Class 11 – Page 8 – PSEB Solutions

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Solutions Chapter 10 Social Stratification

October 22, 2024October 21, 2024 by Prasanna

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 10 Social Stratification Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 10 Social Stratification

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Social Stratification Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
What do you mean by social stratification ?
Answer:
The process of dividing society in different layers and on different basis is known as stratification.

Question 2.
Name the forms of social stratification,
Answer:
There are four forms of social stratification caste, class feudalism and slavery.

Question 3.
Name the elements of social stratification.
Answer:
It is universal and social, inequality exists in it and it has different base in different societies.

Question 4.
What is estate system ?
Answer:
This system prevailed in the medieval European society in which an individual was made feudal lord by giving a large piece of land.

Question 5.
From where has the word ‘Caste’ been derived ?
Answer:
The word ‘Caste’ has been derived from a Spanish and Portuguese word ‘Casta’ which means race, lineage or breed.

Question 6.
What is Varna System?
Answer:
The system of ancient India in which society was divided into four parts on the basis of occupation.

Question 7.
Name the hierarchical positions of the different Varnas in Hindu society.
Answer:
Ancient Hindu society had four Varnas : Brahmins, Kshatriyas Vaishyas and Shudras.

Question 8.
What do you mean by untouchability?
Answer:
During the times of caste system, different castes were not allowed to touch each other which is known as untouchability.

Question 9.
Name some reformers who protested against untouchability.
Answer:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Jyatiba Phuley, Mahatma Gandhi, B.R. Ambedkar etc.

Question 10.
What is Class?
Answer:
Class is a group of people having similarity on any basis such as money, occupation, property etc.

Question 11.
Name the types of Classes.
Answer:
Mainly three classes exist in society-upper class, middle class and lower class.

Question 12.
What are the two classes mentioned by Marx?
Answer:
Capitalist Class and Labour Class.

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
What is social inequality ?
Answer:
When all the members of the society do not get enough chances to develop their personality, differences prevail among them on the basis of caste, birth, race, colour, wealth, occupation etc. then this is known as inequality.

Question 2.
Name two forms of social stratification.
Answer:

Caste : Caste is a form of stratification in which stratification prevails among different castes.
Class : Many classes prevail in society and difference exists among them on different basis.

Question 3.
Write two features of caste system.
Answer:

Membership of caste is based upon birth and one cannot change his caste even if he has the ability to do so.
Caste is an endogamous group and marriage among different castes is not allowed.

Question 4.
What is endogamy ?
Answer:
Endogamy is a type of marriage in which one needs to marry within his group i.e. caste or sub-caste. If any one tried to break this rule, he was severely punished and thrown out of the group. That’s why every one preferred to marry in his group;

Question 5.
What do you mean by pollution and purity ?
Answer:
The hierarchy of caste was attached was the concept of pollution and purity. It means that traditionally few castes were considered pure and they had higher status in society. Few castes were considered impure or polluted and they had low status in society.

Question 6.
Write a short note on industrialisation and urbanisation.
Answer:
The meaning of industralisation is advent of large scale industries in the country. When people migrate from rural areas to urban areas it is known as urbanisation. Both these processes played a very important role in the decline of caste system. ,

Question 7.
Write two features of class system.
Answer:

Each class is conscious about the fact that its status is higher or lower than the others.
Members of one class prefer to keep relations within their own class and have very limited relations with other classes.

Question 8.
Write a short note on new middle class.
Answer:
During last few decades, a new middle class has emerged in our society. Doctors, engineers, managers, small traders, job-oriented people etc. come in this class. Upper class exploits lower class with the help of middle class.

Answer the following short answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
Write down four characteristics of social stratification.
Answer:

Stratification is a universal process. There is no society where this process doesn’t exist.
In stratification, all the members of society have an unequal status. Someone has higher status and someone has lower status.
In stratification, society is divided into different layers which determines an individual’s status. All the classes have mutual relations based on superiority or inferiority.
Yet many layers are there in this but these layers have mutual interdependence.

Question 2.
How is class related to social stratification? Discuss it briefly.
Answer:
Social stratification is always related with class. We can see that there exist many classes in society. Classes in different societies, ancient or modern, depend upon different basis and these bases can be caste, occupation, money, wealth, race, religion etc. All the classes depend upon each other for their own existence.

Question 3.
Differentiate between caste and class.
Answer:
Class:

One gets social status according to one’s personal ability.
Membership of class is based upon wealth, money, occupation etc.
An individual gets more freedom in class system.
Mutual difference is quite less in different classes.
Class system is based upon the concept of democracy.

Caste:

There was no place of personal ability in this and social status was based upon birth.
Membership of caste is based upon birth.
Many restrictions are imposed on an individual such as keeping relations, exchange of eatables, marriage etc.
Different castes are quite far away from each other.
It is completely against the system of democracy.

Question 4.
Write the four factors of change in caste system.
Answer:

During 19th and 20th centuries, many socio-reform movements started which greatly affected the caste system.
After independence, Indian government passed many laws and many provisions were kept in the constitution which brought many changes in caste system.
With the advent of industrialisation, members of different castes started working with each other which reduced the caste based restrictions.
In urban areas, people belonging to different castes live with each other which has reduced the caste’s rule of keeping relations with the same caste.
Spread of education has also contributed a lot in reducing the impacj of caste system.

Question 5.
Distinguish between caste and class as two major forms of social stratification.
Answer:
Class:

One gets social status according to one’s personal ability.
Membership of class is based upon wealth, money, occupation etc.
An individual gets more freedom in class system.
Mutual difference is quite less in different classes.
Class system is based upon the concept of democracy.

Caste:

There was no place of personal ability in this and social status was based upon birth.
Membership of caste is based upon birth.
Many restrictions are imposed on an individual such as keeping relations, exchange of eatables, marriage etc.
Different castes are quite far away from each other.
It is completely against the system of democracy.

Answer the following short answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
Define stratification. What are the features of social stratification ?
Answer:
Eight from the ancient times, humans have tried to make a society based on equality and where there will be no class in it. In other words society based on equality is that society in which there is no class, social and economic status of all the members is equal, every one gets equal number of facilities. But till today none of the society of this type has come into being. Different types of classes exist in all the societies and all the societies are stratified.

All the societies, from ancient times till today are divided in different classes. In earlier times, society was divided on the basis of age, sex, head of the societies etc. but due to increased complexity, modern societies are divided in higher or lower classes on different basis. If we observe our society carefully then we will come to know that there are many inequalities existing in our society.

For example, some persons are rich and some are poor. Our society has been divided on the basis of political, social, religious, economic basis etc. Because of this division, relations of different individuals in our society are based on higher and lower positions. In this way the division of society in different parts is known as stratification.

(1) According to Sorokin, “Social Stratification means the differention of a given population into hierarchically superposed classes. It is manifested in the existence of upper and lower social layers. Its basis and very essence consist of unequal distribution of rights and privileges, duties and responsibilities, social values and privation, social power and influences among the members of a society.”

(2) According to Kurt B. Mayer, “Social Stratification is a System of social position whose occupants are treated as superior, equal or inferior relative to one another in social important respects.”

(3) According to Kingsley Davis, “Social inequality is thus an unconsciously evolved device by which societies ensure that the most important positions are consciously filled by the most qualified persons. Hence every society, no matter how simple or complex must differentiate persons in terms of both prestige and esteem.”

(4) According to Raymond W. Moorey, “Stratification is a horizontal division of society into higher and lower units.” On the basis of these definitions, we can conclude that the social stratification determines the higher and the lower social groups and status and roles of different humans.

It shows hierarchy among persons on the basis of birth, caste, occupation, gender, money, power etc. Relations of inferiority and superiority exist among different groups and every person has a definite position m society. That is why man gets status and respect in society.

Features or Characteristics of Stratification:
1. Stratification is social:
Differences exist on the basis of stratification in different societies. Whenever we differentiate anything, which exists in society, from other thing and until that difference is not accepted by all the members of society, we cannot accept that difference as the base of stratification.

It means that until members of a group will not determine the stratification, this stratification cannot exist in society. Stratification is possible only then when all the members of society will accept these differences. In this way, it is social because it is accepted by all the members of society.

2. Stratification is a universal process:
Process of stratification exists in every society. We can check every type of society, whether it is ancient, tribal, rural or modern complex society. Then we can see that definitely there were and there are some differences among people. Difference of Gender is natural on the basis of which we can divide the humans. There are many bases of stratification in modern complex society.

It means that yet the bases of stratification are different in different societies but stratification exists in every type of society. Each country and society is divided in different layers on different basis yet inequalities may be different. So we can say that it is a universal process.

3. Inequality of status of different classes:
Status and role of humans is not the same in social stratification. Any one has higher status and any one has low status. Position of persons never remains the same all the times. Changes keep on coming in this. It can go higher at anytime and can go to a low level. It means that inequality exists in position of humans.

If any one has higher position on the basis of money then other might have lower position. Anyone is officer and other one is clerk. Position of both is unequal. Yet the base might be different like gender, age, money, status, job etc. but the position of different classes is unequal.

4. Relation of upper and lower classes:
Society has been divided into different layers in stratification which determine the position of a person. Generally society can be divided in two parts higher and lower. Some people in society have higher position and some people in society have low status. Some people exist between them. In this way in higher and lower classes, there exists one middle class. All of them have some relations of higher and lower positions.

5. Stratification restricts interaction:
The interactions in the process of stratification are only restricted to a specific layer. Generally we can see that every person establishes relations with the members of his layer or class. That is why he shares his feelings with them. Person has friends in his class only. Sometimes man is unable to adjust by keeping contacts with the members of other strata.

Like in modern age interaction between a rich person and a poor person is not possible. Stratification restricts the interaction between different classes. Every class has class consciousness because of which they interact .with other classes in a limited way. In this way stratification restricts the interaction.

6. It develops the sense of competition:
The process of stratification produces the sense of hard work in person. In this every person is conscious about his social status. He always tries to move forward because he thinks that people around him are of higher strata. He tries to move forward by using his capabilities in competition with them.

In this way this consciousness produces the sense of competition, Every person wishes to take himself up in society and he can do this by hard work. He does this hard work and competes with members of other classes and takes himself up in stratification.

Question 2.
Discuss in detail the forms of stratification.
Answer:
(i) Varna Stratification:
After the advent of the Aryans in India, society was divided among the Aryans and the original inhabitants of India. Later on Aryan people, on the basis of their traits and behaviour, were divided among Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. In this way, society was divided among four Varnas and this form of stratification came in front.

In this hierarchy, Brahmins had the highest place, Kshatriyas came second, Vaishyas at third and at the end, people of fourth varna were there. In this system, occupation of each varna was fixed and separate from each other. Initial form of Varna system was not based on birth but was based on individual traits and one was free to change his varna. But it was quite a difficult process to change one’s varna.

(ii) Slavery Stratification:
Slave is a human who is completely controlled by the other individual. He lives on the mercy of his owner. He has no rights. In certain cases he is protected by his owner such as to protect him from becoming other’s slave. But still he is an individual without rights. He is considered as the property of his owner.

So, there existed a lot of inequality in slave societies. This custom prevailed, during 19th century, in America, Africa etc. Owner was free to sell his slave. He had to work very hard for his owner. With time, this custom was strongly opposed and gradually came to an end. Slave became farmers but still some sort of this stratification existed among farmers and labourers.

(iii) Feudalism:
Along with slavery, the institution of feudalism came into being. Feudal lords were the owners of large piece of land and they rented out their land to others on project sharing basis. During the medieval period, feudalism had legal sanction in Europe and feudal lords had special status, special privileges and duties.

Farmers, during those days, had very few rights. They had to depend upon the mercy of feudal lords for justice. Major power was in the hands of feudal lords and clergy. Zamindars existing in India were very much different from the feudalism existing in Europe. So stratification based on feudalism existed in society.

(iv) Racial Stratification:
Stratification on the basis of race also exists in different societies. Whole of the world is divided on the bases of race. Mainly three racial groups are there : Caucasion (white), Mongoloid (yellow or brown) and Negroid (black). A system of hierarchy exists among these races. White race is considered superior among all.

Yellow race is considered at middle leval and black race is at lower level. Racial discrimination in U.S. A. also exists on this base. People of different races never marry eaph other. Yet few changes are coming in modern society but still this system prevails in the world.

(v) Caste Stratification:
The stratification on the basis of birth is known as caste stratification because status of a child was determined according to his birth. In ancient and traditional Indian society this type of statification prevailed. It was having great impact on the Indian society. Mainly four castes existed-Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Shudras. This form of stratification was more stable because one was not allowed to change his caste. ,

(vi) Class Stratification:
It is also known as universal stratification because such stratification exists in every society. It is an open stratification and bases of this stratification are income, power, property, religion, education, occupation etc. One gets a definite position in this and people with equal status form a class. With this, different classes are formed and relations are established among them. One can change his status or class with his efforts.

Question 3.
What factors are causing change in caste system?
Answer:
1. Socio-Religious Reforms Movements:
Even before the advent of British empire many religious movements had criticised the caste system. Buddhism, Jainism, Islam and Sikhism had criticised caste system. Gautam Buddha had criticised caste system 2500 years back. Except this Islam and later on Sikhism had also criticised caste system.

In 19th century many social reformers had started movements against this. Some of these movements Brahmo Samaj by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Arya Samaj by Dayanand Saraswati, Rama Krishna Mission etc. were important. Except these Jyoti Ba Phule established Satya Shodhan Samaj in 1873 whose main aim was to provide equality to every person. Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar also criticised the caste system.

2. Efforts of Indian Government:
During British empire and after independence many important laws were passed by government which contributed towards weakening of caste system. Caste and rural panchayats were very powerful before British rule. These panchayats had the rights to give punishment to criminals.

During British empire One Law i.e. ‘Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850’ was passed which weakened the caste Panchayats. In this way ‘Special Marriage Act, 1872’ gave approval to the marriage of different castes. After independence a number of laws like Untouchability Offences Act, 1955 and Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 also weakened the caste system. In 1949 Hindu Marriage Validation Act was passed in which legal sanction was given to inter-caste marriage.

3. Contribution of the Britishers:
A comprehensive opposition against the caste system began during the British reign. The British had applied the rule of equality in front of law. Rights from caste based Panchayats were taken back. Educational system of the British was secular. Government jobs were open to everyone.

The British started modern industries, rails, buses etc. which was a strong slap on the face of caste system. All the people jointly worked in the industries and travelled in rails and buses with each other which resulted in the establishment of contacts between different castes.

4. Industrialization:
Industrialization played an important role in bringing change in caste system. It increased the importance of ability of the person. Importance of materialism has also been increased. People came out of their houses to go to job. Everyone started to work in industries. In industries no one asks for anyone’s caste but they look to each other’s abilities. Lower castes have also got higher status with their hard work.

5. Modern Education:
Modern education has also put a great effect on the caste system. In ancient Hindu Society, education was confined only to higher castes and education was also based upon religion. But with the advent of Britishers, a rule of equality was started by Britishers. Then educational institutions were opened for everyone.

Western Education was started instead of religious education. Boys and girls both started to get education. In this way modern educational system started to give importance to individual’s abilities instead of any one’s caste. With this intercaste relations started to establish. After independence Indian Constitution also started to implement democratic values which was a great setback to caste system.

6. Urbanization:
Urbanization was also developed with industrialization because people came out of their houses for work. Urban features like more density of population, individual’s feelings, social mobility, more occupations etc. have weakened the caste system. People live with each other in big cities. Feeling of assimilation of higher and lower caste was increased. The individual abilities started to control the society. Man has to achieve status in society.

Difference on the basis of gender in cities was decreased. Males and females started to work together. In this way females came out of the four walls of house and started to work in offices. They became economically independent. Urbanization has increased the mutual contacts between different castes which resulted in exogamy instead of endogamy.

7. Importance of Money:
Caste System started to weaken due to increase in materialistic approach of the people. People get status due to money in society. Every one gives respect to rich persons irrespective of his caste. In Modern Society a person works only for the sake of his profit. Every one tries to earn more and more money. It increses the importance of individuals’ abilities. Inthisthe importance of moneyhas been increased and the importance of caste system has been reduced.

Question 4.
Define class system. Write down its characteristics.
Answer:
The base of social stratification is class. Status of a person in class depends upon his role in class. Position of all the persons is not same in all the societies. Some type of inequality is always there in class and because of this inequality of classes came into being. Especially because of westernization, industrialization, educational system, modernization etc. classes came into being in India. Stratification in Western Societies is also Based upon class system. Many classes also came into being in India like Teacher class, Business class, Doctor class etc. ‘

Meaning and Definitions of Class:
Every society has been divided into classes and every class has a different status in the society. On the basis of status person’s status is high or low. In this way when different persons achieve special social status in society, then it is known as class system. Every class is economically different from the other.

Different Sociologists have given different views about class system which are given below :
(1) According to Maclver, “A social class is any position of Community marked off from the rest by Social Status.”

(2) According to Morris Ginsberg, “A class is group of individuals who through common descent, similarity of occupation, wealth and education have come to have a similar mode of life, n similar stock of those ideas, feelings, attitudes and forms of behaviours and who on any or all of these grounds meet one another on equal terms and regard themselves, with varying degrees of explicitness as belonging to one group.”

(3) According to Gilbert, “A social class is a category of group of persons having a definite status in a society which permanently determines their relationships to other groups.”

(4) According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “The fundamental attribute of social class is thus its local position of relative superiority or inferiority to other social classes.”

On the basis of given definitions we can say that social class is a class of many persons which has one specific status in a specific time. That is why they have some special power, rights and duties. Ability of an individual is important in class system. That is why every person wants to achieve higher status in society with hard work.

Every society is divided in many classes. Status of a person is not definite in class system. There is some sort of mobility existing in his status. That is why it is known as open stratification. Person determines his class status himself. It is not based on birth.

Characteristics of Class:
1. Feelings of Superiority and Inferiority: Relationships of inferior and superior exist in class system. For example, people of higher class think themselves as different and superior from lower class. Rich persons are coming in higher class and poor people are coming in lower class. Rich people have higher status in society and poor people live at different places. By looking at the residence of the person we can imagine about the class of the person.

2. Social Mobility:
Class system is not definite for person. It keeps on changing. Man can achieve higher status with hard work and can go to lower status with wrong deeds. Every person wants to increase his prestige in society. That is why class system makes the person active. So in this way social mobility is there in class system.

For example if a person, who is working as a clerk in any office, does a lot of hard work and passes the I.A.S. exam then his status and position will be completely changed. It means that class system has social mobility in which person can make from one place to another with his hard work and ability.

3. Openness:
Openness exists in the class system because in this every person is free to do anything. He is free to adopt any occupation. Any one can become the member of any class on the basis of his ability. Person from lower class can go to higher class with his hard work. In this there is no value of birth of the person.

Status of person depends upon his ability. A boy from rich family can become rich only if he has the property. If this property will finish then he can become poor. This class system gives opportunity to every one to move forward. In this way openness exists in class system.

4. Limited Social Relations:
Social relations of a person are limited in class system. Persons of every class love to establish relations with the people of their own class. Every class wants to establish contacts with persons of their own class. They don’t like to keep contacts with the people of other castes.

5. Development of Sub-classes:
We can divide class system into three parts from economic point of view and these are :

Upper Class
Middle Class
Lower Class.

These classes are again divided into sub-classes. For example, we can see difference between rich people. Some one is Billionaire and some one is Millionaire. In the same way we can see sub-classes in middle class and lower class. In every class we can see sub-classes. In this way class is made up of sub-classes.

6. Different Basis :
Classes are made on different basis. According to Karl Marx, the main base of class system is economic. According to him, there are two classes in society. First one is capitalist class and second is labour class. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, Maclver and Gilberg, social base is important for class. Ginsberg and Lapire has accepted cultural base as the main base of class system.
In this way we can say that there is not a single base of class system but there are many bases of class system.

7. Identification of Class:
External outlook is important in class system. Sometimes just by external outlook we can imagine about the class of the person. In modern society big house, car, scooter, T.V., V.C.R., Fridge etc. symbolise towards the position of the person. In this way external symbols tell us about class differences. Life Style of one class is almost same and their necessities are generally same.

Question 5.
What new classes have emerged in India ?
Answer:
Durings the last few decades, the caste system has been replaced by the class system.After independence, many new laws were passed, people started taking education which resulted in the decline of the caste system and the advent of class system. Now class system is not a simple concept. In modern times, many new classes have emerged on different basis and the process is going on.

For example, after the Indian Independence, many land reforms were introduced which brought many changes in the rural economy. Green revolution greatly contributed in it. Along with old farmers, who had large pieces of land, a new farmer class emerged which had experience of new methods of agriculture.

These were the people who were retired from army or administrative services. They started investing their money in agriculture and earning lot of money. This is not the class of traditional farmers but are known as Gentlemen Farmers. Along with this, a new class of farmers, Capitalist farmers, is also emerging.

These are the farmers who earn a lot of money by using new techniques, HYV seeds, new techniques of agriculture, modern irrigation facilities, taking loans and by using modern means of transport and communication. But small farmers were unable to take advantage of this and are still poor.

They are unable to take advantage of the land reforms introduced by the government. After this, a middle class has also emerged which gave birth to the culture of consumerism. This middle class was seen as a potential market and many multinational companies get attracted towards this group. In the advertisements of different companies, upper middle class is seen as the most important consumer.

These days, a new middle class is emerging which gives more importance to its taste and consumption and it has become a cultural idea. In this way with the emergence of middle class, the concept of economic liberalism is also emerging. One of the important features of existing class system in modern India is that all these classes have helped in creating a national economy.

Now people from the far off villages are becoming a part of middle classes. People living in villages and engaged in different occupations have not remained isolated. Now caste based restrictions have come to an end and class based consciousness is coming forward.

Question 6.
Bring out the main features of class system in India.
Answer:
The base of social stratification is class. Status of a person in class depends upon his role in class. Position of all the persons is not same in all the societies. Some type of inequality is always there in class and because of this inequality of classes came into being. Especially because of westernization, industrialization, educational system, modernization etc. classes came into being in India. Stratification in Western Societies is also Based upon class system. Many classes also came into being in India like Teacher class, Business class, Doctor class etc. ‘

(3) According to Gilbert, “A social class is a category of group of persons having a definite status in a society which permanently determines their relationships to other groups.”

(4) According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “The fundamental attribute of social class is thus its local position of relative superiority or inferiority to other social classes.”

5. Development of Sub-classes:
We can divide class system into three parts from economic point of view and these are :

Upper Class
Middle Class
Lower Class.

Question 7.
What are the Marxian and Weberian perspectives on class?
Answer:
Marxian Conflict Theory of Stratification. Karl Marx has given conflict theory of social stratification and this theory comes out because of political and social conflicts of 19th century. According to Marx, economic factor is the alone factor of social stratification and struggle in different classes. Marx has given this theory on the base of division of labour.

According to him, labour is of two types, physical and mental and this difference is the main reason of difference in social classes. Marx was of the view that there are only two classes in society. First class is the owner of the means of production and second class is not the owner of means of production.

On the basis of this ownership the position of owner class is higher and position of non-owner class is lower. According to Marx, owner class is capitalist class and non-owner class is labourer class. Capitalist class economically exploits the labourer class and labourer class fights with capitalist class to get their rights. This is the result of stratification.

Marx was of the view that the main reason of stratification is the unequal distribution of property. The nature of stratification depends upon the classes of that society and the nature of the classes depends upon the means of production. Ways of production depend upon technique. Class is a group in which relations of its members with forces of production are equal.

In this way all those persons, who control the forces of production, come in first class i.e. capitalist class. Second class is that class which is not the owner of forces of production but it earns its livelihood by selling its labour and that is labourer class. Their name in different societies is different. For example, Feudal Lords and agricultural labourers in Feudal societies and capitalist and labourer in capitalist societies.

Capitalist class has all the forces of production and labourer class has only its labour to sell with which it earns its livelihood. In this way the classes made on the basis of ways of production and unequal distribution of property are, according to Marx, social classes.

According to Marx, society today comes out of four stages or societies and these are :
(a) Primitive ancient society or communism
(b) Ancient society.
(c) Feudal society
(d) Capitalist society

According to Marx, classes did not come into being in first type of society but in later societies two main classes came into being. In ancient society owner and servant, Feudal Lords and agricultural labourer in Feudal society and Capitalist and Labourer class in Capitalist society came into being. In every society labour was being done by second class. Labour class is more in number and capitalist class is less in number.

