child Welfare, etc.

→ Hence, these societies help people to return to their normal or near-normal way of living.