Marx has given two classes in every type of society but on this point his views were not the same. Marx was of the view that there are three classes in capitalist society and these are labour class, capitalist class and land owners. Marx has given difference in these three classes on the basis of means of income, profit and rent of land. But Marx’s this three classes system never came into being in England.

Marx has written that with the development of capitalism three classes system will change into two classes system and middle class will come to an end. About this he has written in Cfommunist Manifesto. Marx also wrote about other classes in specific society. He has divided the capitalist class into two sub groups and these are effective capitalists and smaller capitalists.

Effective capitalists are those capitalists which are bigger capitalists and industrialists which give work to thousands of labourers in their industries. Small capitalists are those small industrialists or shopkeepers whose business is at low level and they are not giving work to many labourers. They are doing most of their work themselves.

Here Marx again says that with the development of capitalism middle class and small capitalists will* come to an end and will join hands with labourer class. In this way, there will be two classes in society and that is capitalist class and labourer class. Relations between Classes. According to Marx, the capitalist class always exploits the labourer class and labourer class always fights for its rights.

That is why the relations between both the groups are of opposition. Yet this opposition between these groups will hide due to their mutual interests but this opposition is always there. It is not necessary that we can see this opposition directly or opposition never comes in front of us but they know about each other’s opposition.

According to Marx, the relations between the classes depend upon the mutual interdependence and conflict. We can take example of capitalist society in which two classes are there. First class is of capitalist class and second class is of labour class. These both classes depend upon each other for their existence. Labour class doesn’t have the ownership of forces of production.

It doesn’t have any other mean to earn its livelihood except selling its labour. Labourers sell their labour to the capitalist class and are dependent upon them. They give their labour to capitalist and for that capitalist gives money to labourers for their labour. With this money or rent of labour, labourer takes care of the needs of the family. Capitalist also depends upon the labour of labourer because without their work, production in his factory is not possible and accumulation of capital is also not possible.

In this way both these classes depend upon each other. But this dependency doesn’t mean that they have relations of equality. Capitalist class always exploits the labour class. They want to make things in their factory by giving less money so that they can earn more profit. Labourer wants more money so that he can take care of the needs of his family. Capitalist tries to sell his product with more value by paying less money so that he can earn more profit.

In this way conflict of interests is always there between both the classes. This conflict will give birth to communism later on in which there would be no opposition, there would be no exploitation and there would be no conflict of interests. This society will be classless society. Karl Marx has explained the conflict theory of stratification on historical basis.

Important things in the conflict theory of stratification of Marx are given below :
1. Two classes in Society. Marx was of the view that generally two types of classes exist in every type of society. First one is that which has all the means of production in its hands and this class is known as capitalist class.

Second class is that which doesn’t have any means of production and which earns money only by selling its labour. This class is known as labour class. First class exploits the other class. It means that capitalist exploits and labourer is being exploited by capitalist.

2. Right over means of production:
While explaining stratification on histrical basis Marx says that the stratification in society is based on the right over means of production. There exist two types of classes in every society on this base. First class is that which has the right over all the means of production. Second class is that which doesn’t have any right over means of production and which earns money by selling its labour.

3. Modes of production:
The nature of social stratification depends upon the modes of production. Position of that class is higher than other classes which has all the means of production. According to Marx, this class’ is known as capitalist or Bourgoisie. Second class is that which doesn’t have m^ans of production, which is not satisfied by its position and which wants to change its position. Marx has given it the name of labour class or proletariat class.

4. Human History-History of class struggle:
Marx was of the view that human history is the history of class struggle. We can take example of any society. Struggle in classs is going on, in every society, in one form or the other. In this way Marx was of the vew that two types of classes exist in all the societies- capitalist and labour class. Class struggle always goes on in both the classes.

There are many reasons of class struggle in both the classes for example too much economic differences between both the classes because of which class struggle is going on. Capitalist becomes rich even without doing any hard work and labourer becomes poor even after doing a lot of hard work.

With the passage of time, labour class makes its organization to meet its demands and this organisation does struggle with capitalist class to meet its demands. Result of this struggle between both the classes comes in the form of revolution which labour class does against the capitalist class.

After revolution, labourer class will eliminate the capitalist class and establishes its authority. Capitalist class tries to start anti-revolution movement against labourers but this movement will be suppressed and authority of the labourer class will be established. First of all communism and then the state of socialism will come in which every one will get according to his needs and ability.

There will be no class in society and this will be a classless society in which every one will get equal share. No one will be of higher or lower status and the authority of labour class will remain there. Marx was of the view that this state has not yet come but it will come very shortly and stratification in society will come to an end.

Max Weber gave the theory of stratification in which he explained class, status group and party differently. Weber’s theory of stratification is considered as practical and rational. That’s why his theory is given enough importance by American Sociologists.

Weber has explained stratification from three aspects and these are class, status and party. All these groups could be called as interest groups which not only can fight within themselves but they can fight even against each other. They tell us about a specific authority and are interrelated as well.

Now we will explain them one by one :
CLASS. Karl Marx has defined class on economic basis and in the same way Weber has also defined class on economic basis. According to Weber, “Class is a group of those people which are at equal status in structure of social economic opportunities and which live in same condition. These conditions depend upon their form and quantity of economic power.”

In this way Weber talks about a type of group in which a specific number of people have equal chances in life. Yet this concept of Weber is not very much different from Marx’s concept of class but Weber has imagined class as the group of people living in same economic conditions q,ot as a group of self-consciousness.

Weber has given three types of classes which are given below :

A Property Class
An Acquisition Class
A Social Class.

1. A Property Class:
A property class is the group whose position depends upon the fact that how much property it has?

This class is again further divided into two parts :
(i) The Positively Privileged Property Class. This class owns a lot of property and it lives on the income generated from its property. This class can keep monopoly over selling or buying of consumer goods, by collecting property or on taking education.

(ii) The Negatively Privileged Property Class:
Illiterate, poor, property less and people under debt are major members of this group. But there is one another group between these two groups and that is Privileged Middle class in which members of both the given classes are included. According to Weber, Capitalist is member of this group due to his privileged position and Labourer is its member due to his negatively4 privileged position.

2. An Acquisition Class:
It is that type of group whose position is determined by taking advantage from opportunities of services available in the market.

This group is of three types :
(i) The Positively Privileged Acquisition Class. This class keeps monopoly over administration of producer manufacturers. These factory owners are bankers, industrialists, financiers etc. These people not only keep control over administrative system but they exert influence on government’s economic policies as well.

(ii) The Middle Privileged Acquisition Class. This class belongs to middle class people in which small professional people, artisans, independent farmers etc. are included.

(iii) The Negatively Privileged Acquisition Class. People of lower classes are part of this group which include trained, semi trained and untrained labourers.

3. Social Class:
Most numbers of people are included in this group. This class observes definite changes due to progress made by different generations. But Weber does not explain social class according to privileges. According to him, people of labour class, lower middle class, intellectual class, property owner class are included in it.

According to Weber, members of class work with each other under specific circumstances and to this protest of doing work is being given the name of class action by Weber. According to Weber, feeling of mutually related gives birth to class action. Weber has not believed that the thing like class action could take place all the times.

Weber, was of the view that there is no class consciousness in class but its nature is completely economic. There is no possibility among them that they would struggle collectively to achieve their common objectives. A class is only a group of people whose economic condition is same in the market.

They can feel changes in their lives while collecting those things which have some respect in society and there is a possibility that they would collectively perform s,ome action. Weber was of the view that if it does so then class can take the form of community.

Status Group:
Status group is generally considered as opposite to economic class stratification. Class is only based on economic assumption which is a group of same interests due to market conditions. These are not statistical classes but these are actually those groups whose life-style is common, outlook towards the society is common and which keep unity among them.

According to Weber, there is some difference between status group and class. Each has its own style and people can be unequal among them. For example, teacher of a school. Yet his income might be 8-10,000 per month which is quite less in today’s age but his status is quite high due to his sacred profession.

But on the other hand any smuggler or a prostitute could earn lakhs in a month but their status group will remain low because their profession is not sanctioned by society. In this way difference is there between both the groups. Any occupational group can be called as a status group because in each type of profession, people get equal opportunities to earn money.

This group also leads to same life-style of people. Members of one occupational group remain near to each other, wear same type of clothes and even have same type of values. That’s why its members have quite a wide circle.

Party:
According to Weber, Party represents the determined interests associated with class status or a status group. This party enrolls those members, in any condition, whose ideology matches with the ideology of party. But it is not necessary that the party could become status party for them. Weber was of the view that Parties always want to keep control over power.

It means power should remain in their hands. Weber was of the view that yet parties are a part of political authority but even then power could be gained through various means like wealth, influence, pressure, rights etc.

Parties want to obtain power of State and State is an organisation. Each activitiy of the party is concentrated on the fact that how the power could be obtained ? Weber analysed the state and from here he gave the theory of Bureaucracy. According to Weber, parties are of two types.

First one is Patronage party in which there are no class rules, concepts, ideology etc. These are made for special purposes and could be left after the completion of objective. Second type of party is party of Principles which has clear and strong rules. These parties are not made for specific purposes.

Weber was of the view that there is quite much difference between these three i.e. class, status group, and party but the mutual relationship is always there among them.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Solutions Chapter 9 Social Structure

October 22, 2024October 21, 2024 by Prasanna

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 9 Social Structure Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 9 Social Structure

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Social Structure Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
Give the meaning of the term social structure.
Answer:
Systematic form of interrelated parts of society is known as social structure.

Question 2.
From which word the word ‘structure’ is derived ?
Answer:
The word ‘structure’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Staruere’ whose meaning is ‘building’.

Question 3.
Who was the first sociologist to use the term social structure ?
Answer:
Herbert Spencer was the first sociologist to use the term social structure,

Question 4.
Name the elements of social structure.
Answer:
Status and role are the elements of social structure.

Question 5.
Who wrote the book ‘The Principles of Sociology’?
Answer:
This book was written by Herbert Spencer.

Question 6.
What is Status ?
Answer:
Status is a position given to a person while living in society.

Question 7.
Name two types of social statuses.
Answer:
Ascribed status and Achieved status are the two types of social statuses.

Question 8.
Who gave the terms ascribed and achieved status?
Answer:
These terms are given by Ralph Linton.

Question 9.
Give two examples of ascribed status.
Answer:
Status of father and brahmin are the examples of ascribed status.

Question 10.
Give two example of achieved status.
Answer:
The status of Prime Minister and Deputy Commissioner are the examples of achieved status.

Question 11.
Define Role.
Answer:
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Role is a set of socially expected and approved behaviour patterns consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular position in a group.

Question 12.
Mention any two characteristics of Role.
Answer:
(i) Role is the functional aspect of status.
(iii) Role is always having social sanction.

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
Define social structure.
Answer:
According to Talcott Parsons, “ The term social structure applies to the particular arrangement of the interrelated institutions, agencies, social patterns, as well as the statuses and roles which each person assumes in the group.”

Question 2.
Give two points of similarities between status and role.
Answer:

Status and role are the two sides of same coin.
Status is the position of an individual in society and role is the functional aspect of status.
Both status and role change with time and circumstances.

Question 3.
Give the diagrammatic representation of structure of family.
Answer:

Question 4.
Distinguish between ascribed and achieved status.
Answer:

One gets ascribed status according to his birth but one gets achieved status according to his ability.
There are many bases of ascribed status but the only base of achieved status is one’s hard work.

Question 5.
In what ways are roles learned behaviour ?
Answer:
It is true that roles are learned behaviour as they are the collection of rules which are learned either through socialization or observation. After learning, whatever meaning man gives to it is a social role.

Question 6.
Write a short note on status and role.
Answer:
status:
Status is a position given to a person while living in society.

Role:
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Role is a set of socially expected and approved behaviour patterns consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular position in a group.

Question 7.
What is Status ?
Answer:
The position in a group, given to an individual, is known as social status. It is the position which one gets through his gender, age, birth, occupation, activities, patterns of work etc. For example an officer is respected by every one due to his post. Specific patterns related with his activities are known as status.

Question 8.
What is role set?
Answer:
While living in society, an individual gets many statuses. The collection of roles related with all such statuses is known as role set. For example students of 11th class of any school need to meet many persons in their daily routine and have to behave differently with them. Collection of roles related with all is known as role set.

Question 9.
What do you mean by role conflict ? Give its example.
Answer:
Every individual has many a status and a particular role is attached with each status. One has to fulfill all the roles attached with him. When he is unable to maintain balance with all of them and is not in a position to do justice with all of them, it is known as role conflict.

Answer the following short answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
State the three characteristics of social structure.
Answer:
(i) Different social structures of different societies : Social structure of each society is different because the social life of different parts of a society is different. Every society has its different institutionalised rules. That’s why structures of all the societies are different.

(ii) Social structure is abstract : Social structure is abstract because the units with which this structure is formed like institution, association, norms etc. all are abstract. They don’t have any concrete form, we can only feel them. That’s why they are abstract.

(iii) Formed due to interactions : No proper planning is made to keep all the social units in a system. It is developed due to human interactions. That’s why no conscious efforts are required for its formation etc.

Question 2.
What is ascribed status ? Give its example.
Answer:
Ascribed status is the status which a person gets without doing any effort or hard work. Like, Brahmans have the higher status in caste system of Hindu society. Person gets social status according to his caste in which he was born. Sex, caste, birth, age, kinship all are ascribed status which a person gets without any effort.

Question 3.
Role is an element of social structure. Discuss in brief.
Answer:
Sub groups are the units of social structure and in these groups, members are given roles according to definite rules. Interactions take place among humans and to clarify them, roles are given to individual. Role is the behaviour of an individual in a particular situation which is associated with his status. If any change comes in social structure, change often comes in the status and role of an individual. Due to these roles, people establish contacts with each other and consequently social structure is maintained.

Question 4.
Status is an element of social structure. Discuss.
Answer:
There is no denying the fact that status is an element of social structure. Sub-groups are the units of social structure and every one gets many a status in these groups. People mutually interact and to clarify them, many status and roles are given to the people. When one gets any status, he needs to behave differently in different circumstances. If any change comes in social structure, change also comes in the status of people. Due to these statuses, people establish mutual relations and social structure is maintained.

Question 5.
Discuss how status and role are interrelated ?
Answer:
It is true that status and role are intererelated. Actually they are two sides of the same coin. If out of these two only one is given, other is of no importance. It means rights are given but not responsibility or vice versa. In the absence of one, other cannot work properly. If any one is given the status of an officer but he is not given any responsibility, the officer is of no advantage for people. If any one is given responsibility but no status is given, he will not be able to fulfill his role. So, they both are deeply related.

Answer the following short answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
Define social structure and discuss its characteristics.
Answer:
Society is not an unbreakable system. Society is made up of many parts. These parts of society are interrelated with each other by doing their respective functions and they produce one type of balance. In the words of Sociology this balance is known as social system. On contrary to that when these different interrelated parts join each other and make a structure then this structure is known as social structure. In short the meaning of structure is the collection of those units or parts of society which are interrelated with each other.

(i) According to Maclver, “Social structure is abstract and many groups like family, class, caste and community come in this.–MacIver has accepted the stability and changing nature of social structure. According-to Maclver, “For a while the social structure itself is unstable and changeful, it has a definite character at every stage and many of its major elements have shown greater persistence of type through change.”

(ii) According to Morris Ginsberg, “Ginsberg has not differentiated between social structure and organization. He used the word social structure for systematic relations. According to him humans combine themselves with groups, institutions, associations etc. to achieve any purpose with which social structure is formulated.

According to Ginsberg, “The study of social structure is concerned with the principal forms of social organization i.e. types of groups, associations and institutions and the complex of these which constitute societies…full account of social structure would involve a review of the whole field of comparative institutions.”

(iii) According to Harry M. Johnson, “The structure of anything consists of relatively stable inter-relationship among its parts, moreover the part itself implies a certaip degree of stability since a social system is composed of the inter-related acts of people, its structure must be sought in some degree of regularity or recurrence in these acts.”

1. Different societies have different social structure. Every society has its own different rules because the relations which exist in different units of society have different place in social life. Except this social structure in different times is different. This difference is so because the relations which exist in units of society are different in different societies. It is related with specific society. That’s why social structure is related with specific society. Its different units like family institution, group, caste etc. have different forms.

2. It refers to the external aspect of society. Social structure is not related to internal system of society but is related with external aspect of soceity. For example the way in which different parts of human body make the full body and make the external structure of body, in that same way different parts of society combine and form the external structure of society. Hands, legs, head, nose etc. only show the external parts of body.

3. Social structure is abstract. Social structure is the sequence of interrelations of different units of society. Groups, castes, institutions, categories etc. are these units. This sequence of social structure doesn’t have any concrete form. That’s why it cannot be touched and seen. It can be felt only. Different relations which exist in different units are without any form and that’s why structure is abstract.

4. Social structure is changeable. Brown was of the view that mobility and continuity exist in social structure. It is not static. The way in which physical body changes in the same way change comes in structure of society but it doesn’t mean that the basic elements of structure also change.

5. Hierarchy of sub-structure in a structure. Our physical body is made up of many small structures, like backbone, neck, hands, feet etc.All these small structures form a big structure. In the same way we can take structure of educational institution. Staff, Principal office etc. are sub-structures which form the complete structure of educational institutions. In the same way in society, different categories and layers are there which jointly make a social structure.

6. Every unit of social structure has a definite position. Our social structure is made up of various units. Their position is definite and limited. No unit can take place of the other and cannot go beyond its limits. For example religion, school, family, caste etc. are different units of social structure. All of these have different place in social structure.

Religion never does function of school, school never does function of family etc. because every unit works in its limited area. If any unit comes out of its limits and works in the area of other unit then it will not be accepted by society. Every unit has different and definite place in society in different times. That’s why social structure is maintained.

7. Social structure is the product of social interactions. Development of social structure in every society is the product of social interactions. Different units of social structure are interrelated with each other. That’s why single unit is of no importance. Social interactions are very helpful in giving sequence to family, group, institution, association etc.

Question 2.
Which system helps in the maintenance of social structure ?
Answer:
In social structure, all the human beings have organised themselves into different associations to pursue some common goals. Such goals can be achieved if the social structure is based upon operational systems which help in its maintenance. Few of such systems are given below :

1. Normative System : Normative system presents some ideals and values in front of members of society. Members of society attach emotional importance to these values and ideas. Different groups, associations, institutions, communities etc. are interrelated according to norms and values. Different members of society perform their roles according to these norms. .

2. Position System : Position system refers to status and roles given to different individuals. Every one has unlimited and multiple aspirations and expectations. Different individuals in different societies have different status. For example, an individual in a family is a father, son, brother, uncle, husband etc. When he is in conversation with his wife, he acts as her husband and he forgets about other status. In the same way, while interacting with his son, he acts like a father. In other words, for the smooth functioning of social structure it is a must to properly allocate status and roles in society.

3. Sanction System: For the proper implementation of rules, society also provides a sanction system. To maintain balance between different parts, it is necessary to properly implement norms and values. Sanction can be negative as well as positive. Those who follow norms and values are rewarded by society and those who do not follow them are punished. Stability of social structure depends upon the effectiveness of sanction system. ‘

4. System of Anticipated Responses : A system of anticipated responses expects the individuals to participate in the social system. With their participation, social structure sets in metiori. The successful working of social structure depends upon the realisation of duties by the individuals. Members of society internalise the sanctioned behaviour with the help of socialisation with which they anticipate the experted behaviour of others in different situations. So the system of anticipated responses becomes one of the reason of stability-of a social structure.

5. Action System : Talcott Parsons gave special-stress on the concept of social action. He was of the view that society (web of social relationships) has emerged out of the action and interactions of the individual. Thus, the action system becemes one of the important elements that makes society active and sets the social structure in motion.

Question 3.
What is social structure ? What are the elements of social structure ?
Answer:
Our society is the web of social relationships. It has different units which are related with each other. They cannot do anything without each other’s help. It means they have the sense of cooperation These units are groups, institutions, associations, organizations etc. These units don’t have any independent existence, in fact when they relate with each other then they take the form of one structure. One sequence is there in their relations. With this sequence our society works properly.

We clarify the words sequence and arrangement pattern in an easy way with another example. If desk, bench, black-board, teacher, principal, peon, student and building can be kept at one place then it cannot be called as school. It can be called as school at that time when these different units will work in proper sequence with a proper arrangement pattern and on their definite place. Then only it can be called a school. We can take another example that we buy cloth for the shirt then it cannot be called as shirt until it doesn’t have any shape.

In this way every society has different social structure because there is always some difference in the units of the structure which makes the social structure. Our society is changeable. Time to time change comes in this due to natural forces or due to inventions by humans. That’s why social structure also changes. Its units are not concrete because we cannot touch them.

Yet these units of social structure like family, religion, institution, association, economy etc. are like each other but their types are different. Like any society is Patriarchal and any society is Matriarchal. It means that except some similarity its types are different. In short we can say that social structure it that systematic arragngement through which social relations can be tied in one thread.

Elements of Social Structure:
According to Harry M. Johnson and Talcot Parsons, there are four main elements of social structure which are given below :
1. Sub-Groups. According to Johnson and Parsons, every social structure is made up of units or sub-groups. Bigger group is made up of some sub-groups.

For example under educational group, school, college, university, family, religion etc. all these sub-groups are included which are related with educational group in one way or the other. Humans are getting roles and status through these groups and sub-groups. Place of every status and role is definite in the society.

Humans get birth and dying in society but these roles and status are definite. Humans get them after birth and after their death, other humans get their place. For example if principal of any school dies then other person takes his responsibilities by taking his status and role by becoming principal of that school. It means that sub-groups are short and permanent. They never come to an end. Their members are changing due to birth and death. Family, school, college etc. remain at their same place as they were 50 years ago but the members working in it are changing with time.

2. Roles. In sub-groups of social structure, humans are related to their roles through definite patterns. Society is the web of social relationships. Interactions take place between humans and groups to develop these relations. To clarify the activeness of these interactions, status and roles are defined.

Role is related with that behaviour of person which humans perform in specific condition and whichever function person has to perform related with specific status, are determined by social sanctions. Roles and status of members of society are changed when changes come in social structure. Social structure is maintained with these roles and definite social relations.

3. Social Norms. Roles and sub-groups are related with social norms because functions of humans are determined by these norms. That’s why roles and sub-groups become static. Social norms have many rules and sub-rules. These are those sanctioned ways of individual behaviour with which social structure is being formulated. Social ideals are related with these norms.

Humans would not be able to know about their responsiblities in the absence of these norms and our social structure cannot be maintained in its absence. For example, humans which are getting roles of father- son, mother-daughter, brother-sister, teacher-student etc.

are told about their responsibilities through these social norms. That’s why these are very important for social structure. Behaviour of humans is being regulated and directed by social norms in specific conditions with which roles and sub-groups are maintained. It is the third important element of social structure.

4. Social Values. According to Harry M. Johnson, “Value may be defined as a conception or standard cultural or merely personal, by which things are compared and approved or disapproved relative to one another held to be relatively desirable or undeiable, more meritorious or less, more or less correct. All kinds of things may be evaluated, feelings, ideas, actions, qualities, objects, persons, groups, goals and means.”

According to Johnson, values are measured because through them social norms are being evaluated. They appeal to the feelings of the members of society. Whenever person decides about any thing then he is definitely under the effect of his feelings. According to Johnson, everything is evaluated through values.”

The word ‘norm’ is used for specific behaviour pattern but values are simple measurements. These can be called as the norms of higher level. Social values are very important for social system and to stop social disorganization. Feelings of group are also related with these values. They also have functional relation between them because of which web of social relationship never breaks up.

With this our social structure and social system are maintained. With them balance is generally established between the feelings of human and group with which values are used as measures for the selection of behaviour. Human functions are divided in good or bad, high or low classes through these social values.

Question 4.
Define Status. Write its characteristics in detail.
Answer:
Society is the web of social relationships. The system of society is maintained through relations. No society can live without system. So to maintain this social system, every person in society is given one specific position. It is necessary for the maintenence of social system and organization that different persons should work according to their status in an efficient way and society expects from them that they should perform their duties in a proper way.

In this way every person has a position or status in society. Some persons are at higher posts and some persons are at lower posts. Status is the social position of a person which a person gets while living in society. Every person is related with some status.

All these statuses are the part of social position of a person because of which all these are the basis of social system. We can come to know about importance of status by comparing it with other status. Society has been divided into different parts due to status and as a result identity of person establishes in society.

In simple words, word ‘status’ is taken as social prestige. Higher status leads to more prestige. Social position of a person depends upon the evolution done by society. In sociology, meaning of status is taken by the position of person in society. There are many statuses in society and person gets some of them. Number of status, which a person gets, depends upon his membership of different groups.

In this way we can say that status is the position of a person which is given to him by organisation of group. Person gets status due to his age, gender, equality, birth, duty and his relations with other members. Every person has got some status like status of father, son, uncle, peon, officer etc. Person has to do some work according to his status. In this way we come to know about status by its functions. Person gets different status in different situations.

Definitions of Status:

According to Secard and Berkman, “Status is the worth of a person as estimated by a group or a class of persons.”
According to Kingsley Davis, “Status is a position in the general institutional system recognized and adopted by the entire society, spontaneously evolved rather than deliberately created, rooted in the folk ways and customs.”
According to Linton, “The place in a particular system which a certain individual occupies at a particular time will be referred to as his status with respect to that system The role is what the individual has to do in order to validate his occupation of the status.”
According to Maclver and Page, “Status is the social position that determines for its possessor apart from his personal attribute or social service, a degree of respect, prestige and influence.”

In this way on the basis of these definitions we can say that whichever position a person gets in specific group is his status. Because status is in group, that’s why number of status depends upon the number of groups of which a person is the member. In this way status is the social position of a person which a person gets due to his abilities, birth, gender, age, qualities etc. Person has to do a number of works related with his status. Person has to obey the orders of person of higher status than him. It maintains the social system and social discipline. Social prestige is also related with every status.

Characteristics of Social Status:
1. Every status has a place in society : Every status is known by the related rights, duties, norms and prestige of the group because a person has to do functions related to that. Like status of high ranked officer and low ranked officer is different in an office and this status can be known on the basis of group.

2. Status is determined by the culture of the society : Status is determined by the specific cultural values of a specific society that which status should be given to which person and what would be the related rights and duties. Person has to do functions according to social status. Like an elder member of the house father gets status and related roles automatically. All in all we can say that the status of every person is determined by the culture of that society.

3. Status is always comparable : Status is always comparable because we can come to know about our status by comparing it with the status of another person. If there would be no comparison of two status then how can we come to know that which status is higher or lower. For example, the status of owner of a factory is definitely higher than the status of a manager and we can come to know about this only by comparing it.

4. Every status has psychological base : Person always does hard work to get higher status because of which feelings also come in person. Respect and disrespect are also related with every status and these are related with psychological sector of person. When person achieves that social status with hard work then he gets mental satisfaction. In this way status has a psychological base.

5. Sthtus is of two types : Two types of status are there for every person. First one is Ascribed Status which a person gets without any effort and hard work. For example son, elder brother, elder sister etc. Second type of status is Achieved Status and this type of status person achieves with his hard work while living in society like officer, clerk etc.

6. Role is determined by status : Any role is definitely related to every status and this role is determined on the basis of social values. Person performs his role according to his status. Some statuses in society are very important and the roles of these statuses are also very important which the relative person has to perform. For example D.C. or S.S.P.

7. Similarity of status but not of functions : Many times it happens that many statuses in society are equal but their functions are different, for example, professors of any college. Status of all of them is same but their function, means subject of teaching is different. They teach different subjects or do different functions but their status is same. There are many engineers in a factory but their functions may be different.

Question 5.
Define role. Write its characteristics in detail.
Answer:
Every person has definitely any status in the society and some demands and responsibilities are also related to that status. These demands tell us that what a person has to do. Person achieves many status on the basis of ability, age, caste, sex etc. and person has to do a number of functions on the basis of tradition of that status. In this way it is expected from the person that what specific function he has to do in specific condition and this function is his role.

Importance of social role is at that time when person performs relative role. In this way status and role are the two sides of the same coin. Humans are differentiated on the basis of their functions. For example doctor, teacher, engineer etc.

It means functions of person are divided on the basis of different sectors. In this way person is given any function in social status on the basis of rules, laws or traditions. This function is role. Role is related with every status.

In this way we can say that every status has a set of relative functions. This set of functions is known as role. Person is always there on any status and some responsibilities are also there related with those status. The collection of those responsibilities is known as role.

Role of every one is different. In this way roles tell the person about that behaviour which is expected from the person who has that status. Role and status cannot be differentiated. Role is related with status. To know the more clear meaning of status now we will see the definitions of role.

Definitions:
1. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “A role is a set of socially expected and approved behaviour patterns, consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular position in a group.”

2. According to Ginsberg, “Status is a position and a role is the manner in which that position is supposed to be filled.” .

3. According to Fitcher, “When a number of interrelated behaviour patterns are clustered around a social function we call this combination a social role.”

4. According to Kingsley Davis, “Role is the manner in which a person actually carries out the requirements of the position.”
In this way on the basis of these definitions we can say that the meaning of role is related with the specific behaviour of a person which he does in specific conditions.

Role is the way with which person fulfils his responsibilities or functions related with his status. For the maintenance of our social system it is necessary because society cannot run without doing work. In this way role is the accepted way in which a person performs his duties related with his status and uses rights of his status.

Characteristics of Role:
1. One person has many roles. A person gets many statuses while living in society and automatically gets many roles related with those status because he is able to perform those responsibilities or roles. For example, role of father and husband in family, role of clerk or officer in office, role of chairman in club etc. In this way one person performs many roles.

2. Role is determined by our culture. Because a person has many statuses, that’s why he needs to perform roles related with status according to the relative rules, laws, values and traditions. These laws, rules, traditions and values are the part of our culture. That’s why role is regulated by our culture.

3. Role is functional. Role always has one functional aspect. The meaning of functional aspect is that to do work related with that status. Person has to do work related to the status which he has and this is the functional aspect of role.

4. Role is determined by the social sanctions. The nature of humans is not same. If the members of the society will be allowed to work according to their wish then no work would be done in an efficient way. It is so because some will not be able to do that work and some will work against the values of society. That’s why only those roles are accepted by society which have social sanctions. These are determined by our culture that which role would be performgd by which person.

5. Different importance of different roles. S.ome roles in society are very important because they are related with any specific aspect and for them, person needs special training. That’s why they have more importance. In the same way some roles are of less importance because their status is of less importance and there is no need of special training for them. For example, there is a great difference between the role of the I.A.S. officer and a clerk.

6. Importance of ability in Role. Individual’s ability is of great importance in performing any role. It is so because it is not necessary that he can perform his role in proper way. One person performs one role successfully and in another he fails. It means that person can perform his role in right or wrong way according to his ability.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Solutions Chapter 5 Culture

October 17, 2024October 16, 2024 by Prasanna

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 5 Culture Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 5 Culture

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Culture Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
State the basic elements of culture.
Answer:
Traditions, social norms and values are the basic elements of culture.

Question 2.
Who called culture a ‘total way of life of the people?
Answer:
These words are of Clyde Kluckhohn.

Question 3.
In what way is culture transmitted in non-literate societies?
Answer:
Because culture is a learned behaviour, that’s why in non-literate societies culture is transmitted through learning.

Question 4.
Give a broad classification of culture.
Answer:
Culture is of two types-material culture and non-material culture.

Question 5.
Name few examples of non-material culture.
Answer:
Views, norms, values, habits, ideals, traditions etc.

Question 6.
Who gave the theory of cultural lag?
AnsweR:
The theory of cultural lag was given by William F. Ogburn.

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
What is culture ?
Answer:
Our ways of living, philosophy, feelings, views, machines; tools etc. all material and non-material things and this is culture. All these things are produced and used by group. So, culture is that on which we work upon, think on it and keep it.

Question 2.
What is cultural lag ?
Answer:
Culture consists of two parts-material and non-material. Due to new inventions, change comes very quickly in material culture but our views, traditions etc. i.e. non-material culture does not change very quickly. As a result, gap is created between the two which is known as cultural lag.

Question 3.
What are social norms ?
Answer:
Each society makes certain rules for the behaviour of its members and these are known as norms. So, norms are few directions for behaviour. Norms regulate and direct the behaviour of individuals. They are very important aspects of culture.

Question 4.
What are the central values of modern India ?
Answer:
Democratic system, equality, justice, freedom, secularism etc. are the central values of modern India. Each society has its own central values. Small communities stress on any specific value but large societies stress on universal values.

Question 5.
Mention some values of traditional Indian society.
Answer:
Each society is having different values. One society streses on one value and other society stresses on the other. Important values of traditional Indian society are detachment, materialism and religion, attainment of four purusharthas, dharma, artha, kama and moksha.

Question 6.
How is the cognitive component of culture expressed ?
Answer:
The cognitive components of culture are expressed with the help of imagination, literature, art, religion and scientific theories. Views are expressed in literature and in this way the cognitive aspect of culture is preserved.

Answer the following short answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
How is culture a total way of life of the people ?
Answer:
There is no denying fact that culture is a total way of life of the people. Whatever we have is our culture. Our views, ideals, habits, clothes, money, property etc. and whatever humans have achieved till today is our culture. If we separate all these from human life, nothing will be left in it and then human life will reach the level of early man. Yet each society has its different culture but they have certain elements which are common everywhere. So, we can say that culture is a total way of human life.

Question 2.
Write a note on material and non-material culture.
Answer:
The meaning of material culture is by that culture in which all the man made things are included. This culture is concrete because we can see or touch it such as scooter, T.V. table, chair, pen, bus, car etc. All these things are concrete and thus a part of material culture.

In non-material culture, all the things are included which are abstract in nature. We can neither see non touch them. We can just feel them such as traditions, customs, values, skills, norms etc. All such things are abstract so non-material culture is abstract in nature.

Question 3.
Discuss in brief the basic elements of culture.
Answer:

Customs and traditions are the types of organised social behaviour which are used again and again. They are permanent ways of.behaviour. Each society has its own customs and traditions.
Norms are also very essential elements of culture. It is expected from each person to behave in a specified way. Norms are the established ways of behaviour shared by the members of a group.
Values are also its inseparable part. Each society has its own values and it is expected from every one to accept them.

Question 4.
‘Culture is learned behaviour’. Explain the statement with suitable examples.
Answer:
There is no denying the fact that humans learn their culture. It is not a biological trait which one gets from his parents in the form of genes. An individual learns culture gradually through the process of learning. No one is having views and ideas when he takes birth but all these he learns while living in society after interacting with others. Every type of action or activity is learned only while living in society. So, it is clear that culture is learned behaviour.

Answer the following short answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
How does the understanding of culture in social analysis differ from the everyday use of the word ‘culture’ ?
Answer:
The meaning of everyday use of the word ‘culture’ is very much different from the meaning given by sociologists. In every usage, culture is limited only to art or life style of different countries. But the meaning given by sociology is very much different. Sociology says that whatever man has achieved from his early life till today is his culture. Traditions, ideas, norms, values, mores, chair, table, car, pen, books, written knowledge etc. Whatever man has achieved only while living in society is his culture, So, the meaning of culture given in both the senses is different from each other.

Question 2.
What do you mean by culture ? Highlight the characteristics of culture.
Answer:
The most important thing which differentiates humans from animals is the culture which humans have but animals don’t. The most important thing which human has is his culture. If the culture would be taken away from them then nothing would be left with them. In all the organisms of the world, only humans have the capability to make and preserve their culture.

Culture comes out of the interactions of humans. Culture not only comes out of human interaction but it shows the way to future’s human interactions. Culture helps in the formation of personality of a man and helps him to live in society. Culture makes that type of atmosphere in which man becomes capable of doing functions of society. In this way man and culture are connected very deeply with each other because culture differentiates man from animals.

Culture, is the mest important feature of human society. According to Aristotle, “Man is a social animal.” If we will describe the differences between man and animal then this culture will be the decisive factor of difference between them. Man himself creates his culture and has the capacity to preserve it for its future generation. Actually it is the product of human interactions #nd on the basis of this culture we can differentiate one society from the other.

We cannot understand human society without understanding the culture because culture exerts a lot of effect on the social life. Cultural factor is also an important factor of social change. In this way we can say that man is not only a biological man but is a cultural man as well. In common language culture is equated with education means literate person is a cultured man and illiterate person is a non-cultured man. But this meaning of culture is not correct. Sociology takes its meaning in very wide sense. According to sociologists any thing which man has made to fulfil his needs is culture.

Definitions:
1. According to Maclver and Page, “It is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and thinking, in our everyday course, in art, in literature, in religion, in recreation and enjoyment.”

2. According to Bierstedt, “Culture is the complex whole that consists of everything we think and do and have as members of society.”

3. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “It is that part of man’s total environment into which he alone is born. It consists buildings, tools, wearing apparel, art, science, religion and all the ways of doing things which man learns.”

4. According to Majumdar, “Culture is the sum total of human achievement, material as well as non-material capable of transmission, sociologically
i.e. tradition and communication critically as well as horizontally.”

5. According to Lundberg, “Culture refers to the social mechanism of behaviour and to the physical and symbolic product of these behaviours.”
From the given definitions it is clear that all those things are included in culture which a man learns while living in society like art, law, feelings, customs, ways of wearing, eating, literature, knowledge, belief etc.

All these things are the part of culture and they do not work separately but they work with each other and form an organization. This organization is known as culture. In short, the things which a man has learnt and whatever he has got from his ancestors as heritage is known as culture. In heritage tools, ways of behaviour, ways of science, ways of doing work are included.

Functions or Characteristics of Culture:
1. Culture is transmitted from generation to generation. Culture is transmitted from one generation to another because a child learns many things from the behaviour of his parents. Man learns a lot from the achievements of his ancestors. No one wants to start any thing from the beginning and that’s why he takes care of that work which his ancestors have done.

This transmission is going on from the ages and that’s why every one gets separate personality. No one brings any thing with his birth. He needs to learn every thing by living in society with his parents, grandparents etc. In’this way culture is transmitted from one generation to another.

2. Culture is social. Culture cannot become the personal property of an individual. It is social because neither one man can make the whole culture and nor it is property of anyone. When any one invents any thing then that invention is not his personal thing but becomes property of society because that thing will be used by the whole society.

In this way different things of our culture are used by society. Any thing can be called a part of the culture at that time when that thing will be accepted by most of the people of society. In this way universality of that thing-is an essential element of culture. So culture is not individual but is social.

3. Culture can be learned. Culture is learned by humans. It is not a biological quality which a person gets from his parents by birth. Man learns culture by socialization. No one brings thoughts and ideas by birth but he learns them by interacting with other persons of society. Every type of work is learned by society. From this it is clear that culture is a learned behaviour.

4. Culture fulfills needs of society. If any thing is invented then that thing is invented because man needs that thing. In this way every thing of culture comes out so that the needs of man could be fulfilled. Why man learnt to grow wheat, because he needs wheat for his hunger. In this way man learnt to grow food and this learned behaviour is transmitted from generation to generation.

Needs are not only biological but are sociocultural also. With hunger, man needs love and sympathy which a man learns while living in society. In this way different parts of culture fulfil different needs of society. Whichever part of culture is unable to fulfil the needs of society, gradually it comes to an end.

5. Changes often come in culture. Culture never stops at one place but often changes because nothing is unchangeable in the world. Change is law of nature and if change is necessary then culture is also changeable. Culture fulfills all the needs of society which generally change with the passage of time because situations are not the same all the times.

With the change in situations, needs also change which means, the methods of fulfilling those needs also change. For example during earlier times agriculture was done with old means like plough but with the increase of population, needs were also increased and that’s why now agriculture is being done with tractors and combines to fulfil the increased needs. So with the change in situation, culture is also bound to change.

6. One culture consists of many cultures. In every culture we can see some common norms, traditions, feelings, rituals, behaviour etc. but with that we can see many types of ways of eating, wearing, ways of living, behaviour, etc. From this it is clear that one culture consists of many cultures. For example we can see many subcultures in Indian culture because every one has its own ways of living, behaving, eating etc. from which it is clear that one culture has many cultures.

Question 3.
Explain the two types of culture in detail.
Answer:
Culture is an important factor for social change. With the change in culture, society also changes because it is the social heritage of society. Famous sociologists Ogburn and Nimkoff,’in their book ‘Hand Book of Sociology’, have given two types of culture and these are :
(1) Material Culture
(2) Non-material Culture.

1. Material Culture:
Material culture is artificial culture. Its main feature is that all the things made by man are included in this. Material culture is related to concrete things. We can touch and see all the things of material culture. For example machines, tools, means of transport, books, phone, etc. Material culture is related with inventions of man.

New technological knowledge is also included in material culture. Everything is included in this type of culture which is made, changed and transmitted till today. These material aspects of culture help its members to define their behaviour. For example the people engaged in agriculture have occupation but they use different implements and tools. All these are the‘‘parts of material culture.

2. Non-material Culture:
Important feature of non-material culture is that it is abstract. Abstract means those things which we cannot touch, and see. We can only feel them. For example religion, traditions, rituals, customs, art, literature, music, values, ideas etc. are included in non-material culture. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, culture is divided in two parts for the easiness of subject or just for analytical purposes.

Question 4.
Write a detailed note on cultural lag.
Answer:
First of all the concept of cultural lag was used by Ogburn to understand the problems of society and conditions of conflict. Ogburn was the first sociologist who has given the detailed meaning of the concept of Cultural Lag. Yet other sociologists like Spencer, Sumner, Muller etc. have also used the concept of cultural lag in their writings but Ogburn has used this concept in his book ‘Social Change’ to understand social disorganization problems and conflict. In sociology, this concept was accepted widely.

Meaning of Cultural Lag. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, change in different parts of culture never comes with the same speed. The speed of change of one part is more as compared to the other. But culture is a system. It is made up of many parts. Its different parts are inter-connected and inter-related. This system of culture can be maintained if the change in all arts of culture will come at the same speed. Actually what happens is that if one part of culture changes due to any invention then another part of the culture, which depends upon that part, also changes. But the change in the second part comes very late.

How much time will this second part take, depends upon the nature of the second part. This lateness goes on for many years because of which problem comes in the system. This lag in different parts of culture is known as Cultural Lag. According to Ogburn, “The thesis is that the various parts of modern culture are not changing at the same rate, some parts are changing much more rapidly than others, and that since there is co-relation and inter-dependence of parts, a rapid change in one part of our culture requires re-adjustments through other changes in the various co-related parts of culture. where one part of culture changes first, through some discovery or invention and occasional changes in some part of culture-dependent upon it, there frequently is a delay in the changes occasioned in the dependent part of the culture.”

The meaning of lag is to stay behind. Ogburn has given example to explain the meaning of ‘Lag’. According to him, anything is made of two parts. If change comes in one part of that thing then this change will definitely affect the other parts. This part, which is affected by that change, slowly and slowly changes automatically. These changes come slowly and slowly take some time. This difference of time is known as lag or to stay behind. Ogburn has explained the concept of cultural lag in this way.

According to him, culture has two parts that are interrelated. If ally change comes in one part then the second part is bound to be affected by that change. This second part slowly and slowly adapts itself to change and makes itself according to that change. But this adaptation takes some time. This difference of time, which is there between ‘change and adaptation, is known as cultural lag. When any part of culture moves forward with some development or invention and the second part lags behind then we can say that cultural lag exists.

According to Ogburn, culture has two parts (1) Material Culture (2) Non-material Culture. In material culture, all those things are included which we can touch and see like a machine, table, chair, book, T.V. scooter, etc., and in non-material culture all those things are included which we cannot see and touch, only we can feel them. For example, habits, thought, behaviour, feelings, customs, etc. Both parts are closely interrelated. If change comes in any part then the second part is bound to change.

This law is also applicable to material and non-material cultures. Changes often come in material culture and these changes come very fast because of new inventions. Material culture changes very fast but the speed of changes in non-material is very slow. That’s why because of rapid changes material culture moves forward but non-material culture, whose speed is very slow, lags behind. In this way, the lagging behind of the non-material culture from the material culture is known as cultural lag.

According to Ogburn, change comes in material culture with great speed because people want to use material things in a proper way. To use material things we need money and there is no need to move away from traditions and thoughts. For example, we are ready to buy Fridge, T.V., Scooter, Car, etc. but are not willing to change our customs and traditions. With one more example everything will be clear.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Solutions Chapter 1 Emergence of Sociology

October 11, 2024October 10, 2024 by Prasanna

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 1 Emergence of Sociology Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 1 Emergence of Sociology

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Emergence of Sociology Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
Who is regarded as the ‘Father of Sociology’?
Answer:
Auguste Comte is regarded as the ‘Father of SocioloH’

Question 2.
Name the two vital factors for the establishment of Sociology as a separate social science.
Answer:
French revolution, progress of natural sciences, industrial revolution and the process of urbanisation are the vital factors for the establishment of Sociology as a separate social science.

Question 3.
From which two words the word ‘Sociology’ came and in which year the subject Sociology emerged ?
Answer:
The word ‘Sociology’ came from the Latin word ‘Soeio’ means society and the Greek word ‘Logos’ which means study. The subject of Sociology
emerged in the year 1839.

Question 4.
Name the two schools regarding the scope of Sociology.
Answer:
There exist two schools regarding the scope of Sociology and these are Formalistic school and Synthetic school.

Question 5.
What is industrialisation ?
Answer:
Industrialisation is that age of social and economic change which converted human society from rural to industrial.

Question 6.
Name two scholars who contributed in the development of Sociology in India.
Answer:
G.S. Ghurye, Radha Kama! Mukherjee, M.N. Srinivas, A.R. Desai etc.

Answer the following short Answer Questions in 30-35 words each

Question 1.
What is the meaning of Sociology ?
Answer:
Science of society is known as Sociology. Groups, institutions, associations, organisations, interactions of individuals are studied scientifically in Sociology. In simple words, ‘Sociology’ is the scientific study of Society.

Question 2.
State two important changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution.
Answer:
(i) Due to the industrial revolution, the production of goods moved to large industries from homes where goods were produced on a large scale.
(ii) Urbanisation also increased and many problems originated in cities such as more population, pollution, traffic, crimes etc. ‘

Question 3.
What is Positivism ?
Answer:
The concept of positivism was given by Auguste Comte. According’ to him, positivism is a scientific method in which there is no place of imagination while understanding and defining any subject matter. In this, every thing about any subject is understood with experiment, classification, comparison and historical method.

Question 4.
What is Scientific method ?
Answer;
Scientific method is a method to attain knowledge with the help of which study is conducted in a scientific way. It is a collective effort which collects different phenomenon with which science is formed.

Question 5.
Define objectivity.
Answer:
When any social scientist studies without any partiality, it is known as objectivity. It is very important for a social scientist to remain objective because in its absence, his study can become biased and will become useless.

Question 6.
Discuss the issue of the hope and subject matter of Sociology.
Answer:
There prevail two schools about the scope of sociology. First school is the Formalistic school which says that sociology studies the forms of social relations and that’s why it is a special science. Second school is Synthetic school which says that sociology is the mixture of other social sciences. So it is a general science.

Question 7.
What are scientific methods employed by sociologists to study its subject matter ?
Answer:
Sociologists use many scientific methods to study their subject matter and these methods are Sampling method, Observation method, Interview method, Schedule method, Questionnaire method, Case study method etc.

Answer the following long Answer Questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
In what way is the Formalistic School of thought different from Synthetic School ?
Answer:
(i) Formalistic School : According to the thinkers of Formalistic school, Sociology is a special science which studies the forms of social relations. No other social science studies such forms of social relationships. That’s why it is not a general science but a special science. Major exponents of this school are Max Weber, George Simmel, Vierkandt, Von Wiese, Richard etc.

(ii) Synthetic School : According to the thinkers of this school, Sociology is not a special science but a genernal science. It borrows and studies the subject matter of other social sciences. That’s why it is a general science. Major exponents of this school are Emile Darkheim, Hobhouse, Sorokin etc.

Question 2.
Discuss briefly the importance of Sociology.
Answer:

Sociology helps in conducting a scientific study of society.
Sociology helps in making plans of social welfare as after studing society in a scientific manner, iff gives us a clear picture of society.
Sociology explains the importance of different social institutions in our lives that how they contribute in the formation of an individual’s personality.
After studying social problems, sociology tells us the ways to eradicate such problems.
Sociology also helps in understanding different cultures.

Question 3.
In what way did the French Revolution have a great impact on society?
Answer:
French Revolution started in 1789 A.D. and it brought great changes in French society. Political system changed and it brought changes in social structure. Even before the revolution many philosophers gave their views on change. In this way the seeds of Sociology were sowed and need was felt to study society in a scientific way. Views of different scholars laid its foundation and the work of bringing Sociology in front was completed by Auguste Comte who himself was a French citizen.

Question 4.
In what way did the Industrial Revolution have a great impact on society?
Answer:
Industrial revolution brought forward many good and bad changes in society and social system. Many new issues such as cities, industries, urban problems came forward during those days and these issues laid the foundation of sociology. This was the time when earlier Sociologists like Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, Max Weber etc. come into being and Sociology depends upon the ideas and theories given by them. The impacts of industrial revolution are hidden behind the ideas given by earlier Sociologists. In this way industrial revolution brought many changes in society and consequently played a great role in the emergence of Sociology.

Question 5.
Sociology makes use of scientific methods in its subject matter. Explain.
Answer:
Sociology uses many scientific methods for the study of social facts. It uses many scientific methods Like Comparative method, Historical method, Case Study method, Verstehen method, Observation, Interview, Schedule, Questionnaire etc. and solves the social problems. All these methods are scientific in nature. Knowledge of Sociology is systematic which is obtained by using scientific method.

Answer the following long answer Questions in 250-300 words each :

Question 1.
What do you mean by Sociology ? Highlight the scope of Sociology.
Answer:
In simple words Sociology is the scientific study of society in which mutual relations of humans are studied. Sociology studies mutual actions of human behaviour. It also tries to understand how different groups came into being, how they developed, how they came to an,end and then again came into being. In Sociology different methods, customs, groups, traditions and institutions are being studied.

Auguste Comte, a French philosopher is known as the father of Sociology. His famous book ‘Positive Philosophy’ was published during 1830-1842 in 6 different volumes. In this book he gave the name of Sociology to that science which studies the relations of society. This subject was started in 1839.

If we will see the literal meaning of Sociology then we can say that it has been made by two words ‘Socio’ and ‘Logos’. Meaning of ‘Socio’ is society and the meaning of ‘Logos’ is science. ‘Socio’ word is taken from Latin language and ‘Logos’ word is taken from Greek language. In this way literal meaning of Sociology is science of society. The science which studies the relations of society is known as Sociology.

Definitions:
(1) According to Giddings, “Sociology is the systematic description and explanation of society viewed as a whole.”
(2) According to Maclver and Page, “Sociology is about social relationship, the network of relationship we call society.”
(3) According to Durkheim, “Sociology is the science of social institutions, their genesis and development.”
(4) According to Ginsberg, “Sociology is the study of human interactions and consequences.”
(5) According to Max Weber, “Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social action.”

After studying these given definitions we can say that Sociology studies society scientifically. It also studies human social relations and their functions. Sociology also tells us that all the customs of humans, which connect them with each other, are studied by Sociology. .

Scope of Sociology:
Sociology studies society and society is the web of social relationships. Society is an unbreakable system. In its structure many classes, groups, associations, schools, institution etc. are included. When we say that Sociology studies the society, it means that a sociologist studies all the groups, institutions, associations etc. After analysing their origin and development, Sociology tells that how it will affect social organization and disorganization. The existence of society is based on the fact that how different parts of society change themselves according to others. About this we can come to know by the study of interactions of groups.

While studying society, sociologist also studies non-societai issues like the effect of physical environment on society. In this way it also studies the relation of social and non-social issues. This list is very long that which thing does it study. If we will study the literature of Sociology then we will come to know that different sociologists have different views about scope of its subject matter. To express the subject matter of Sociology two different views are there. According to the exponents of first view, Sociology is a special science but according to exponents of other view, Sociology is a simple or general science. It means that two opposite schools are there which gave the subject matter of Sociology in their own way.

These are given below:
1. Formalistic School-Sociology is a special science.
2. Synthetic School-Sociology is a general science.

1. Formalistic School:
Sociology is a special kind of science. Supports of Formalistic School are George Simmel, Tonnies, Richard, Von Wiese, Vier Kandt, Max Weber. According to these sociologists, Sociology is also a special science like other social sciences. Supporters of this school are limiting the study of Sociology to the forms of social relationships and they call it as a science. According to them, no other social science studies the forms of social relationships, just sociology is a science which studies the form of social relationships. That’s why it is a special science.

According to the supporters of this school, Sociology is a special science because it only studies forms of social relationships and forms and content are different things. To keep its special existence, Sociology studies the forms of social relationship, not the content. In this way Sociology is the scientific study of forms of human relationships. Because the supporters of this school give stress on form, that’s why it is known as formalistic school.

(i) Views of Simmel. According to Simmel, Sociology is a special science because Sociology studies the forms of social relationship but other social sciences study the content of these relationships. According to Simmel, the difference between Sociology and other social sciences is because of their different points of view. Any collective social phenomenon can be studied by any of the social sciences. In this way to become a special science, Sociology studies those parts which other social sciences do not study. According to Simmel, there are two forms of interactions :

(a) Abstract form
(b) Concrete form.

Social relationships like competition, conflict, domination, subordination, division ofTabour etc. are abstract forms of interaction. According to Simmel, Sociology studies scientifically these abstract forms. No other social science studies them. Except this Sociology is related with other social sciences in the same way in which Geometry is related with natural sciences. It means that Geometry studies the local forms of physical objects and natural sciences study the content of those physical objects. In this way when Sociology studies the social relationships then other social sciences study their content like natural sciences. In this way the abstract form of human behaviour is studied by Sociology and that’s why it is known as special science.

In this way according to Simmel, Sociology studies forms and the abstract forms of social relationships which differentiate it from other social sciences. That’s why it is a special science.

(ii) Views of Vierkandt. Vierkandt has also related Sociology with a special branch of knowledge in which he has taken forms of mental relationships and humans of a society. According to him, man cannot produce and establish relations with others without his imagination, wishes, dreams and community instincts. For example we can take the feeling of competition.

Different players have feeling of competition with each other and teachers also have feeling of competition with each other and students also have the same type of feeling. Here we can say that mental relationship in competition is same, yet feelings are not same. According to Vierkandt, Sociology studies social relationship by differentiating it from1 forms of mental relations. So because of*this he called sociology as a special science.

(iii) Views of Von Weise. In all of his writings Von Weise stressed on the fact that Sociology is a special science. He was of the view that forms of social relationships can be studied by differentiating it from its content. According to him, “Sociology is the study of social or inter-human processes.” From this point of view Sociology has limited scope on the basis of which we can differentiate it from other social sciences.

Sociology does not collect the results or conclusions of other social sciences as it is but it collects the whole information of social life and takes it into its subject matter. He gave two types of social relationships and classified their forms. It will be very easy to understand this thinking with his classification. In this way Von Weise gave stress on the fact that Sociology is a special science.

(iv) Views of Max Weber. Max Weber was also of the view that according to formalistic school, the scope of Sociology is very limited. According to Weber, Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social action. According to him we cannot call all the actions of society as social action. Only that action is social with which the behaviour of other persons is affected.

For example if two or more than two persons collide with each other then this is a natural phenomenon but their those efforts with which they differentiate from each other is their social behaviour. According to Weber, Sociology is related with the analysis and classification of types of social relationships. In this way according to Weber the aim of Sociology is to understand and explain social behaviour. That’s why it is a special science.

2. Synthetic School:
According to the thinkers of Synthetic school, Sociology is a general science. According to them the scope of study of Sociology is very wide. That’s why different aspects of social life like political, cultural, psychological, economical are studied by different social sciences like Political Science, Anthropology, Psychology, Economics.

But except these special sciences which study a special aspect, we need a general social science which can tell us about the general conditions of social life on the basis of results given by a special types of science. This school is totally different from Formalistic school because thinkers of this school stress on the concrete form of social relationships. According to this school we cannot understand social relationship without the help of other social sciences. Main supporters of this school are Sorokin, Durkheim and Hobhouse.

1. Views of Sorokin. Sorokin criticised the views of the formalistic school and accepted Sociology as a general science. According to him, Sociology studies the relationship of different parts of social phenomenon. Secondly, it also studies the social and unsocial-relationships and it also studies the general features of social phenomenon. In this way according to him, “Sociology is a general science of socio-cultural phenomenon views in their generic forms, types and many folded inter connection.” In this way Sociology studies common socio-cultural phenomenon from generalizing point of view.

2. Views of Hobhouse. Hobhouse also accepted the views of Sorokin about the functions of Sociology. According to him, Sociology is the mixture of many social sciences but it studies the whole of»social life. Yet Sociology studies differently the different parts of society but it cannot separate any part from society and it cannot attain complete knowledge without the help of other social sciences.

Actually every social science is related with other in one Way or the other. History is related with Psychology, Psychology with Political Science, Political Science with Sociology etc. In this way Sociology is known as general science of all of these because it studies completely the human social life, and because of which it is related with other sciences.

3. Views of Durkheim. According to Durkheim, all social institutions are related with each other and we cannot study them by separating them from each other. Sociology is dependent upon other social sciences for the study of society. According to him, we can divide Sociology in three parts :

Social Morphology
Social Physiology
General Sociology.

The first part is related with humans such as size of population and division. Second part is very complex and further is divided in many parts like sociology of religion, sociology of economics, sociology of law, political sociology. All these sciences study different parts of social life but their point of view is always social. In third part social laws are formulated. In this way according to these views of Durkheim, Sociology is a general science because it is related with the study of every type of institution and social processes.

Question 2.
What do you understand by Sociology ? Discuss the nature of Sociology.
Answer:
Meaning of Sociology:

According to Giddings, “Sociology is the systematic description and explanation of society viewed as a whole.”
According to Maciver and Page, “Sociology is about social relationship. the network of relationship we call society.”
According to Durkheim, “Sociology is the science of social institutions, their genesis and development.”
According to Ginsberg, “Sociology is the study of human interactions and consequences.”
According to Max Weber, “Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social action.”

After studying these given definitions we can say that Sociology studies society scientifically. It. àlso studies human social relations and their functions. Sociology also tells us that all the customs of humans, which connect them with each other, are studied by Sociology.

Nature of Sociology :
Sociology is a science but after the following discussion it will become clear that features of science exist in the nature of Sociology.

1. Sociology uses scientific methods. Sociology uses scientific methods for the study of social facts. These methods are historical method, comparative method, case study method, experimental method, ideal type, verstehen etc. These methods of Sociology are made on the basis of scientific method. Sociology uses all the steps of scientific method to find facts like all the natural sciences are using. The base of all those methods is scientific and all these methods are used in Sociology. In present age except these methods, some other methods are also used in Sociology. So in this way if we can use scientific method in the study of Sociology then we can call it as a science.

2. Sociology explains the causal-effect relations. Sociology not only collects the facts but also tries to know their causal-effect relationships. It just not tries to know that ‘why it is’ but it also tries to know about ‘Why’ and ‘How’. It means it tries to know about reasons and results of different facts. For example if any sociologist is studying the problem of unemployment or low status of women then he is just not limiting himself to the collection of data related with that problem but he also tries to know about why this problem came into being and what are its results. It means that why and how this problem came into being. So on the basis of giving explanation of causal-effect relations we can call it a science.

3. Sociology only explains ‘what is’. It does not explain about what should be. Sociology expresses different social facts and phenomena in their original form, the form in which it has seen them. It observes social facts with objectivity and does not accept any fact without reason. It explains subject in its real form and explains ‘what is’ When sociologist studies social phenomena then he does not accept social fact without any reason.

He restricts himself only with the explanation of truth, the way in which Physical Sciences do while studying physical processes. In this way when sociologist studies social processes then he studies and explains without any other effect. In this way Sociology is also known as Positive Science because in this we study any social phenomenon on the basis of facts. So that’s why we can call it as a science.

4. Sociology studies anything with objectivity. In Sociology all facts are observed without any bias. Sociologist tries to study facts and phenomena with objectivity and on the basis of any reason. According to his nature, man can be biased. His interests, habits, feelings can come in study but sociologist studies everything with objectivity and does not bring his likings and dislikings in his study.

The study of any society by Sociology is always based on objectivity because sociologist tries to study on the basis of social facts. For example, if he studies the problem of caste system he keeps his beliefs, thoughts and feelings away from his study. If he will not then it will be difficult to find solution of that problem. Sociologist tries to observe any problem with objectivity and on the basis of this we can call it a Science.

5. Sociology uses Laws and Coincepts. Sociologist also uses scientific methods. The laws and concepts of Sociology are universal but because of changes in Sociology these also changed with the passage of time. But some concepts are there which are same everywhere in every time. If there will be no change in Sociology then these laws can be applicable in all ages. Except this by using scientific methods we can also study any topic many times with which we can come to know about social reality. That’s why we can call it a science.

6. Sociology can predict. We can predict with the help of Sociology. If any problem arises in Society then Sociology not only collects subject matter related with that problem but it gives the result of that problem after its analysis. It also tells us that how it will affect that society and which type of problem will be faced by that society.

7. Laws of Sociology are verifiable. Laws of Sociology are not applicable for a long time. That’s why their truth is verified in different conditions. Sociologists use some of the scientific methods in its study. It is not necessary that the results given by one sociologist will be approved by other. He can verify those results again by using scientific methods.

8. Sociology also signals towards ‘what it will be’ on the basis of ‘what is’ Sociology also signals towards ‘what it will be’ on the basis of ‘what is’. Sociology has the capacity to think about future on the basis of past and present phenomena. It can predict that what would be the effect of any fact in future. For example after analysing the reasons of crime sociologist can tell that what would happen if these reasons could not be removed. In short it has the capacity to predict about any social condition.

Question 3.
What were the factors responsible for the emergence of Sociology ?
Answer:
During the 18th century, many factors emerged which clearly transformed our society. Out of all such factors, three important factors are given ahead :
(i) French Revolution and the Enlightenment Movement’
(ii) The Growth of Natural Science.
(iii) Industrial Revolution and Urbanisation

Their description is given below :
(i) French Revolution and the Enlightenment Movement. In 1789, a revolution took place in France i.e. the French Revolution. This revolution in itself was first of its kind. It had a great impact on the French society because it transformed old society into the new one and feudal system into the capitalistic system. Along with the French Revolution, Enlightenment period also started and many scholars contributed in it. These scholars wrote many books and motivated the people to change the old regimes of monarchy. They challenged the authority of Church which in itself was a major religious institution of that time. They urged the people not to follow the church’s teachings and decisions blindly and start thinking on their own. It encouraged the people and they started solving their problems-in a much logical manner.

In this way, Enlightenment age thinking emerged as an important factor. It was considered an important source of critical thinking. It stressed on the democratic and independent ideas of the modern society. It greatly reduced the differences prevailing in the feudal society. It took away the authority from church and gave it to the democratic elected people. In short, Industrial Revolution of England and democratic revolution of America and France removed the existing organisational authority and paved way to the emergence of new authority.

(ii) Growth of Natural Science. During the 18th century, natural science made a great progress. Natural science attained great success. Many social thinkers got inspired and they also followed the same way. A belief emerged that if by using the methods of natural science, physical and natural phenomenon could be understtood the same process can be used while understanding social phenomenon. Many Sociologists, such as Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber etc. also advocated the usage of scientific methods while studying society. Consequently it began the usage of scientific methods in social sciences which paved way for the emergence of Sociology.

(iii) Industrial Revolution and Urbanisation. Industrial revolution also affected the emergence of Sociology. Industrial revolution started, after 1760’s, in Europe especially in England. This revolution completely transformed whole of the Europe. Initially production was done at home which after the beginning of industrial revolution, moved into’ the factories and on a large scale. Normal rural life and household industries declined and stratified urban life along with factory based production came into being. It completely changed the beliefs and views of medieval age and old society cpnvered into the modern society.

Along with this, industrialisation gave birth to urbanisation. Size of the urban centres expanded and new cities came into being. Many unending problems emerged in cities such as great rush, pollution, traffic, noise etc. Due to urbanisation, people started migrating toward cities.

Consequently they moved away from their rural atmosphere and started living in slums. Many new classes emerged in urban areas. Rich became more rich and poor became poorer. Cities also witnessed the rise in number of crime. Many scholars such as Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Max Weber, Durkheim, Simmel etc. felt the need of scientific study of society to remove newly emerged social problems. This led to the emergence and development of Sociology.

Question 4.
Why is the study of the origin and the growth of Sociology important ?
Answer:
(i) Sociology is only a new science which is still in its early stages. If we compare Sociology with other social sciences, we realise that all the other social sciences are quite old and Sociology originated only in 1839 A.D. This was the time when not only Europe but whole of the world was going through a process of transformation. Due to this process of transformation, many social problems were coming forward. It was very much necessary to get knowledge about such changes and problems. Only then the social welfare was possible. That’s why the study of the origin and growth of Sociology is important.

(ii) Many problems exist in the present day European society. If we carefully observe these problems, we realise that they originated in Europe only after the industrial revolution. Later on, other countries also started facing these problems. So, if we want to remove these problems, we need to know about the origins of Sociology which came into being during this, period.

(iii) If we want to get knowledge about any subject, first of all it is necessary to know about its origin. So, before studying Sociology, we need to know about its origin.

Question 5.
Write a note on the Enlightenment period of Sociology.
Answer:
Enlightenment period. The enlightenment period refers to the period of European intellectual history that had its beginnings in the early years of the eighteenth century and was largly over the end of the same century. Many of the most important thinkers, movements and projects associated with the Enlightenment were based in France. However Enlightenment thinkers were also active in most of the Major European states of the day, including importantly, Scotland.

The Enlightenment is widely credited with creating a new framework of ideas about human beings and their societies. During the period of the Enlightenment, there was an intense new preoccupation with the social world, which began to be seen as a specific and important realm of human activity.

This focus on the social world generated new questions about human history, political and economic activity and social interaction. These questions were asked within a recognisable paradigm. Paradigm is a set of interconnected ideas, values, principles and facts within which coherent theories are developed. Key aspects of the Enlightenment paradigm included reason, empiricism, science, universalism, progress, individualism, toleration, freedom, secularism etc.

There had been speculation about human beings and their social, political and historical circumstances. For example, in the seventeenth century, the philosopher Hobbes (1588-1679) and Locke (1632-1704) had both written extensively about social and political issues from a secular and a historical perspective.

That is, they had conceived of human affairs strictly in their own terms. They saw them as produced by human beings and as having definite historical conditions and as such they were thought to be susceptible to positive change. In other words, reflections on how and why circumstances were as they were, could lead tp change in order to improve those circumstances.

It was during the eighteenth century that people began to think more clearly about how social, economic and historical processes might be a complex phenomena with their own laws. Social, cultural and political arrangements began to be thought of as the product of complex processes that were not immediately obvious from a casual observation of the social world. In this sense, the study of societies and their development became more closely related to the scientific study of the natural world and began to draw on similar methodologies.

Two thinkers in particular were highly important in the development of these ideas : Vico (1668-1774) and Montesquieu (1689-1755). Their ‘New Science’ (1725) and ‘Spirit of the Laws’ (1748) respectively were attempts to explain how different social conditions were subject to specific cultural and material determination. In other words, complex historical (and even environmental) factors were taken into account when describing specific societies and their operation.

Rousseau was another thinker who was also quite important in the development of these ideas. He wrote a book, ‘The Social Contract’ in which he wrote that people of any country must have the right to choose their ruler. He also wrote that if people want to develop themselves then it can be done only under a government of their choosing.

Enlightenment writers rejected the idea that society and estates are the basic units of social analysis. Instead they gave the idea that individual is the basis of social analysis. According to them, individuals have the abilities, qualities and rights inherent among them and society was developed due to social contact between these individuals.

Enlightenment thinkers viewed human reason as dominant in contrast to the system thought where the questioning was discouraged and the sacred had dominated, They supported the idea that every subject of study should be allowed, no unaskable questions should be there and all aspects of human life are subject to examination and study.

Here they combined the philosophical tradition of abstract rational thought with the tradition of experimentation. The result of this combination comes in a new way. New system of human inquiry attacked the old system, it stressed on faith in science, scientific method and education, raised question over existence of existing institutions and demanded that reasonable institutions must be changed which are contrary to human nature.

All social obstacles must be eliminated which are obstacles in the way of human perfectability. The new approach was not only empirical and scientific but was philosophical as well. Enlightenment thinkers thought that the world was an object of study and people must understand and control it with reason and empirical research. Now social laws must be discovered and society must be improved with the rational and empirical inquiry. This type of thought can be called as reformist which must challenge the old order. These thinkers were very much optimistic about improving the social world with the help of new world order.

Hence a new social thought emerged due to views of Enlightenment thinkers and early sociology also emerged out of this. Auguste Comte a French philosopher, was the first one to coin the word sociology. Firstly he called it social physics which is the science to study society.

Sometime later sociologists also adopted the same idea that sociology is the science of society. The new ideas propounded by the Enlightenment thinkers paved way for the emergence and development of sociology in many ways. Many people believe that sociology emerged due to the Enlightenment ideas and the reaction of conservatives who wanted to restore the old social order.

Comte was also a part of the conservative reaction who also thought of a return to the old social order. Few early sociologists took few ideas of the Enlightenment and gave the idea that with the help of a few social reforms, old social order could be preserved. As a result, a conservative sociological school was created. Comte was the one who represented the old social order. Then it was Karl Marx who completely worked out the implications of the Enlightenment views. Karl Marx grew up in Germany where Enlightenment was of little importance as it had in Britain, France, or North America. If we observe Marxian views then we can see that these views can be seen as resulting partly from Enlightenment ideas.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 1 Emergence of Sociology

October 11, 2024October 10, 2024 by Prasanna

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 1 Emergence of Sociology Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 1 Emergence of Sociology

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1.
Who said that Sociology is the queen of other sciences?
(a) Comte
(b) Durkheim
(c) Weber
(d) Spencer
Answer:
(a) Comte.

Question 2.
Whose words are these : “Sociology is the illegitimate child of two languages.”?
(a) Maclver
(b) Jinsberg
(c) Bierstdt
(d) Durkheim.
Answer:
(c) Bierstdt.

Question 3.
Which of these is not the follower of synthetic school of Sociology?
(a) Durkheim
(b) Weber
(c) Hobhouse
(d) Sorokin.
Answer:
(b) Weber.

Question 4.
Which of these is the feature of nature of Sociology?
(a) It is not a practical science but a pure science.
(b) It is not a concrete science but an abstract science.
(c) It is not a neutral science but an idealistic science.
(d) All of these.
Answer:
(d) All of these.

Question 5.
Why is the subject matter of Sociology not fixed?
(a) Because it is an old science
(b) Because it is a new science
(c) Because background of every society is different
(d) Because social relations are not fixed.
Answer:
(d) Because social relations are not fixed.

Question 6.
Who wrote the book, “Social Order”?
(a) Maclver
(b) Simmel
(c) Robert Bierstdt
(d) Max Weber.
Answer:
(c) Robert Bierstdt

Question 7.
Who divided Sociology in Social Morphology, Social Physiology and General Sociology?
(a) Spencer
(b) Durkheim
(c) Comte
(d) Weber.
Answer:
(b) Durkheim.

Question 8.
Which of these according to Weber is correct?
(a) There is Sociology of general things
(b) Nature of Sociology is general
(c) Sociology is not a special science
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(c) Sociology is not a special science.

Question 9.
…………… In which country the study of Sociology was started?
(a) France
(b) Germany
(c) USA
(d) India.
Answer:
(c) USA.

Question 10.
Who said that the name of Sociology should be kept as ‘Ethology’?
(a) Weber
(b) Spencer
(c) J.S. Mill
(d) Comte.
Answer:
(c) J.S. Mill.

Fill in the Blanks:
1. …………… gave Sociology its name.
Answer:
Auguste Comte

2. The first printed book in Sociology was ………….
Answer:
Principles of Sociology

3. There are …………… schools of thought associated with the scope of Sociology.
Answer:
two

4. Weber belongs to ………….. school of Sociology.
Answer:
Formalistic

5. Durkheim belongs to ………….. school of Sociology.
Answer:
Synthetic

6. The Web of ………….. is known as Society.
Answer:
social relations

7. …………… called sociology as pure sociology.
Answer:
Comte.

True/False:

Question 1.
Max Weber is considered as the father of Sociology.
Answer:
False

Question 2.
The word Sociology was used ffrst time in 1839.
Answer:
True

Question 3.
The book Society was written by Maclver and Page.
Answer:
True

Question 4.
Simmel belongs to Formalistic school of thought.
Answer:
True

Question 5.
There is no contribution of the French Revolution in the Emergence of Sociology.
Answer:
False

Question 6.
Enlightenment period had a great impact on the emergence of Sociology.
Answer:
True

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
When and who coined the term Sociology ?
Answer:
Auguste Comte coined the term Sociology in 1839 A.D.

Question 2.
Who said that ‘Sociology is the queen of all the Social Sciences’?
Answer:
Auguste Comte was of the view that ‘Sociology is the queen of all the social sciences’.

Question 3.
Who wrote the book ‘Sociology’ ?
Answer:
The book ‘Sociology’ was written by Harry M. Johnson.

Question 4.
Who wrote the book ‘Society’ ?
Answer:
Maelver has written the book “Society”.

Question 5.
According to Comte, which are the major parts of Sociology ?
Answer:
According to Comte, Sociology is divided into two parts-Social statics and Social dynamics.

Question 6.
Name the two schools regarding the scope of Sociology.
Answer:
There are two schools about the scope of Sociology-Formalistic school and Synthetic school.

Question 7.
Name the major exponents of the formalistic school.
Answer:
Simmel, Vierkandt, Weber etc. are the major exponents of this school.

Question 8.
Name the major exponents of the synthetic school of Sociology.
Answer:
Durkheim, Sorokin, Hobhouse etc. are the major exponents of this school.

Question 9.
What does Sociology study?
Answer:
Sociology studies social relations and social phenomenon.

Question 10.
Who is considered as the father of Sociology?
AnsweR:
Auguste Comte is considered as the father of Sociology.

Question 11.
What is Sociology?
AnsweR:
Science which studies social relations in a systematic way is known as Sociology.

Question 12.
What is Society?
Answer:
According to Maclver and Page, “Society is the web of social relationships.”

Question 13.
Who gave the form of science to Sociology?
Answer:
French Sociologist Emile Durkheim gave the form of science to Sociology.

Question 14.
With which two words Sociology is made up?
Answer:
Sociology is made up of two words i.e. Latin word ‘Socio’ and Greek word ‘logos’.

Vary Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Meaning of Sociology.
Answer:
Science of Sociology is known as Sociology. In Sociology, groups, institutions, organisations, associations, mutual relations of individuals are studied. Most importantly it studies all these in a scientific way.

Question 2.
Name the Founding fathers of Sociology.
Answer:
Auguste Comte : He started Sociology.
Emile Durkheim : He converted Sociology into a science.
Karl Marx : He gave conflict theory to Sociology.
Max Weber : He gave action theory and many other concepts to Sociology.

Question 3.
Subject matter of Sociology.
Answer:
In the subject matter of Sociology many concepts are included and these are social order, social institutions, social process, social codes, cultures, civilization, social organisation, socialisation, status, role, social control,’ social problems etc.

Question 4.
Meaning of Society
Answer:
According to Maclver, ” Society is the web of social relationships.” It means that society is the organisation of specific type of social relations which exist among the people who live in a particular period for a long time.

Question 5.
Formalistic School.
Answer:
According to the thinkers of this school, Sociology only studies the forms of social relationships, that’s why it is a special Science. No other science studies the forms of social relationship, only Sociology does such study.

Question 6.
Synthetic School.
Answer:
According to the exponents of Synthetic school, Sociology is a general science because its subject matter is quite wide. Sociology studies whole of society and the concrete form of social relationships.

Question 7.
Importance of Sociology.
AnsweR:

Sociology studies whole of society, by considering it as a single unit.
Sociology helps us in understanding and solving the social problems.
Sociology clearly helps us in understanding different cultures.

Question 8.
Sociology is a Science.-How ?
Answer:
Yes, Sociology is a science because it studies its subject matter with objectivity while studying social relations. That’s why we can call it a science.

Question 1.
Meaning of Sociology.
Answer:
French philosopher, Auguste Comte is known as the Father of Sociology. Sociology has been made by two words-Socio and Logos. Meaning of Socio is society and meaning of Logos is Science. So, literal meaning of Sociology is Science of society. In simple words, Sociology scientifically studies groups, institutions, communities, associations and inter-relations of humans. It also studies the customs, traditions, mores which exist in social relations. Except these, it also studies the culture.

Question 2.
Literal Meaning of Sociology.
AnsweR:
The word Sociology is an English word. The word Sociology has been taken from two words ‘Socio’ and ‘Logus’. Socio is a Latin word whose meaning is Society and Logus is a Latin word whose meaning is Science. In this way the meaning of Sociology is Science of Society which studies the human society.

Question 3.
Who is the father of Sociology and in which year name Sociology was given by him ?
Answer:
French philosopher Auguste Comte is known as the Father of Sociology. His book ‘Positive Philosophy’ was published in six volumes between 1830 to 1842. In this book he imagined a science which should study society. To this Science he gave the name of Sociology in 1839.

Question 4.
What is Scientific Method ?
Answer:
Scientific method is the method which helps a Scientist to study any phenomena systematically and in proper sequence. In Scientific method we should select that problem which is able to be studied with this method. We should find out literature related with that problem and that should be checked.

Formulation of Hypothesis is necessary with this so that we can make our thesis on the basis of this. Except that in Scientific method we have to collect data with a proper planning so that it can be analysed and processed. Observation is the main base of Scientific method. That’s why any technique can be used and later on after recording data should be analysed and studied.

Question 5.
Is Sociology a Science ?
Answer:
Yes, Sociology is a Science because Sociology uses scientific methods to collect facts. It not only collects facts of the problem about ‘what is’ but it also studies why and ‘how’. It also tries to know about reality of Sociology. Predictions done by Sociology are proved correct. In this way from this it is clear that Sociology uses scientific method to study anything. That’s why it can be called as a Science.

Question 6.
Lack of Experimental method in Sociology.
Answer:
Subject matter of Sociology is society and it studies the human behaviour and relationships. Human behaviour is quite different from each other. If we will take relations of brother-sister, mother-father or mother-son then we will not find same behaviour of two brothers or sisters.

This type of difference does not exist in natural sciences but they have universality of nature of any element. That’s why Experimental method can be used in natural sciences because result of mixing two chemicals will be the same in the whole world. But this type of stability is very less in Sociology. That’s why we cannot use experimental method in Sociology.

Question 7.
Sociology is an independent Science. How ?
Answer:
Different Sociologists have different views about this. According to them Sociology is an independent science because it studies the whole society and it is based on sociological theories to understand its subject matter. It has its own point of view. The supporters of this view are Lesterward, Giddings, Barner etc.

Question 8.
Sociological concepts are not Universal. How ?
Answer:
Sociological concepts cannot be proved correct everywhere. It is so because one society is quite different from other society and change comes in every society at different speed. We cannot generalize the relations of sociology by studying it. That’s why in the absence of rules or concept it cannot be called as a science and if it is not a science then its concepts are not universal.

Question 9.
Scope of Sociology.
Answer:
Society is a web of social relationships and sociology studies it scientifically. In its study sociology, studies all the social classes, institutions, associations etc. About the scope and subject matter of sociology there are two types of views.
1. Formalistic School : According to this it is a special science which studies the forms of social relations. Main supporters of this school are Simmel, Weber, Small, Vierkandt, Von Wiese and Ward.

2. Synthetic School : According to this school it is a general science which studies society as a whole. Main supporters of this school are Durkheim, Hobhouse and Sorokin.

Question 10.
Lack of objectivity in Sociology.
Answer:
Sociology lacks objectivity because the Sociologist who is studying anything, is a member of any group or society and he is definitely affected by the values of that group or society. It is almost impossible for him to remove that effect and’bias can come in his study. That’s why there is lack of objectivity in Sociology.

Question 11.
Sociology cannot predict. Comment.
Answer:
Sociology cannot predict like Natural Sciences. It studies the social relations and proceses. These relations and processes are different in each society and they keep changing all the times. Because of this changing nature of subject matter of Sociology it is unable to predict. It cannot predict in that way the way in which Natural Sciences are predicting. It is so because Sociology is related with behaviours or forms of social relations which are unstable. They keep changing. So by looking at the nature of social relations we can say that we cannot bring reality in the study of social relations.

Question 12.
Who was Auguste Comte ?
Answer:
Auguste Comte is also known as the Father of Sociology. In 1839, Auguste Comte told that the way in which natural phenomenon are studied by different social sciences, in the same way there is a science which studies society and he gave it the name of Social Physics. Later on he changed the name of Social Physics to Sociology. Comte gave many concepts to Sociology like the Theory of Social Evolution, Hierarchy of Sciences, Positivism etc.

Question 13.
Write about development of Sociology in Europe.
Answer:
In the beginning of 19th Century, great French philosopher Auguste Comte gave the name of Social Physics to science of society. In 1839 he changed its name – to Sociology. J.S. Mill started sociology in England in 1843. Herbert Spencer, in his book Principles of Sociology, studied society in a scientific way.

First of all, Sociology started as an independent subject at Yale University, USA in 1876. Durkheim, through his books, developed Sociology as an independent subject. In the same way Karl Marx and Max Weber gave many theoriec to Sociology and developed it as an independent subject.

Question 14.
Enlightenment period and Sociology.
Answer:
The Enlightenment period played a very important role in the emergence of Sociology. This period started in the beginning of 18th century and remained there during the whole century. Many thinkers of this era like Vico, Montesquieu, Rousseou etc, gave many views and these views keep a very important place in the birth of sociology.

They all were of the view that the phenomenon must be studied in a scientific way and believed that everything should have a reason. They also believed that society should be developed on the basis of empirical investigation. In this way these vieWs brought forward a new social idea and earlier Sociologists came out of this idea.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Describe the different stages of the origin of Sociology.
Answer:
An individual is a thoughtful person. Right from his early childhood, there is an urge in him to know about his surroundings. Humans collectively tried to face the problems which came in front. Due to interactions between different individuals, social relations came into being and consequently new groups came into being. Human behaviour is controlled by different customs, traditions, norms and values. In this way humans have tried to understand different aspects of society in one way or the other.

Stages of Origin and Development of Sociology:
The origin and development of Sociology can be broadly divided into four stages :

1. First Stage:
The development of Sociology can be better understood by dividing it into two parts.

(i) Vedic and Epic Era. In general sense, the origin of Sociology is widely considered to be in Europe but its history itself tells us that different saints toured India, studied the problems of people and did lot of brainstorm about this. They, as a result, developed the Varna system in Indian society. This thing is explained in the oldest religious book of the world i.e. Rigveda.

Vedas, Upnishdas, Puranas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Geeta etc. are the scriptures through which Sociology started in India. Except Varna System, Ashrama System, Four Purusharthas, the concept of debt (Rina), joint family etc. are the institutions developed in India. Except these religious scriptures, lot of sociological explanation, about the prevailing Indian problems, is given in the Arthashastra written by Kautilya.

(ii) Studies of Greek Scholars. After Socrates, Plato (427-347 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) were the Greek scholars. Plato wrote ‘Republic’ and Aristole wrote ‘Ethics and Politics’ in which they described in detail about family life, customs, traditions, status of women etc. Plato studied around 50 and Aristotle studied around 150 large and small states and gave their views about political, social, religious and economic conditions prevailing during those days.

2. Second Stage:
The age from 6th century to 14th century is considered the second stage of development of Sociology. During the beginning of this stage, help of religion and philosophy was taken to understand social problems. But during 13th century, efforts were made to understand social problems on logical basis. Thomas Acquires and Dante clarified the causal-effect relationship to understand social events. In this way, the rough sketch of Sociology was made during this age.

3. Third Stage:
Third stage of the development of Sociology started in 15th century. During this age, a number of great philosophers used scientific method to study social events. Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau gave Social Contract Theory. Thomas Moore in his book ‘Utopia’, Montesque in his book ‘The Spirit of Laws’ and Malthus though his ‘Theory of Population’ studied social events and gave their contribution in the development of Sociology.

4. Fourth Stage:
Great French scholar Auguste Comte, in the beginning of 19th century, gave the name of ‘Social Physics’ to Sociology. In 1838 A.D., he changed this name to Sociology. He is also known as the ‘Father of Sociology’.

J.S. Mill in 1843, started Sociology in England. Herbert Spencer in his book ‘Principles of Sociology’ and ‘Theory of Organism’ studied society through scientific method. First of all at Tale University’ in U.S.A., the study of Sociology started as an independent subject.

Emile Durkheim gave gregt contribution in the development of Sociology as an independent subject. Max Weber, Karl Marx and other sociologists gave many sociological theories. Presently in almost all the countries of World, it is trying to collect new knowledge as an independent subject.

Development of Sociology in India:
The process of development of Sociology in India can be divided into many parts :
1. Development of Sociology in Ancient India. The origin of Sociology in India came about during the ancient times. Maharishi Ved Vyas compiled four Vedas and created the epic of Mahabharta. Ramayana was also written. Except these, Upnishads, Puranas and Smritis throw a great light on ancient Indian Philosophy.

From all these scriptures, it is quite clear that the ideology and philosophy during the ancient India was of topmost quality. From these scriptures, it is also clear that the Indian social problems, needs, events, values, facts, ideals, beliefs etc. were deeply studied. Many social institutions which exist in present age, were actually originated during the ancient age.

Varna, Ashrama, Purusharthas, Religion, Samskaras, Joint family etc. are few of them. Arthashastra of Chanakya, Manu Smriti and ‘Niti Shastra’ of Shukracharya throw a great light on the customs, values, ideals etc. of ancient times.

In this way it is clear that Sociology in itself, in India, originated during the ancient age. During the Medieval age, India was ruled by the Muslims and Mughals. We can get a great deal of knowledge, through the writings of the era, about the prevailing ideology, institutions, values, customs etc.

2. Formal Establishment Era of Sociology:
The age between 1914 A.D. to 1947 A.D. is considered as the formal establishment era of Sociology in India. First of all the work of teaching Sociology at Graduate level started in 1914 A.D. in Bombay University. From 1919 A.D. onwards, the work of teaching Sociology at post-graduate level was started by ‘Patric Geddes’.

Famous Sociologist ‘G.S. Ghurye’ was one of his students. Due to the efforts of Prof. Vrijendranath Sheel, the work of teaching Sociology started in Calcutta University in 1917 A.D. Famous Sociologists Dr. Radha Kamal Mukharjee and Dr. D.N. Majumdar were his students. Yet this development till 1947 was quite slow but even then, the work of teaching Sociology was already on in almost all the universities.

3. Expansion Era of Sociology:
After the Independence in 1947, most of the Indian Universities gave their sanction to teach Sociology as an independent subject. Presently, this subject is taught in almost all the colleges and universities all across India. Except at University level, many Sociological research works are going on in different institutions.

Tata Institute of Social Sciences Mumbai, Institute of Social Sciences Agra, Institute of Sociology and Social Work Lucknow, I.I.T Kanpur and I.I.T Delhi are fevy of the major institutions in the country where Sociological researches are going on. With these, the Sociological methods and knowledge are continually increasing.

Question 2.
Briefly describe about French Revolution and Emergence of Sociology.
Answer:
Social thought is as old as society itself, yet the. origin of Sociology is traced back to 19th century Western Europe. Sometimes Sociology is called the child of the ‘age of revolution’. The revolutionary changes in the preceding three centuries had decisively changed the way people lived thereby paving the way for the emergence of Sociology as we have today.

Sociology took birth in such a climate of social upheavel. The roots of the ideas developed by the early sociologists lie in the then social conditions that prevailed in Europe.

The modern era in Europe and the conditions of modernity were brought about by three major processes-The Enlightenment, The French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. Sociology was originated due to the changes brought about by these three processes. The French Revolution and the Emergence of Sociology

The French Revolution erupted in 1789 A.D. and it marked a turning point in the history of human struggle for freedom and equality. It changed the political structure of European society. It put an end to the age of feudalism and brought forward a new order of society. It replaced the age of feudalism by announcing the arrival of democracy.

Before the French Revolution, French society was divided into three classes. First class or order was clergy. Second order was of nobles or nobility and third order was of common people. Total population of first two orders was around 2% of total but they enjoyed unlimited rights. They never paid any taxes to government. But no rights were given to third order and they had to face whole burden of all the taxes.

Description of all these three orders is given ahead :
1. The First Order-Clergy. In Europe’s social life, Roman Catholic Church was the most powerful and influential institution. Lot of land in different countries was in Church’s possession.

Except this, church used to get ten per cent (tithe) of the total produce of land. Church was cared by the Priest or Clergy which was the first order of society. Clergy was divided into two parts i.e. Upper clergy and Lower clergy. Priests of upper clergy were related with families of nobles and they had actual rights over church’s property.

Most of the part of tithe was also going in their pockets. They were given special rights and they never paid any taxes to government. They were quite rich and used to live a luxurious life. Priests of Lower clergy belonged to families of general classes. They used to perform their duties with complete devotion and honesty. They used to give religious education to people. They used to perform rituals related to birth, marriage, baptism, death etc. They used to check schools of church as well.

2. Second Order-Nobility. Second order of French society belonged to Nobles. They were only 4 lakhs out of 2.5 crore population of France. It means they were less than 2% of the total population. Right from their early times they used to use sword and used to fight for the protection of general masses. That’s why they were known as Nobles of Sword. NobleS were also divided into two parts i.e. Old nobles and New nobles. Old nobles were owners of l/5th of total land of country.

The status of Nobles was hereditary because of which they were known as real and pure Nobles. All of these were feudal loyds. For quite some time, they performed the functions of administration, Judge and military leader. They lived a luxurious life.

They were also given a number of privileges, New Nobles were those nobles who were given this status by Emperor by taking money from them. This class played a great role in the beginning of French Revolution of 1789. After some time, their status also became hereditary.

3. Third Order-Commoners. Only 2% of population belonged to the first and second order but rest of the 98% population belonged to this third order. This was rightless class which included rich industrialists and poor beggars as well. Farmers, middle class, labourers, artisans and other poor people were also included in this class.

These people were not given any type of right. Farmers wanted to eliminate the special privileges of Nobility. That’s why they greatly participated in French Revolution of 1789. Industrialists, businessmen, money-lenders, doctors, lawyers, scholars, teachers, journalists etc. were included in the middle class.

Middle class patronised the French Revolution. Condition of labourers was also not good. They were not only given less wages but they also had to do Begar (forced labour). These people participated in riots due to poverty. They joined the crowd during French Revolution.

Outbreak of Revolution. Louis XVI became the French King and there was a financial crisis in France. As a result, he required money to run the daily affairs of the country. He wanted to levy new taxes on the people. That’s way he was compelled to call a meeting of the Estate General which was the old feudal assembly.

Its meeting was not called during last 150 years. On 5th May, 1789, the Estate Generalmet arid the representatives of third estate wanted that whole of the estate must meet and vote as one assembly. On 20th June 1789, they found that their meeting hall was occupied by the royal guards. But third estate was determined to meet. So it moved to the tennis court to frame a new constitution. This was the beginning of the French Revolution.

One of the most important events of the French Revolution took place on 14th July, 1789 when a mob of Paris including few middle class leaders, broke open the Bastill prison. They set all of its prisoners free. In France, this day is celebrated as an Independence day. Now Louis XVI was the French king only by name.

The national assembly was organised to form a new French constitution. It started to enact laws. Then it adopted the famous declaration of the rights of man and citizen. This declaration declared certain necessary points including equality of all men before law, freedom of speech and freedom of press and eligibility of all the citizens for all public offices.

In 1791, the king tried to run away from France but was captured and was brought back. He was thrown in jail and on 21 January, 1793 he was beheaded in public after he was tried in court and was proved guilty of treason. Then France was declared as Republic. King was guillotined. But after this, a Reign of Terror started in France when a number of nobles, priests and few revolutionaries were beheaded who tried to oppose the government. This reign of terror lasted for three years.

Then in 1795, Directorate was established in France. This Directorate lasted for four years. Then in 1799, Directorate was overthrown by Napoleon. He then declared himself as director and later on the king. He provided a stable government to France and French people. In this way French Revolution came to an end when Directorate was overthrown by Napoleon.

Effects of French«Revolution: French Revolution exerted lasting effects on France and rest of the world which are given below :
1. Major effect of French Revolution was the destruction of old economic system i.e.
Feudalism and the advent of new economic system. This new economic system was capitalism. .

2. All the privileges of the upper class i.e. clergy and nobles were abolished and were taken back by the government. Whole of property of church was confiscated. All the ancient laws were removed and new laws were made by National Assembly.

3. All the men and citizens were given rights of equality and freedom. The term ‘nation’ was given its modern meaning that France was not only the territories but the ‘French people’. From here on the idea of sovereignty come into being. It means the nation’s law and authority is above its own.

4. French Revolution also had great impacts on the world. It inspired the revolutionaries of other countries to work against the existing autocratic monarchs. It also paved way for removal of ancient systems and establishment of new system of democracy. It also gave the slogan of ‘liberty, equality and fraternity’. As a result of French Revolution, many revolutions occurred in Europe and south central America. Finally monarchy was replaced by democracy.

The French Revolution played a great role in the history of human civilization. It completely changed the Europe’s political scenario and European society. The earlier order was replaced by the new order and as a result new economic order also come into being. Many revolutionary changes took place in France as a number of nobles were either killed or were beheaded. As a result, their role in French society came to an end.

A number of laws were made during tenure of National Assembly and the Directorate which brought many fundamental changes in the society. Church was made subordinate to the state and was restricted to take part in the affairs of politics and administration.

Each individual was given certain rights and even laws were made to divide family property among all the sons of family. The French Revolution also exerted a great impact on other countries of the world. A number of political revolutions broke out in different countries during 19th century. Political scenario of those countries was completely changed.

It was the most important factor in the advent of sociology. Many societies were positively affected by these revolutions and it was a main concern of early sociologists. Many early sociologists, who always thought that revolutions only have negative consequences, changed their opinion about revolution.

These sociologists including Comte and Durkheim gave their views about the positive consequences of it especially the establishment of theme of – liberty, fraternity and equality. In this way French Revolution played great role in the emergence of sociology.

Question 3.
Briefly describe about Industrial Revolution and the Emergence of Sociology.
Answer:
The foundation of modern industry was laid by the industrial Revolution, which began in England in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It brought about great changes in the social and economic life of the people first in England, then in other countries of Europe and later in other continents. It had two important aspects.

1. Systematic application of science and technology to industrial production, particularly invention of new machines and harnessing of new sources of powers. These encouraged the production process and gave rise to the factory system and mass manufacture of goods.

2. New ways of organizing labour and markets on a scale larger than anything in the past were evolved. The goods were produced on a gigantic scale for distant markets across the world. The raw materials used in their production were also obtained from all over the world. Industrialization threw all societies into turmoil that have been relatively stable for centuries.

New industries and technologies changed the face of social and physical environment. Peasants left rural areas and flocked to the towns, where they worked under appalling conditions. Cities grew at a very fast rate. Social problems became common in the teeming cities. The direction of change was unclear and the stability of social order was under great threat.

The first Industrial Revolution was started in the later part of 18th century. But it was merged into the second Industrial Revolution around 1850 A.D. At that time technological and economic progress took some speed with the invention of steam powered ships and engines railways and later on with the invention of electrical power generation.

Time frame of this merger is still debated among historians as they have different opinions about it. Historians believe that the .industrial revolution was one of the most important events in the human history.

Industrial Revolution exerted a great impact on the society. Rural people started to move towards cities where they had to live in unhygienic conditions. Growing population, increasing demand, increasing output led to demand of other markets. It led to the race between big powers to win over colonies from Asia and Africa. Whole of the world order changed. There prevailed a chaos and disorder in the world. During 1800-1850, different classes started agitating for their rights.

The Significant themes of this Revolution which concerned the early sociologists were the condition of labour, transformation of property, industrial city means urbanism and technology and the factory system. Against such background, some thinkers of that time were concerned about building their society anew.

Those who dealt with these problems are considered as the founding fathers of sociology because they were seriously concerned with these problems in a systematic way. Most notable among the thinkers have been Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber. All these pioneers came from different disciplines.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857), who is known as the Father of Sociology, argued that the method used in physics should be used for the study of society. Such a study would reveal the laws of evolution and the laws of the functioning of society. Once this knowledge was available, we would be able to build society.

Auguste Comte, who gave sociology its name, identified three stages of human society i.e. Theological (various phenomena were explained in religious terms), Metaphysical (explanations were philosophical) and Positivism (phenomena were explained in terms of the scientific approach to the social world).

The idea of evolution was carried forward in the works of the British sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). He argued for the universality of the principle of evolution. His view of the evolution of societies is known as Social Darwinism. The credit for developing sociology as an independent discipline and science goes to Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), a French Sociologist.

Durkheim said that sociologists study social facts which are objective and exist in the” consciousness of the collectivity. Thus social fact is exterior to human mind but it puts constraints on human behaviour. Hence social facts do not have their origin in the individual. Further, they should be explained by other social facts, rather than in terms of biological, psychological, environmental or geographical facts.

Among the Germans, the most influential work was of Max Weber (1864-1920). In comparison to Durkheim, Weber said that the sociologist studies ‘social action’ which is an act an individual performs and assigns meaning and the task of sociologist is to understand the subjective meaning of an act. German social thinker Karl Marx’s (1818-1883) ideas were influential in sociology.

He argued that every society was divided into two classes i.e. Haves and Have-nots. He believed that conflict was initiator of change in history. He, therefore, gave central importance to class and class conflict. Thus the development of sociology in France (Comte, Durkheim), Germany (Marx, Weber) and England (Spencer) paved way to development of sociology everywhere in the world.

Sociology thus flowered in precisely those societies that had experienced the most pronounced or greatest social changes. France, Germany and England underwent a truly revolutionary social transformation, and in all these countries the study of Sociology had emerged by the end of 19th century.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Solutions Chapter 4 Social Groups

October 1, 2024September 30, 2024 by Prasanna

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 4 Social Groups Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 4 Social Groups

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Social Groups Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each:

Question 1.
Who discussed the two types of group, Ingroup, and Outgroup?
Answer:
W.G. Sumner gave this classification of groups.

Question 2.
Mention two examples of Ingroups.
Answer:
Family and, playgroups are examples of In-groups.

Question 3.
Give examples of Outgroups.
Answer:
Father’s office and Mother’s school are examples of Out-groups.

Question 4.
Who coined the term Reference group?
Answer:
This term was given by Robert K. Merton.

Question 5.
What is we-feeling?
Answer:
We-feeling is a feeling within an individual with which he associates himself that he is a member of this group.

Question 6.
Name the examples of primary groups given by C.H. Cooley.
Answer:
Family, Neighbourhood, and Playgroup.

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
Define social group.
Answer:
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one another, they may be said to constitute a social group.”

Question 2.
What do you mean by primary group ? Give its example.
Answer:
The groups with which we have physical proximity, about which we have we-feeling, with which we like to live are primary groups; for example, family, neighbourhood, play groups etc.

Question 3.
What do you mean by secondary group ? Give its example.
Answer:
Secondary groups are the groups whose membership is taken for a particular objective and after the completion of which, one can leave their membership. They are temporary in nature; for example, political parties.

Question 4.
State two differences between ‘in-groups’ and ‘out-groups’.
Answer:
(i) People have a we-feeling for in-groups but out-groups lack such feeling.
(ii) An individual likes to live within in-groups but he never likes to live in out-groups.

Question 5.
Explain the features (characteristics) of secondary group.
Answer:

Membership of secondary groups is based on objectives.
Membership of secondary groups is temporary. It means one can leave their membership after the completion of his objective.
Secondary groups have a formal organisation.
Members of secondary groups have indirect relations with each other.

Question 6.
Explain the features (characteristics) of primary groups.
Answer:

Their members have physical proximity with each other.
Their size is quite limited.
Their members have permanent relations with each other and they know each other well.
These groups are permanent in nature.
Members have continuity of relations among them.

Answer the following short answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
Discuss the features of a social group.
Answer:
Members of a group have mutual relations among them. Social group is not the collection of the humans but this collection is a group because of their mutual relations. These relations are because of interaction between them.

Sense of unity exists in society. Because of this unity members of a group are tied with each other.
Members of the group have we-feeling among them. They help each other and love and sympathy come because of this unity. .
Group has control over the behaviour of its members and this control is because of traditions, customs and rules etc.
Members of the group are interacting wfth each other because of mutual relations. ’
Members of the group have sense of commonness among them.

Question 2.
Write down the importance of primary groups.
Answer:
Members have physical proximity among them.

There is a stability among these groups.
They are small in size.
They have limited self-interests.
They have similarity of background.
They have mutual cooperation among them.
They are for longer duration.
They have continuity in relations.
They have complete control on their members.

Question 3.
What are the differences between primary and secondary groups ?
Answer:

Primary groups are small in size and secondary groups are large in size.
Relations in primary groups are direct, personal and informal but in secondary groups, relations are indirect and formal.
Members of primary groups have feeling of cooperation among them but in secondary groups cooperation is because of any specific motive.
Primary groups are available in villages but secondary groups are available in cities.

Question 4.
Discuss the features of in-group.
Answer:
The groups classified by Sumner exist in all the cultural developments because humans are very much influenced by these. In-groups are also known as we-groups because a person considers them as his own groups. In-groups are peace loving groups and the qualities such as mutual co-operation, friendship etc. exist in these groups.

Their point of view towards others is of enemy and they keep certain restrictions on their members. Many a time members of such groups come closer to each other to challenge other groups. We-feeling exists in such groups. For example, caste, religion, tribe etc. are few of the in-groups about which a person has the complete knowledge.

Answer the following short answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
What do you understand by a social group ? Write a detailed note.
Answer:
A layman uses the word group in daily language. Generally people don’t have the same meaning of the group but everyone gives a different meaning of this word. If we want to study the effect of anything on people, we have to keep that thing in two groups. One is that group which uses that thing and the other group is that which does not use that thing.

May be these groups are living near each other or may be living far away from each other but this thing is not important for us. In this way we can see that if our aims are different then groups can be different also. In this way in simple language and for a layman collection of people is the group.

Man is a social animal. His daily life is related with the activities of group. First of all in family, then he joins other groups by moving out of family. In social group meaningful actions of persons are there. Man is not limited to the establishment of relationships in the group but he fulfils his needs as well. But question arises that what is group. There is a lot of difference between the meaning of group for a layman and for Sociology. For a layman, group is collection of some people but in Sociology, it is different. In Sociology collection of people is a group where people have definite relations among them.

Definitions of Group:
1. According to Bogardus, “A social group may be thought of as a number of persons, two or more, who have some common objects of attention, who are stimulating to participate in similar activities.”

2. According to Sanderson, “Two or more people between whom there is an established pattern of psychological interaction, it is recognised as an identity by its own members and usually by others because of its particular type of collective behaviour.”

3. According to Harry M. Johnson, “Social group is a system of interactions.”

4. According to Bennet and Tumun, “A group always consists of people who are in interaction and whose interaction is a unit.” After looking at the given definitions we can say that we cannot call a group to be collection of people who have physical proximity but do not cooperate with each other to achieve common goals and who do not affect each other by mutual interaction.

It can be called only a crowd or collection of people. In Sociology group is the collection of people who are equal to each other, whose members have mutual social action, interactions, social relations, consciousness, common interests, stimulations and feelings.

Question 2.
How will you describe Primary and Secondary groups ?
Answer:
Primary Groups. Charles Hurton Cooley was an Amercian Sociologist who classified social groups into Primary and Secondary groups. Every sociologist accepted this classification in one way or the other. Cooley included very close relations in Primary group like family, neighbourhood, play group etc.

According to him, relations of man in this type of group are of great love, cooperation and respect. Man works in these groups without any hesitation. These groups lack feeling of selfishness. These relations are not of hatredness. Instead of individual feeling community feeling is there in these groups. Man fulfils his basic needs in these groups. Cooley gave his views about Primary groups.

According to Cooley, primary groups are primary in many senses. They are primary because they fulfil the basic human needs. Man keeps contact with society, with the help of these groups., Because of face to face relation, they have the feeling of love, cooperation, personalism and sympathy. Humans bind together in such a way that the feeling of individualism comes to an end and they ignore small things.

If need arises they also help each other. These are also important in the development of personality. According to Cooley,“These are practically universal belonging to all times and all stages of development and are accordingly a chief basis of what is universal in human nature in human ideals.”

According to Cooley, these three groups are important primary groups :
1. Family
2. Play group
3. Neighbourhood.

According to Cooley, these three groups are universal and are selected with every age and area of the society. Exactly after his birth man enters into these groups. Child of a man cannot live by itself after his birth. That’s why family takes care of him. Child’s socialization is possible only in family. Child learns ways of living while living in society. It means that child gets basic education only in family. Man gets culture, customs, traditions in family. In family man has face to face relations and has the feeling of mutual cooperation.

After the family, child is related with neighbourhood because when child comes out of family he goes to the neighbourhood. In this way he gets love from neighbourhood like family. He knows how to respect the elders and how to talk to others. After his contact with neighbourhood he comes in contact with play group. When he joins play group he feels like independent like other children of his age.

In play group he gives creative expressions to his social habits, while playing he cooperates with others and obeys certain rules. He comes to know how to live in discipline. He learns to work according to the behaviour of others. With this his personality develops. These all groups have face to face and close relations. That’s why these groups are known as Primary groups.

Secondary Groups. Cooley gave a detailed description of secondary groups. In present societies man cannot fulfil his needs only by living in primary groups. He needs to depend upon other persons. That’s way secondary groups are of great importance in modern societies and that’s why the importance of primary groups has been decreased. They have been replaced by other institutions. Specially in urban societies, primary groups are declining day by day.

These secondary groups are big in size and members have relations among them, fn secondary groups members are doing functions but still they are connected with each other. Members of these groups have specific objectives which can be fulfilled by mutual cooperation. We can take country, associations, political parties, clubs in the category of secondary groups.

They are large in size. They are formed to meet any specific motive. That’s why all the members of these groups don’t know each other and they indirectly cooperate with each other. To understand modern industrial society it is necessary to get knowledge about secondary groups.

Secondary groups generally develop for any special motive. They are large in size. Man enters into these groups for his personal interests and leaves them after the attainment of his motives. There is no closeness of mutual relations among the members of such groups. It is very difficult to know each of the members personally because of large size.

Except this, members are controlled by formal means of control. Each member has to control his behaviour according to these means. Kimbal Young has given them the name of special interest group. With these, social rules, customs and institutions are also formed.

Question 3.
As a member of society you must be interacting with and in diferent groups. How do you see these from a sociological perspective?
Answer:
We all live in society and while living in the society, we interact with many groups. If we observe from a sociological perspective, we can divide them into many parts. We live in a family, interact with neighbours, sit with a group of friends. These are primary groups because we directly interact with the members of such groups and we like to sit with them.

We are the permanent members of such groups and members have informal relations among them. These groups are of great importance in our lives because we cannot live without them. Wherever we move, family, neighbourhood, and playgroups (primary groups) exist everywhere.

Along with the primary groups, an individual is a member of other groups whose membership is optional and he takes it according to his own will. Such groups are known as secondary groups. Such groups have a formal organisation whose members are elected periodically. He takes the membership of such groups to achieve a particular objective and can leave this membership after attaining it. Political parties, trade unions, etc. are two examples of such groups.

When a common man interacts with different groups, he might not have a different meaning for such groups. But from a sociological perspective, such groups can be divided into different types. Even different sociologists have given different types of groups because we interact with them in different ways.

Question 4.
Man’s life is group life. Discuss with examples.
Answer:
There is no denying the fact that human life is group life because he takes birth in a group and dies in it. When a child takes birth, he comes into the hands of the family i.e. the basic primary group. If we compare a human child with other organisms, we can say that it remains under the protection of his family for most of the time. Family takes care of its child, up brings him and as a result, he loves his family more than anything. Family socializes its children, tells them the ways to live in society, arranges for their education so that they could become good citizens in the near future. So family i.e. a primary group tells him the first lesson of community life.

After family, the next group coming in contact with the child is neighbourhood. A small child is taken to neighbourhood where neighbours show him a lot of affection and love. A child is scolded for displaying wrong behaviour. When a child comes in contact with the children of his locality, they form a playgroup where he learns new rules of life. In playgroup, leadership qualities develop in him which are very much necessary for his social life. Both of these groups are primary groups.

When the same child becomes young, he becomes a member of many other groups which are known as Secondary groups. He takes a job in any office, becomes a member of any club, institution, association, etc. to achieve his objectives. He also takes membership of a political party, trade union, or any other group and he remains a member of any group for the rest of his life. Till his death, he takes many memberships and leaves them at his will. So, from the given description it is clear that there is no time in an individual’s life when he is not a member of a group. So, his life is a group life and in the absence of groups, there is no existence of his life.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Solutions Chapter 3 Society, Community and Association

October 1, 2024September 30, 2024 by Prasanna

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 3 Society, Community and Association Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 3 Society, Community and Association

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Society, Community and Association Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each

Question 1.
State the meaning of society.
Answer:
According to Maclver, “Society is the web of social relationships.”

Question 2.
Society and community are derived from which words ?
Answer:
Word Society is derived from a Lgtin word ‘Socivs’ which means companionship or friendship. Word Community is also derived from a Latin word ‘Communitias’ which means things held in common or shared.

Question 3.
Who said, “Man is a social animal.”?
Answer:
These words are of Aristotle.

Question 4.
Who gave the simple compound society, compound society, double compound society and trebly compound society classification?
Answer:
This classification is given by Herbert Spencer.

Question 5.
What is association?
Answer:
When few people co-operate with each other, form an organisation to achieve a particular objective, this organisation is known as Association.

Question 6.
What is an open society ?
Answer:
The society in which people are free to move from one class to another, is known as an open society.

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each

Question 1.
Discuss the three characteristics of society.
Answer:

Society is a group of people with mutual relationship among them.
Society always depends upon likeness and differences.
Society is based upon co-operation and conflict.

Question 2.
Describe the types of society.
Answer:
There exist many societies in the. whole world such as tribal society, rural society, industrial society, post-industrial society etc. But different scholars have given different classification on different basis such as Comte (intellectual development), Morgan (social development), Spencer (the degree of structural complexity), Tonnies (types of social ties), Durkheim (types of solidarity) etc.

Question 3.
What is community?
Answer:
When few individuals live in a group, in a particular geographical area and they spend whole of their life over there without any particular purpose, it is known as community. It is a concrete concept and members have ‘we’ feeling among them.

Question 4.
How is society different from community? Mention two points.
Answer:

Society is not having any geographical area but community develops in a particular geographical area.
Conflict and co-operation both are there in society but only co-operation exists in community.

Question 5.
Define association and discuss its characteristics.
Answer:
According to Bogardus, “An Association is usually a working together of people to achieve some purpose.” It is having certain characteristics such as it is established deliberately, it is having a definite objective, it develops and comes to an end, its membership is based on individual’s wish etc.

Question 6.
State two differences between community and association.
Answer:

Community is not made for a particular objective but association is formed for a particular objective.
Membership of community is not optional but of association, it is optional.

Answer the following long answer questions in 75-85 words each

Question 1.
Write a short note on human society.
Answer:
When sociologists use the word society then their meaning is not only by the collection of people. Their meaning of society is by the web of relationships among members of society with which people are connected with each other. Just by collection of some persons, we cannot make a society. Society can be made only when meaningful relations are established among people of the society.

These relations are abstract in nature. We cannot see them and they don’t have any concrete form. We can only feel them. They exist in every form of life. We cannot separate them from each other. These are so much interrelated that it is very difficult to differentiate and separate them. The web of these social relationships is known as society. We cannot see them because they are abstract in nature.

Question 2.
Name the three stages of human society as identified by Auguste Comte.
Answer:
Auguste Comte gave three stages of human society’s evolution and these are :

Theological Stage
Metaphysical Stage
Positive Stage.

Question 3.
Which are the main bases of Community ?
Answer:

A Community develops of its own.
Each Community has its particular name.
Each Community develops in a particular geographical area in which an individual lives.
These days community is having a specific base that it is self-dependent in itself.
We-feeling always exists in each community.
Stability is always there in community. It means they never break up.

Question 4.
Give three examples of association.
Answer:

Political Parties
Labour Union
Religious Organisation
International Associations.

Question 5.
What are the types of society discussed by Tonnies ?
Answer:
(i) Gemein Schaft. According to Tonnies, “Gemein Schaft is a community whose members live by co-operating each other and spend their lives. Permanent and primary relations are there in its life; for example, rural society.”

(ii) Gesell Schaft. According to Tonnies,“Gesell Schaft is a new phenomenon which is formal and of less duration. It is nothing but individuals live in society. Its members have secondary relations among them.”

Answer the following long answer questions in 75-85 words each

Question 1.
What do you understand by the term society ? Write a detailed note.
Answer:
In simple language, the meaning of society is generally taken as a group of people. Many philosophers use this word in the same sense. In this way meaning of society can be taken from the group of persons, not from their mutual relations. Sometimes meaning of society is taken from any institution such as Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj etc. In this manner in the language of a layman, meaning of the word society has been taken in the same sense. But in Sociology its meaning is quite different from this meaning.

In Sociology meaning of word society is not the group of the people but is taken by those laws which emerge out of their mutual relationships’. Social relationships are very important among people. They are an integral part of a society. It is not a thing but is a process. The important thing in society is the mutual relationships and interactions among people with which people live with each other. When any sociologist uses word society in general form then his meaning of society is by the web of social relationships and when he uses word society in special sense then his meaning is that society is a group of people in which special type of relations exist.

Society:
When Sociologists use the word society then their meaning is not merely by the collection of people. Their meaning of society is by the web of relationships among members of society with which people are connected with each other. Just by collection of some persons, we cannot make a society. Society will be made only when the meaningful relations will be established among the people of society.

These relations are abstract in nature. We cannot see them and they don’t have any concrete form. We can only feel them. They exist in every form of life. We cannot separate them from each other. These are so much interrelated that it is very difficult to differentiate and separate them. The web of all these social relationships is known as society. We cannot see them because they are abstract in nature.

Some writers are of the view that society can be made only then when its members know each other and when they have some mutual interests. For example, if two persons are sitting in a bus and they don’t know each other then they cannot make a society. But when they start talking to each other, come to know about each other then existence of society starts. They should have mutual interaction among them to form a society.

Actually society is the web of social relationship. Humans who live at one place have mutual relations and mutual interests. They are dependent upon each other and they make a society. This thing will become clear when we will see the definitions of society given by different sociologists.

Question 2.
Individual and society are interrelated. Comment.
Answer:
According to Greek philosopher Aristotle, “Man is a Social Animal.” It means that man lives in society. Without society there is no value of man. The person, who does not live collectively with others, is at the lowest level of humanity. To live a long life, man has to fulfil his needs and to fulfil his needs, he is dependent upon others. He is dependent upon others for his security, food, education, many types of services etc.

We can call a man social animal on these three bases :
1. Man is social by nature. First of all, man is social by nature. Man cannot live alone. No one can develop in a proper way by living outside the society. Many Sociologists have experimented on this that the children who develop by living beyond the societies cannot develop properly. Even one child of 17 years of age cannot walk properly. Even after giving him education he was unable to live like a simple man. Like this one more case came in our notice.

In 1920, two children were found in a den of wolf. Out of those two, one died sometimes after their discovery but second behaved in a strange way. He was not able to walk like humans, eat like humans and even talk like humans. He walked on all two hands and legs like animals, he did not have any language, and that’s why he crawled like wolves. After that when some loveable attitude was adopted for him then only he was able to learn social habits and behaviour.

Another case was experimented in America with an orphan child. No one was aware about his parents. He was kept alone in a room from the age of six months. At the age of 5 years it was seen that the child was unable to talk and walk and even he was afraid of humans. All these examples show that man is social by nature.

Humans can develop properly only in that condition when they live in society and share their life with other humans. From these examples we can see that those children had the capacity like humans but in the absence of social contact they were not developed socially. Society is a thing which fulfils the needs of nature of man. It is not a thing forced by God but man is social by nature.

2. Necessity makes a man social. Man lives in society because he needs a lot from the society. If he will not cooperate with other members of society then most of his needs will not be fulfilled. Every human is the result of mutual relation of men and women. Child grows in the presence of his parents and he learns a lot while living with his parents. Child is totally dependent upon society for his existence. If the society will not give security to a newly born baby then that baby will not be able to live for more than one day. Child of a man is so helpless that he needs help of society.

We can fulfill his needs of eating, wearing and living because we all live in society and all of our needs can be fulfilled only by living in society. From the given examples we can see that those children who were brought up by animals, were behaving like animals. For the physical and mental development of man society is necessary. Only then a person can be called a human when he lives in society. Hunger forces the person to make relations with others. That’s why he needs to do some work which forces him to make relations with others. In this way just not because of nature of man but to fulfil his needs man lives in society.

3. Society makes Personality. Man lives in a society to increase his physical and mental conditions. Society protects and preserves cultural heritage so that it can be transmitted to next generation. It also gives us independence so that we can improve our qualities and can change our behaviour, wishes, beliefs, customs etc. Without society the mind of man is just like the mind of child. Our culture and our heritage make our personality because our culture puts a great effect on our personality. Society not only fulfils our physical needs but it also fulfils our mental and psychological needs.

So in this way we can say that man is social by nature. If a man wants to live then he needs society. It is not that for one or two needs he needs a society but for all of his needs and for the development of personality he needs society. Without human society also cannot exist. Society is nothing but is the web of social relationships and relationships can exist only among humans. That’s why they both are dependent upon each other. This relation is not a one sided affair.

They both are necessary for each other’s existence. We cannot call men only an organism and society is not only the means of fulfilling the needs of a man. Society is that without which humans cannot exist and humans are those without which society cannot be formed. Now question arises that whether society is more necessary for humans or humans are more necessary for society. This question is like that question whether hen came first or the egg. Actually all humans are born in society and exactly after their birth they enter the society. No one can be completely individualistic and no one can be completely social. Actually they both are dependent upon each other.

If one will not be there then other’s existence will be in danger. They both are complimentary to each other. Society develops self of an individual. While living in society only, man adopts social habits and becomes social. Thus society cannot be made without humans. To make a society we need at least two humans and relation is necessary between them. In this way society is the web of relationships of humans. Their existence depends upon each other. One’s existence depends upon other’s existence.

In the end we can say that man is a social animal and he can fulfil his needs only by living in society. It is not possible for humans to live alone. For his needs he needs other humans. In the same way society makes a human a social animal. We cannot call him a human until he does not live with other humans. When we call anyone a social animal then it doesn’t mean that he is very intelligent or is very beautiful. He is social animal in the sense that he needs social relations. In this way he cannot live without society.

Question 3.
What do you mean by community? Discuss the characteristics of community in detail.
Answer:
Different types of groups are there in each society. Different names are given to these different groups and community is one of them. Community is a society in itself and is in definite area like any village or city. The day from which man has started to live at one place, from that same day community came into being and from that day till today man is living in community. First of all when man started to do agriculture from that day man started to live in community because he started to live at one place and with this his exchange was started.

The word community has been taken from two Latin words ‘Com’ and ‘Munus’. Meaning of the word Com is ‘to live together’ and the meaning of word Munus is to make. If we will join them then the literal meaning of community is to make jointly. In this way literal meaning of community is that when some people jointly live in a group for the whole life then it is called community.

Characteristics or Elements of Community:
1. We-feeling. Community has this characteristic that it has we-feeling. Because of this we-feeling every member of community cannot differentiate from each other but they believe each other and think that they are one. Everyone believes that he is one of them.

2. Role feeling. The second characteristic of community is that its members have role feeling. In community every one has some status-and role to play and he knows that which work he has to do and what duties he has to do.

3. Dependence. Another important characteristic of a community is that the members of a community depend upon each other for their needs because it is not possible for any one to live alone. Man cannot do all of his functions that’s why he is dependent upon others for most of his different functions.

4. Permanence. Community is permanent. Its members’ are permanent. If any one leaves his community for some time he still belongs to his community. If any one goes abroad and leaves his community then the area of community starts to widen because even after going abroad he never forgets his community. Today man is not a member of just one community. Man is the member of different communities at different times. That’s why it doesn’t matter that to which community he belongs. Community is permanent.

5. Common Life. Community does not have any particular aim. It has just one aim and that is that its members should live an easy life and man spends his life while living in community.

6. Geographical area. Every community has its geographical area in which he lives. Without any particular area community can be formed.

7. Spontaneous birth. Community came into being automatically. Community doesn’t have any particular aim. It is established knowingly. Wherever man starts to live community comes automatically. Community provides all those facilities with which humans can fulfil their needs very easily.

8. Particular Name. A particular name is generally given to community which is necessary for its formation.

Question 4.
Define community. Discuss in which respect Community differs from society.
Answer:
1. According to Maclver and Page, “Wherever the members of any group, small or large, live together in such a way that they share, not this or that particular interest,but the basic conditions of a common life, we call that group a community. The mark of a community is that one’s life may be lived wholly within it. The basic criterion of community then is that all one’s social relationships may be found within it.” .

2. According to Kingsley Davis, “The community is the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of social life. Although the household is a smaller contiguous group, it is also more limited in scope. The community on the other hand is a local group broad enough to include all the major institutions, all the statuses and interests, that make a society. It is the smallest local group that can be and often is a complete society.”

3. According to Bogardus, “A community is a social group with some degree of we-feeling living in a given area.”

4. According to Lundberg, “Community is a human population living within a limited geographical area and carrying on a common independent life.”

5. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Community is the total organization of social life within a limited area.”
In this manner after looking at the definitions of community we can say that the geographical group of humans where they spend’their complete life, is a community. Community has its special features and that is man can spend whole of his life in the community. Man cannot spend his whole life in his office, temple, club etc. but he can spend his whole life in his village or city. In community every type of social relationships are there. ‘

Difference between Community and Society :

Society is a group of people which develops automatically and community develops automatically in a particular area.
Society does not have any specific geographical area but community does have a specific geographical area.
There is no specific name of society but community does have a specific name.
Society is based upon social relations, that’s why it is abstract but community is a concrete concept.
Each society is not self-dependent but each community is self-dependent in itself and it fulfills all the needs of its members.
Members of society do not have any we-feeling but community members do share we-feeling with each other.

Question 5.
Draw a comparison between community and association.
Answer:

The community develops spontaneously. It is not formed. Association is formed with special efforts.
The community doesn’t have any specific objective. It fulfills the needs of everyone but the association has some definite objective.
One person can become a member of one community at a time but a person can become a member of many associations at a time.
Membership of a community is necessary but the membership of an association depends upon the wish of the person.
A definite geographical area is necessary for a community but it is not necessary for an association.
The community has an aim in itself but the association is a means for the attainment of any objective.
Community is permanent but the association is temporary.
Man takes birth in the community and dies in the community but the man takes part in association to fulfill any of his objectives.
The community doesn’t have any Legal Status but the association has some Legal Status.

Question 6.
Discuss the difference between society and association.
Answer:
Association is a group of people that are formed for specific objectives but society is a group of people that develops automatically. Membership of the association is based on an individual’s wish and one can leave its membership after the attainment of his objectives.

But membership in society is not optional. It means one needs to be a member of any society till his death.
Association is a concrete concept because it is based upon individual needs. But society is an abstract system because it is based on social relations which are abstract in nature.

Association is formed with conscious efforts but society develops automatically and no conscious efforts are required in it.
Association has a formal structure that includes Chairman, Secretary, Cashier, Members, etc., and they are elected for a fixed term. But society does not have any formal structure and all the individuals are its members. They cannot leave their membership in any case.

The origin and development of an association is the result of individual .efforts whose specific objectives are attached to it. But society originates when all the people agree to it and no selfish interests are attached to it. Individuals can leave or break the association once” their objectives are achieved. But no one can break society and its existence remains intact.
The origin of an association is related to any objective but the origin of society depends upon social relations.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Solutions Chapter 2 Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences

October 1, 2024September 30, 2024 by Prasanna

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 2 Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 2 Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences

Sociology Guide for Class 11 PSEB Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences Textbook Questions and Answers

Answer the following very short answer questions in 1-15 words each

Question 1.
Who considers Sociology and Anthropology as twin sisters?
Answer:
Kroeber considered Sociology and Anthropology as twin sisters.

Question 2.
Name a few issues that are studied both by sociologists and economists.
Answer:
Capitalism, industrialization, labour relations, globalisation etc. are a few of the issues that are studied both by sociologists and economists.

Question 3.
What are the two areas of the study of Anthropology ?
Answer:
Physical Anthropology and Cultural Anthropology.

Answer the following short answer questions in 30-35 words each:

Question 1.
What is Sociology ?
Answer:
Science of society is known as Sociology. In Sociology, groups, institutions, associations, organisationed and human mutual relations are studied and this is done in a scientific way. In simple words, Sociology is the scientific study of society.

Question 2.
What do you mean by Political Science ?
Answer:
Political Science is the science of State and Government. It mainly studies such social groups who attain power in the state. Major aspects of its study are power, political systems, political processes, types and functions of government, inter¬state relations, constitution etc.

Question 3.
What do you mean by Physical Anthropology ?
Answer:
Physical Anthropology is the branch of Anthropology which mainly deals with origin and development of man, their description and the changes coming in their physical features. It studies the physical features of early man and tries to understand ancient and modern cultures.

Question 4.
What is Cultural Anthropology ?
Answer:
Cultural Anthropology is the branch of Anthropology which deals with the origin and development of culture and gradually the changes come in it. This branch of Anthropology also studies how different institutions of human society come into being.

Question 5.
What is Economics ?
Answer:
Economics is related with the economic activites of different individuals in a society. It tells us about our prevailing resoures and the methods to save our depleting resources. It is also related with production, consumption, distribution and exchange.

Question 6.
What is History ?
Answer:
History is the study of past events. It deals with dates, events and conflicts prevailing over the time. It is mainly related with past events and their impact on society. History is also known as microscope of past, horoscope of present and telescope of future.

Answer the following long answer questions in 75-85 words each:

Question 1.
Bring out two ‘differences between Sociology and Political Science.
Answer:
(i) Sociology is the study of society and social relations as Political Science is a science of State and Government.
(ii) Sociology studies organised, unorganised and unsystamatic societies but Political Science mainly concentrates on the politically organised societies.
(iii) The subject matter of sociology is quite large and unlimited but the scope of Political Science is quite limited.
(iv) Sociology is a general science and Political Science is a special science.

Question 2.
What is the relationship between Sociology and History ? Mention two points.
Answer:
History is the study of the past human society. It explains human society in a sequence starting from early man till today. Only after studying history, we may come to know how did social institutions, relations, customs etc. originate. Sociology is the study of present society. In Sociology, social relations, traditions, customs, institutions, cultures etc. are studied.

So, Sociology studies present social institutions, relations etc. If we observe the relations between the-both, we can say that History studies every aspect of past society, but Sociology studies the same aspects of present society. Both the sciences need each other’s help in their study which they cannot do in each other’s absence. .

Question 3.
Discuss in brief the relationship between Sociology and Anthropology.
Answer:
Anthropology takes the help of Sociology to understand its culture and social actions. Anthropologists have made many hypotheses on the base of knowledge of modern society and on this base it has studied the ancient Societies in quite a better way. Culture is a part of every society. We cannot imagine any society without culture. To get knowledge about cuture, Anthropology depends upon Sociology. Except this it also studies the social and cultural elements which produce collective stability and produce division in society.

Question 4.
How is Sociology associated with Economics ? Discuss in brief.
Answer:
We have to take help of social facts to solve any economic problem. For example, to know the solution of the problem of unemployment, economics can tell only economic reasons but social aspect gives its views to solve it that .the main reason of the problem of unemployment is the degradation of social values. That’s why economic activities are the result of social interactions. Economics takes help of Sociology to understand these social interactions.

Many famous economists have studied the social sector after studying the economic sector. Whenever Sociology has to study the reason of break up of social relations or society from individual point of view then it has. to take help of economics. ‘The economics gives many reasons like increasing importance of Money. Except this economic factor is related with many of the social problems. To remove these problems from the Society it has to take help from economics.

Question 5.
Discuss the relationship between Sociology and Psychology.
Answer:
Psychology gives its help to Sociologists to solve many problems of modern and complex society. Psychology studies the ancient primitive societies and helps Sociology to understand modern society. In this way Sociology is dependent upon the data and knowledge collected by Psychology. In this way Psychology gives a lot to Sociology.

Psychology needs the help of subject matter of Sociology to study individual behaviour. No person can live out of society. Even Aristotle has said that man is a social animal. To understand the mental actions of a person Psychologist needs to study his social conditions. In this way to know about individual behaviour it needs help of Sociology.

Question 6.
How Sociology and Political Science are interrelated ? Explain in brief.
Answer:
Whenever political scientists make a law, they always keep social conditions in mind. It is so because if the government makes a law without the social approval, people take the course of movement which becomes a hinderance in the way of social progress. That’s why Political Scientists always depend upon the Sociologists.

No society can develop without control. Political institutions keep control over society. The help of political institutions was required to remove many evils from our society, such as Poloygamy, Sati-system, no-widow remarriage. In this way to bring social change Sociologists are required to take the help from the Political Scientists.

Question 7.
Discuss in brief the difference between Sociology and Anthropology.
Answer:
(i) Sociology studies economic system, political system, etc. in its own way. It means that it studies social strucutre, social organization and disorganization. But Social Anthropology studies every aspect of a society such as political, economic system, social structure, religion, art etc. and it studies any ’society completely as a whole.

(ii) Anthropology keeps itself to the study of problem only but Sociology moves forward in the future and tries to give the solution of that problem.

(iii) Sociology is related with social relationship but Anthropology is related with the completness of the society. In this way they both are different in their subject matter.

Question 8.
Discuss in brief the difference between Sociology and Economics.
Answer:
(i) Sociology studies the different parts of Society and Economics studies only the economic part of Society. Units of Sociology are two or more than two persons but the unit of Economics is one person and his economic activities.

(ii) Sociology is a general science but Economics is a special science. Sociology uses historical, comparative methods but Economics uses inductive and deductive methods.

(iii) Subject matter of both the Sciences is different. Sociology gives a clear picture of different parts of Society. That’s why its area is very big. But Economics is limited only to the study of economic part of Society and that’s why its subject matter is limited. .

(iv) Sociology uses historical method, comparative method, and Economics uses inductive and deductive methods.

Question 9.
Differentiate between Sociology and Psychology.
Answer:

Psychology studies the minds of humans and Sociology is related the group.
Point of view of Psychology is individual but point of view of Sociology is Social.
Psychology uses Experimental method but Sociology uses Historical and comparative methonds.
Sociology studies human behaviour from social point of view but Psychology studies human behaviour from psychological point of view.
Scope of Sociology is quite large but scope of Psychology is quite limited.

Question 10.
Distinguish between Sociology and History in brief.
Answer:

Sociology is an abstract science because it studies the social processes and relations which are abstract but History is a concrete science. It studies the social phenomenon which occurs due to social processes and relations.
They both are using different methods. Sociology uses comparative method but History uses descriptive method.
Units of both the Sciences are different. Sociology’s unit of analysis is a human group but History gives emphasis on the study of human events.

Answer the following long answer questions in 250-300 words each:

Question 1.
How is Sociology different from other social sciences ? Discuss any two in detail.
Answer:
We can divide sciences into two parts :
1. Natural Sciences
2. Social Sciences.

1. Natural sciences are those sciences which are related with biological and natural phenomena; for example, Astronomy, Chemistry, Physics, Botany etc.

2. Social sciences are those sciences which are related with phenomena, processes, methods of human society; like, Economics, Political Science, Psychology, History, Anthropology. All these sciences scientifically study human behaviour. Sociology and other social sciences are related with the study of human society yet their point of view of study is different. These all are different from each other as well as they are inter-related. They all study society. They all are dependent upon each other as well as interrelated.

Our life is very complex. Human life is related with many directions. When Sociology wants to study any society then it needs the help of Economics and Political Science. For example, Economics tells us about production, distribution, consumption, etc. History tells us about old things. Sociology has been able to study widely with their help. That’s why it is known as mother of all social sciences.

Except this different sociologists have different views about the subject of Sociology. Some are of the view that Sociology is an independent science but some are of the view that Sociology is synthesis of other social sciences. Herbert Spencer was of the view that Sociology cannot be completely separated from other social sciences because it uses subject matters of all the social sciences.

Maclver has also written in his book ‘Society’ that we cannot study all the social sciences by completely separating from each other. According to him, “Sociology is about social relationships, the network of relationships we call society.” According to these scholars, Sociology doesn’t have its own independent identity. In fact it is the synthesis of other sciences.

Some sociologists accept it as an independent science. Sociologists like Giddings and Ward are of the opinion that Sociology is dependent upon sociological laws to understand its subject matter. But when it studies whole society then it needs to study the subject matter of other social sciences.

According to Barnes, “Sociology is regarded neither as the mistress nor as the handmaid of the social sciences but as their sister.”In this way we can see that any other social science does not study institutions, processes, relations but are studied only by Sociology. In this way Sociology studies whole of the social life. It has its own subject matter. Other social sciences do not study those aspects which it does.

From this description we come to conclusion that if Sociology takes help of other social sciences then it doesn’t mean that it just takes help and does not give help. In short, we can say that to find the solution of any problem, it is not possible for any social science to find it alone. If the problem is related with economic factor then economist cannot find its solution alone but it has to take help of other social sciences. That’s why all the social sciences are inter-related but their subject matter is different from each other.

Question 1.
Difference between Sociology and Economics :
Answer:
(i) Sociology studies the different parts of Society and Economics studies only the economic part of Society. Units of Sociology are two or more than two persons but the unit of Economics is one person and his economic activities.

(ii) Sociology is a general science but Economics is a special science. Sociology uses historical, comparative methods but Economics uses inductive and deductive methods.

(iii) Subject matter of both the Sciences is different. Sociology gives a clear picture of different parts of Society. That’s why its area is very big, But Economics is limited only to the study of economic part of Society and that’s why its subject matter is limited.

(iv) Sociology uses historical method, comparative method, and Economics uses inductive and deductive methods.

Question 2.
Difference between Sociology and Political Science :
Answer:

Sociology is the study of society and social relations as Political Science is a science of State and Government.
Sociology stuthes organised, unorganised and unsystamatic societies but Political Science mainly concentrates on the politically organised societies.
The subject matter of sociology is quite Large and unlimited but the scope of Political Science is quite limited.
Sociology is a eneral sciencŒ and Political Science is a special science.

Question 2.
Write a detailed note on the relationship between Sociology and History.
Answer:
History and Sociology both study the human society. History prepares a description of main events from ancient times till today’s human society and describes it as a story in a proper sequence. Sociology and History both study human society. Actually Sociology is originated from History. In Sociology a historical method is used which has been taken from History.

History studies past time of human society. It prepares sequel description of human society from ancient times till today. History does not explain only ‘what was’ but it also analyses ‘how it happened’. That’s why after stu3dying history we come to know that how society originated and how relations, customs, institutions etc. came in this. In this way history is related with our past times that is what, why and how any thing happened in our past times.

On contrary to this Sociology studies present human society. It studies social relationships, their forms, customs, traditions, institutions etc. With this Sociology also studies human culture and different forms of culture. In this way Sociology studies different relationships and institutions of present society.

From this description it is clear that History studies every aspect of past society and Sociology does that same work in present sqciety. Contribution of History to Sociology. Sociology uses the material given by History. Human society is the web of social relationships which are coming from ancient times. We have to go to the past to study and understand them. Origin of life, ways, every thing is the part of past. For their study Sociology takes help of History because we can get knowledge of social facts only from History. That’s why to understand present we need the help of History.

In Sociology comparative method is used to compare different institutions. For this we need historical material.In the study of ‘social fact’ Durkheim used information given by history. Actually the help of history is required by those sociologists who use comparative method in their study.

Different social institutions are influencing each other. Because of these effects changes come in them. To see these changes we need to see the effect of other institutions. Historical material helps us to understand this. In short to understand social conditions, sociologist is completely dependent upon history. That’s why a new branch of Sociology-Historical Sociology has been developed.

Contribution of Sociology to History. History also uses the material given by Sociology. Modern history has included some of the sociological concepts in its subject matter. That’s why a new branch of ‘Social History’ has been developed. Social History is not the study of any king but is the study of evolution of any institution and the changes which came in this. In this way History borrows that thing from Sociology now which earlier it was borrowing from Philosophy.

Difference between Sociology and History. It is right that they both are inter-related but they both are different from each other. Their main

differences are given below :
1. Difference in outlook. Both these subjects study same subject matter from different point of views. History explains the war but Sociology studies those processes which were behind the war. Sociologist explains those phenomenon from social point of view. In this way History gives stress on past societies and Sociology gives stress on present. ‘

2. Difference in subject matter. Subject matter of Sociology is very wide as compared to Histoy’s subject matter. History studies some of the special events but Sociology studies general phenomenon or laws. History only tells us that why anything happened but Sociology is interested in the inter-relations of different phenomena and then tries to tell the reason of that phenomenon.

3. Difference in methods. Comparative method is used in Sociology but History uses descriptive method. History explains any phenomenon and studies the different stages of its development for which descriptive method is oppropriate. On contrary to this after studying any phenomenon in different times and countries, Sociology establishes the laws of change of that phenomenon. In this way we can say that there is a lot of difference in the methods of History and Sociology.

4. Difference in Units. The unit of analysis of Sociology is human society and group but History stresses on the study of functions and events of humans.

Question 3.
Why is sociological understanding necessary for political scientists ?
Answer:
Sociology and Political Science both are deeply related with each other. Both are interrelated with each other. According to Plato and Aristotle, both state and society are one and the same thing. Later on their meanings were differentiated and then Political Science was confined only with the functions of state.

At the same time after 1850 Sociology had made its own subject matter and it was also differentiated from Political Science. Political Science studies the origin and development of state, organization of state, administrative system of government and functions related with institution. It studies the groups and institutions related with political life of a person.

Political Science studies the political life of a person and the related institutions. It also studies the origin and development of state, characteristics, organization of state, government and its administrative system and the institutions related to the state. In this way Political Science studies only political relations.

On the other side Sociology studies social relations, different forms of relations, groups, customs, norms, structures, institutions and their inter-relations, mores, traditions, etc. Political Science studies the politics which means state and government and on the other side Sociology studies the main agencies of social control i.e. political institutions. These both sciences study the entire society. Sociology looks at the state as political institution and Political Science looks it in the form of law and organization of state.

Contribution of Sociology to Political Science. Political Science considers a person as a political person but it never tells us that how and when he becomes political. For this Political Science takes help of Sociology. If Political Science takes help of the rules of Sqciology then it can make studies related to a person very easy and correct. When Political Science is making its policies then it has to keep in mind the social values and social ideals. While making laws, political science has to keep in mind the social conditions of society.

Our social customs, traditions, values, culture etc. are made to control the members of society and to run the society in an organized way. But when these are accepted by government then they become laws. For example, we can see that different countries have different customs. Status of women was very low in India.

People tried to change this custom. When some leaders tried to uplift the status of women with some movements then many laws were made to uplift the status of women. It was so because social sanctions were there behind these movements. Actually we cannot overlook the social traditions and customs while making laws for society.

Sometimes public movements come into being due to laws made by government. When government tries to overlook the customs made by society then the society moves toward the situation of social disorganization which can create obstacles in the way of social progress. Political Science depends upon Sociology to know about social conditions or customs. We can solve many problems of society with the help of laws.

So from the given description it is clear that Political Science needs a lot of help of Sociology to study its subject matter. It helps in social progress, development and maintenance of organization. But it doesn’t mean that only Sociology gives help to Political Science. In fact Political Science also gives help to Sociology.

Question 4.
How does Psychology influence Sociology ?
Answer:
Sociology and Psychology both are deeply inter-related. They both study behaviour of man. According to Cretch and Cretchfield, “Social Psychology is the science of behaviour of the man in the society.” In short, Sociology studies the social relations and Psychology studies mental relationships. Now we will see literal meaning of Social Psychology.

Social Psychology studies individual behaviour. It means that whatever effect of society is exerted on mental part, Psychology studies it. To understand individual behaviour it is not necessary to see its social circumstances but it is necessary to see Neuro Glandular system. Mind, Reflection, Learning, Love, Hatred, Emotions and these are mental processes which are actually studied by Social Psychology. Sociology studies, scientifically, these social processes.

These both sciences are very inter-related. According to Maclver, “Sociology in special gives aid to Psychology just as Psychology gives special aid to Sociology.” According to Allport, “Social Psychology is the study of the behaviour of the individuals in their reactions with other individuals and the behaviour through which individuals stimulate one another in such situations.”

According to Kimbal Young, “We might say that while our major emphasis is on the individual in interaction with others, such interactions can only be understood within the social life and cultural matrix in which they occur.” From this given description we can say that the base of scientific study of social phenomenon is Psychology and we can observe it directly. So in this way they both are inter-related and that’s why a new branch of Psychology called ‘Social Psychology’ came into being.

Contribution of Psychology to Sociology. In Sociology we study social relationships. To understand social relationships, we need to understand human behaviour because the mental and physical needs of a man affect his relationships with other humans. Psychology studies these mental processes, thoughts, ideas of mind minutely. To understand behaviour of man and society, Sociology needs the help of Psychology.

For this branch of Psychology, Social Psychology is very helpful which studies experiences, behaviour and personality, of humans, in the social context. Sociologists are also of the view that psychological bases are very important to understand the changes of society. Ip this way we can say that to understand the society we need to understand behaviour of man which is the work of Psychology.

PSEB 12th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 3 नागरिक और नागरिकता

September 21, 2024September 20, 2024 by Bhagya

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 3 नागरिक और नागरिकता Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 3 नागरिक और नागरिकता

दीर्घ उत्तरीय प्रश्न-

प्रश्न 1.
नागरिक की परिभाषा दीजिए।
(Give the definition of citizen.)
उत्तर-
नागरिक शब्द का अर्थ (Meaning of the word Citizen)-नागरिक शब्द अंग्रेज़ी के ‘सिटीजन’ (Citizen) शब्द का हिन्दी रूपान्तर है जिसका अर्थ है नगर निवासी। इस अर्थ में नागरिक वह व्यक्ति होता है जो किसी नगर की निश्चित परिधि के अन्दर निवास करता है। अतः इस अर्थ के अनुसार जो व्यक्ति गांवों में रहते हैं उन्हें हम नागरिक नहीं कह सकते। परन्तु नगारिक शास्त्र में ‘नागरिक’ शब्द का विशेष अर्थ है। नागरिक शास्त्र में उस व्यक्ति को नागरिक कहा जाता है जिसे राजनीतिक तथा सामाजिक अधिकार प्राप्त हों। भारत में 18वर्ष के पुरुष और स्त्री को मत देने का अधिकार प्राप्त है।

प्राचीन यूनान में छोटे-छोटे नगर-राज्य होते थे। जिन व्यक्तियों को शासन के कार्यों में भाग लेने का अधिकार होता था, उन्हीं को नागरिक कहा जाता था। समस्त जनता को शासन के कार्यों में भाग लेने का अधिकार प्राप्त नहीं होता था। उन दिनों यूनान में दास प्रथा प्रचलित थी। दासों को नागरिकों की सम्पत्ति समझा जाता था। स्त्रियां, बच्चे, शिल्पकार और व्यापारी लोग नगर-निवासी होते हुए भी नागरिक नहीं समझे जाते थे।

परन्तु आजकल नागरिक शब्द का विस्तृत अर्थ लिया जाता है। आज राज्य के प्रत्येक व्यक्ति को, जिसे सामाजिक तथा राजनीतिक अधिकार प्राप्त होते हैं, नागरिक कहा जाता है।

नागरिक की परिभाषाएं (Definitions of Citizen)—विभिन्न लेखकों ने ‘नागरिक’ की विभिन्न परिभाषाएं दी हैं। जिनमें से कुछ मुख्य परिभाषाएं निम्नलिखित हैं-

1. अरस्तु (Aristotle) के अनुसार, “नागरिक उस व्यक्ति को कहा जाता है जिसे राज्य के शासन-प्रबन्ध या न्याय-विभाग में भाग लेने का पूर्ण अधिकार हो।” (“He, who has the power to take part in the deliberative or judicial administration of any state, is a citizen.”) अरस्तु की परिभाषा वर्तमान राज्यों में लागू नहीं होती। आज राज्य इतने बड़े हैं कि सारी जनता राज्य के शासन तथा न्याय विभाग में भाग नहीं ले सकती। जनता का कुछ भाग ही शासन में भाग लेता है। आज नागरिक का विस्तृत अर्थ लिया जाता है।

2. वाटल (Vattal) के अनुसार, “नागरिक किसी राज्य के सदस्य होते हैं, जो कुछ कर्तव्यों द्वारा राजनीतिक समाज में बन्धे होते हैं तथा उससे प्राप्त होने वाले लाभ के बराबर के हिस्सेदार होते हैं।”

3. श्रीनिवास शास्त्री (Shriniwas Shastri) के अनुसार, “नागरिक राज्य का वह सदस्य है जो इसमें रह कर एक तरफ से अपनी उन्नति के विकास के लिए प्रयत्न करता है और दूसरी ओर सारे समाज की भलाई के लिए सोचता है।”

4. प्रो० लॉस्की (Laski) के अनुसार, “नागरिक वह व्यक्ति है जो संगठित समाज का सदस्य ही नहीं वरन् आदेशों को प्राप्त करने वाला तथा कतिपय कर्तव्यों का पालन करने वाला बुद्धिमान् व्यक्ति है।” ।

5. प्रो० ए० के० सीयू (A.K. Sew) के अनुसार, “नागरिक उस व्यक्ति को कहा जाता है जो राज्य के प्रति वफादार हो। जिसको राज्य राजनीतिक व सामाजिक अधिकार देता है और जिसमें मनुष्य की सेवा की भावना पाई जाती है।”

विभिन्न परिभाषाओं के आधार पर हम यह कह सकते हैं कि आधुनिक दृष्टि से नागरिक वह व्यक्ति है, जो राज्य के प्रति निष्ठा रखता हो और जिसे सामाजिक तथा राजनीतिक अधिकार प्राप्त हों।

नागरिक की विशेषताएं (Characteristics of a Citizen)-नागरिक को मुख्य विशेषताएं निम्नलिखित हैं-

नागरिक किसी राज्य के सदस्य को कहते हैं।
नागरिक अपने राज्य में स्थायी रूप से रहता है या रह सकता है। राज्य उसे वहां से निकलने को नहीं कह सकता।
नागरिक को राज्य की ओर से कुछ अधिकार मिले होते हैं, जिन्हें वह अपने और समाज कल्याण के लिए प्रयोग कर सकता है।
नागरिक को कुछ कर्तव्यों का पालन करना पड़ता है। उसे राज्य के कानूनों का पालन करना पड़ता है।
नागरिक राज्य के प्रति भक्ति की भावना रखता है और उसकी रक्षा के लिए वचनबद्ध होता है और यदि आवश्यकता पड़े, तो उसे अनिवार्य सैनिक सेवा भी करनी पड़ती है।

प्रश्न 2.
नागरिकता का क्या अर्थ है ? नागरिकता के प्रकार और इसको प्राप्त करने के ढंग बताएं।
(What is the meaning of Citizenship ? Define its kinds and methods of acquiring citizenship.)
अथवा
नागरिकता का क्या अर्थ है ? नागरिकता प्राप्त करने के तरीकों का वर्णन करो।
(What is the meaning of Citizenship ? Describe the methods of acquiring Citizenship.)
उत्तर-
नागरिकता का अर्थ एवं परिभाषाएं-नागरिकता की धारणा उतनी ही प्राचीन है, जितनी कि यूनानी नगर राज्य तथा संस्कृति । नागरिकता का अर्थ सदैव एक-जैसा नहीं रहा है बल्कि समय के अनुसार बदलता रहा है। यूनानी नगर-राज्य में नागरिकता का अधिकार सीमित व्यक्तियों को प्राप्त था। प्राचीन नगर-राज्य में नागरिकता उन्हीं व्यक्तियों को प्राप्त थी, जो नगर-राज्यों के शासन प्रबन्ध में हिस्सा लेते थे। स्त्रियों, गुलामों और विदेशियों को यह अधिकार प्राप्त नहीं था। अतः वे नागरिक नहीं थे।

अरस्तु (Aristotle) ने केवल “उस व्यक्ति को ही नागरिक की पदवी दी है जिसको किसी नगर की न्यायापलिका (Judiciary) या कार्यपालिका में भाग लेने का अधिकार हो।” अरस्तु श्रमिकों को नागरिकता प्रदान नहीं करता क्योंकि उसके मतानुसार श्रमिकों के पास नागरिक के अधिकारों के प्रयोग के लिए न तो योग्यता और न ही पर्याप्त अवकाश होता है। उसका नागरिकता सम्बन्धी विचार वास्तव में कुलीनतन्त्रात्मक है।

आधुनिक युग में नागरिकता की धारणा बहुत व्यापक है-आज नागरिकता केवल राज्य के प्रशासन में भाग लेने वाले को प्राप्त न होकर बल्कि निवास के आधार पर प्राप्त होती है। समस्त व्यक्ति बिना जाति-पाति, लिंग या ग्राम या नगर के निवास तथा सम्पत्ति के, भेदभाव के आधुनिक राज्यों के नागरिक माने जाते हैं। राज्य के प्रशासन में प्रत्यक्ष तौर पर भाग लेना अनिवार्य नहीं है।
नागरिकता की आधुनिक परिभाषाएं (Modern Definitions of Citizenship)—नागरिकता उस वैधानिक या कानूनी सम्बन्ध का नाम है जो व्यक्ति को उस राज्य के साथ जिसका वह सदस्य है, सम्बद्ध करता है।

लॉस्की (Laski) के शब्दों में, “अपनी सुलझी हुई बुद्धि को जनहितों के लिए प्रयोग करना ही नागरिकता है।” (“Citizenship is the contribution of one’s instructed judgement to public good.”)

गैटल (Gettel) के अनुसार, “नागरिकता व्यक्ति की उस अवस्था को कहते हैं जिसके कारण वह अपने राज्य में राष्ट्रीय और राजनीतिक अधिकारों का उपयोग कर सकता है और अपने कर्तव्यों के पालन के लिए तैयार रहता है।” (“Citizenship is that condition of individual due to which he can use national and political rights in his state and is ready to fulfil obligation.”)

बायड (Boyd) के अनुसार, “नागरिकता अपनी वफ़ादारियों को ठीक निभाना है।” (“Citizenship consists in the right ordering of loyalities.”) इस प्रकार किसी राज्य और उसके नागरिकों के उन आपसी सम्बन्धों को ही नागरिकता कहा जाता है जिससे नागरिकों को राज्य की ओर से सामाजिक और राजनीतिक अधिकार मिलते हैं तथा वे राज्य के प्रति कुछ कर्त्तव्यों का पालन करते हैं।

नागरिकता की विशेषताएं (Characteristics of Citizenship) उपर्युक्त परिभाषाओं के आधार पर नागरिकता की मुख्य विशेषताएं निम्नलिखित हैं-

राज्य की सदस्यता (Membership of the State) नागरिकता की प्रथम विशेषता यह है कि नागरिक को किसी राज्य का सदस्य होना आवश्यक होता है। एक राज्य का सदस्य होते हुए भी वह किसी दूसरे राज्य में अस्थायी तौर पर निवास कर सकता है।
सर्वव्यापकता (Comprehensive)-आधुनिक नागरिकता की एक महत्त्वपूर्ण विशेषता सर्वव्यापकता है। यह न केवल नगर निवासी बल्कि ग्रामों के लोगों, स्त्रियों व पुरुषों को भी प्राप्त होती है। नागरिकता प्रदान करते समय ग़रीबअमीर, जाति-पाति आदि को नहीं देखा जाता।
राज्य के प्रति भक्ति (Allegiance to the State)-नागरिकता की तीसरी विशेषता यह है कि नागरिक अपने राज्य के प्रति वफ़ादारी रखता है।
अधिकारों का उपयोग (Use of Rights)-नागरिक को राज्य की ओर से कुछ अधिकार प्राप्त होते हैं। ये अधिकार राजनीतिक तथा सामाजिक दोनों प्रकार के होते हैं। साम्यवादी देशों में नागरिकों को आर्थिक अधिकार भी प्राप्त होते हैं।
कर्तव्यों का पालन (Performance of Duties) नागरिकता की एक अन्य विशेषता यह है कि नागरिकों को राष्ट्र और समाज की उन्नति के लिए अपने कर्तव्यों का पालन करना पड़ता है। राज्य के कानूनों का निष्ठापूर्वक पालन करना प्रत्येक नागरिक का कर्त्तव्य होता है।
सक्रिय योगदान (Active Participation)-आधुनिक नागरिकता की एक महत्त्वपूर्ण विशेषता सामाजिक कल्याण के लिए सक्रिय योगदान देना है।

नागरिकता के प्रकार (Kinds of Citizenship)-नागरिकता दो प्रकार की होती है-जन्मजात और राज्यकृत। जन्मजात नागरिकता जन्म के नियम से नियमित होती है और जब विदेशियों को दूसरे देश की नागरिकता मिलती है, उसे राज्यकृत नागरिकता कहते हैं।

नागरिकता प्राप्त करने का ढंग (Methods to Acquire Citizenship)-

(क) जन्मजात नागरिकता की प्राप्ति (Acquisition of Natural born Citizenship)-जन्मजात नागरिकता दो तरीकों से प्राप्त होती है-

1. रक्त सम्बन्धी सिद्धान्त (Blood Relationship)—जन्मजात नागरिकता प्राप्त करने का प्रथम ढंग रक्त सम्बन्ध है। इस सिद्धान्त के अनुसार बच्चे की नागरिकता का निर्णय उसके माता-पिता की नागरिकता से होता है। बच्चे का जन्म किसी भी स्थान पर क्यों न हो, उसे अपने पिता की नागरिकता प्राप्त होती है। भारत में इसी सिद्धान्त को अपनाया गया है। एक भारतीय नागरिक का बच्चा कहीं भी पैदा हो, चाहे जापान में, चाहे अमेरिका में, वह भारतीय ही कहलाएगा। इसी तरह एक अंग्रेज़ का बच्चा कहीं भी पैदा हो चाहे फ्रांस में, चाहे भारत में, अंग्रेज़ ही कहलाएगा। एक जर्मन का बच्चा चाहे कहीं भी उत्पन्न हो, जर्मन ही कहलाएगा। फ्रांस, इटली, स्विट्ज़रलैंड तथा स्वीडन में भी इसी सिद्धान्त को अपनाया गया है।

2. जन्म-स्थान सिद्धान्त (Birth-place)-इस सिद्धान्त के अनुसार बच्चे की नागरिकता का निर्णय उसके जन्मस्थान के आधार पर किया जाता है। इस सिद्धान्त के अनुसार बच्चे को उसी देश की नागरिकता प्राप्त होती है जिस देश की भूमि पर उसका जन्म हुआ हो। बच्चे के पिता की नागरिकता को ध्यान में नहीं रखा जाता। अर्जेण्टाइना में यह सिद्धान्त लागू है। अर्जेण्टाइना में यदि कोई विदेशी सैर के लिए जाते हैं और उनकी सन्तान अर्जेण्टाइना में उत्पन्न होती है तो बच्चे को अर्जेण्टाइना की नागरिकता प्राप्त होती है। एक भारतीय की सन्तान को जिसका जन्म जापान में हुआ हो, जापानी नागरिक माना जाएगा।

दोहरा नियम (Double Principle)-कई देशों में दोनों सिद्धान्तों को अपनाया गया है। इंग्लैंड, फ्रांस, अमेरिका में रक्त-सम्बन्धी सिद्धान्त तथा जन्म-स्थान सिद्धान्त दोनों प्रचलित हैं। दोहरे नियम के सिद्धान्त के अनुसार जो बच्चे अंग्रेज़ दम्पति से उत्पन्न हों, चाहे बच्चे का जन्म भारत में हो, चाहे जापान में, अंग्रेज़ कहलाता है और उसे अपने पिता की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है। इसके अतिरिक्त यदि किसी विदेशी के इंग्लैंड में सन्तान पैदा होती है, उसे भी इंग्लैंड की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है।

सिद्धान्तों के दोष (Defects of these Principles)-इन सिद्धान्तों के कई दोष हैं। जैसे कि एक व्यक्ति एक समय में दो राज्यों का नागरिक भी बन सकता है और यह भी हो सकता है कि व्यक्ति को किसी देश की नागरिकता प्राप्त ही न हो। इन दोनों दोषों की व्याख्या इस प्रकार है-

1. दोहरी नागरिकता (Double Citizenship)-कई बार एक बच्चे को दो राज्यों की नागरिकता भी मिल जाती है। यदि एक अंग्रेज़ दम्पति के अमेरिका में सन्तान उत्पन्न हो तो जो बच्चा जन्म लेगा उसे दोहरी नागरिकता प्राप्त होगी। रक्त-सम्बन्धी सिद्धान्त के अनुसार अंग्रेज़ दम्पति के बच्चे को इंग्लैंड की नागरिकता प्राप्त होगी और जन्म-स्थान सिद्धान्त के अनुसार अमेरिका की नागरिकता प्राप्त होगी। इसी तरह यदि एक जर्मन दम्पति के इंग्लैंड में बच्चा पैदा हो जाता है तो उस बच्चे को जर्मनी तथा इंग्लैंड की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है। रक्त सम्बन्धी सिद्धान्त के अनुसार बच्चे को जर्मनी की नागरिकता प्राप्त होती है और जन्म-स्थान सिद्धान्त के अनुसार बच्चे को इंग्लैंड की नागरिकता प्राप्त होती है। दोहरी नागरिकता एक समस्या है। यदि दो देशों में युद्ध आरम्भ हो जाए तो समस्या उत्पन्न हो जाती है कि वह किस देश का नागरिक है। ऐसी दशा में नागरिक का बुरा हाल होता है क्योंकि दोनों देश उस नागरिक को शंका की नज़र से देखते हैं। इस समस्या को समाप्त करने के दो ढंग हैं

प्रथम, यदि माता-पिता बच्चे के जन्म के पश्चात् अपने देश ले जाएं और रहना शुरू कर दें तो बच्चे को अपने पिता की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है।
दूसरे विचार के अनुसार बच्चा वयस्क (Adult) हो कर अपनी नागरिकता का स्वयं निर्णय कर सकता है। वह दोनों में से किसी एक राज्य की नागरिकता को छोड़ सकता है।

2. नागरिकता विहीन या राष्ट्रीयता विहीन (Statelessness)-किसी समय ऐसी स्थिति भी हो सकती है कि बच्चे को किसी भी देश की नागरिकता प्राप्त न हो। अर्जेण्टाइना (Argentina) में जन्म-स्थान सिद्धान्त और फ्रांस (France) में रक्त सिद्धान्त को अपनाया गया है। अर्जेण्टाइना के नागरिक नव-दम्पत्ति की जो सन्तान फ्रांस में उत्पन्न होगी वह न तो अर्जेण्टाइना और न ही फ्रांस की नागरिकता प्राप्त कर सकेगी। ऐसी स्थिति का हल करने के लिए देशीयकरण का साधन प्रयोग में लाया जा सकता है।

कौन-सा सिद्धान्त अच्छा है ? (Which Principle is better ?)-आम मत यह है कि जन्म-स्थान सिद्धान्त की अपेक्षा रक्त-सिद्धान्त अधिक अच्छा है। जन्म-स्थान सिद्धान्त में संयोगवश अप्रत्याशित अवसर अधिक है। इसके साथ-साथ रक्त-सिद्धान्त के अनुसार प्राप्त नागरिकता की दशा में नागरिक में अपने राज्य और देश के प्रति भक्ति, स्नेह और श्रद्धा की भावनाओं का अधिक प्रबल होना स्वाभाविक है। अतः रक्त सिद्धान्त ही उचित दिखाई पड़ता है।

(ख) राज्यकृत नागरिकता प्राप्त करने के तरीके (How the Naturalised Citizenship is Acquired ?)राज्यकृत नागरिक वे नागरिक होते हैं जिन्हें नागरिकता जन्म-जात सिद्धान्त से प्राप्त नहीं होती, बल्कि जिन्हें नागरिकता सरकार की तरफ से प्राप्त होती है। यदि कोई व्यक्ति अपने देश को छोड़ कर किसी दूसरे देश में जा कर बस जाता है और कुछ समय पश्चात् उस देश की नागरिकता को प्राप्त कर लेता है तो उस व्यक्ति को राज्यकृत नागरिक कहा जाता है। नागरिकता देना अथवा न देना राज्य पर निर्भर करता है। कोई भी व्यक्ति किसी राज्य को नागरिकता देने के लिए मज़बूर नहीं कर सकता। ऐसी नागरिकता प्रार्थना-पत्र देकर प्राप्त की जाती है। कई भारतीय विदेशों में जा कर बस गए हैं और उन्होंने वहां की नागरिकता प्राप्त कर ली है। नागरिकता की प्राप्ति निम्नलिखित ढंगों से की जा सकती है-

1. निश्चित समय के लिए निवास (Resident for Certain Period) यदि कोई व्यक्ति किसी दूसरे देश में जाकर बहुत समय के लिए रहे तो वह प्रार्थना-पत्र देकर वहां की नागरिकता प्राप्त कर सकता है। सभी देशों में निवास की अवधि निश्चित है। इंग्लैंड और अमेरिका में निवास की अवधि पांच वर्ष है जबकि फ्रांस में दस वर्ष है। भारत में निवास की अवधि पांच वर्ष है।

2. विवाह (Marriage) विवाह करने से भी नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है। यदि कोई स्त्री किसी दूसरे देश के नागरिक से शादी कर लेती है तो उसे अपने पति की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है। भारत का नागरिक यदि इंग्लैंड की स्त्री से शादी कर लेता है तो उस स्त्री को भारत की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है। जापान में इसके उलट नियम है। यदि कोई विदेशी जापान की स्त्री से शादी कर लेता है तो उसे जापान की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है।

3. सम्पत्ति खरीदना (Purchase of Property)-सम्पत्ति खरीदने से भी नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है। ब्राजील, पीरू और मैक्सिको में ऐसा नियम प्रचलित है। यदि कोई विदेशी पीरू में सम्पत्ति खरीद लेता है तो उसे वहां की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है।

4. गोद लेना (Adoption)-जब एक राज्य का नागरिक किसी दूसरे राज्य के नागरिक को गोद ले लेता है, तो गोद लिए जाने वाले व्यक्ति को अपने पिता की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है।

5. सरकारी नौकरी (Government Service)-कई राज्यों में यह नियम है कि यदि कोई विदेशी सरकारी नौकरी कर ले तो उसे वहां की नागरिकता मिल जाती है। उदाहरणस्वरूप यदि कोई भारतीय इंग्लैंड में सरकारी नौकरी कर लेता है तो उसे वहां की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है।

6. विद्वानों को (For Scholars)-कई देशों में विदेशी विद्वानों को नागरिक बनाने के लिए विशेष सुविधाएं दी जाती हैं। विदेशी विद्वानों के निवास की अवधि दूसरे विदेशियों की निवास अवधि से कम होती है। फ्रांस में वैज्ञानिकों या विशेषज्ञों के लिए वहां की नागरिकता प्राप्त करने के लिए एक वर्ष का निवास ही काफ़ी है।

7. विजय द्वारा (By Victory)-जब एक राज्य दूसरे राज्य को विजय करके अपने राज्य में मिला लेता है तो परास्त राज्य के नागरिकों को विजयी राज्य की नागरिकता मिल जाती है।

8. प्रार्थना-पत्र द्वारा (Through Application)-किसी देश के द्वारा निश्चित की गई कानूनी शर्ते पूरी करके प्रार्थना-पत्र देकर उस देश की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है। ऐसे व्यक्ति को अच्छे चरित्र और देश के प्रति वफ़दारी रखने का प्रमाण देना पड़ता है।

9. गैर कानूनी बच्चे (Illegitimate Children) यदि कोई नागरिक किसी विदेशी स्त्री से अनुचित सम्बन्ध स्थापित कर लेता है, तो उसके बच्चे गैर-कानूनी कहलाते हैं। परन्तु यदि उन बच्चों के माता-पिता परस्पर शादी कर लेते हैं तो उन बच्चों को अपने पिता की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है।

10. राजनीतिक शरणागत (Political Asylum)-कई राज्यों में दूसरे देश के पीड़ित राजनीतिज्ञों को नागरिकता प्रदान करने की विशेष व्यवस्था है। चीन के संविधान के अनुसार कोई भी व्यक्ति जो अपनी समाजवादी कार्यवाहियों और विचारों के कारण अपनी सरकार से पीड़ित हो तो चीन में शरण प्राप्त कर सकता है।

11. दोबारा नागरिकता की प्राप्ति (To accept Citizenship Again) यदि कोई नागरिक अपने देश की नागरिकता को छोड़ कर दूसरे राज्य की नागरिकता प्राप्त कर लेता है तो उसे दूसरे राज्य का नागरिक माना जाता है। परन्तु यदि वह चाहे तो अपने राज्य की नागरिकता कुछ शर्ते पूरी करके दोबारा प्राप्त कर सकता है।

संक्षेप में, नागरिकता कई तरीकों से प्राप्त की जा सकती है। परन्तु कई देशों में जन्म-जात नागरिकों तथा राज्यकृत नागरिकों को एक समान अधिकार नहीं दिए जाते। जिन देशों में दोनों तरह के नागरिकों को समान अधिकार नहीं दिए जाते, वहां प्रायः राज्यकृत नागरिकों को कम अधिकार प्राप्त होते हैं । अमेरिका में राज्यकृत नागरिक राष्ट्रपति पद के लिए चुनाव नहीं लड़ सकते। राष्ट्रपति का चुनाव जन्म-जात नागरिक ही लड़ सकते हैं।

प्रश्न 3.
नागरिकता किस प्रकार खोयी जा सकती है ?
(How can citizenship be lost ?)
उत्तर-
जिस तरह नागरिकता को प्राप्त किया जा सकता है इसी तरह नागरिकता को खोया भी जा सकता है। प्रत्येक देश ने इसके लिए नियम बनाए हुए हैं। पर कई नियम प्रायः सभी देशों में एक समान हैं। नागरिकता को निम्नलिखित तरीकों से खोया जा सकता है-

1. लम्बे समय तक अनुपस्थिति (Long Absence)-कई देशों में यह नियम है कि यदि उनका नागरिक लम्बे समय तक बाहर रहे तो उसकी नागरिकता समाप्त कर दी जाती है। उदाहरणस्वरूप यदि फ्रांस का कोई नागरिक लगातार 10 वर्ष से अधिक समय के लिए फ्रांस से अनुपस्थित रहे तो उसकी नागरिकता समाप्त कर दी जाती है।

2. विवाह (Marriage)-स्त्रियां विदेशी नागरिकों से शादी करके अपने देश की नागरिकता खो बैठती हैं। भारत का नागरिक जापानी स्त्री से शादी करके जापान की नागरिकता प्राप्त कर लेता है परन्तु स्त्री को अपने देश की नागरिकता छोड़नी पड़ती है।

3. विदेश में सरकारी नौकरी (Government Service Abroad)–यदि एक देश का नागरिक किसी दूसरे देश में सरकारी नौकरी कर लेता है तो उसकी अपने देश की नागरिकता समाप्त हो जाती है।

4. स्वेच्छा से नागरिकता का त्याग (Voluntary Renunciation of Citizenship)-कई देशों की सरकारें अपने नागरिकों को अपनी इच्छा के अनुसार किसी दूसरे देश का नागरिक बनने की आज्ञा प्रदान कर देती हैं। इस प्रकार के व्यक्ति अपनी जन्मजात नागरिकता त्याग कर अन्य देश की नागरिकता प्राप्त कर लेते हैं।

5. पराजय द्वारा (By Defeat)-जब एक देश दूसरे देश को जीत कर उसके क्षेत्र को अपने देश में मिला लेता है तो पराजित देश के नगारिक अपनी नागरिकता खो बैठते हैं और उन्हें विजयी देश की नागरिकता मिल जाती है।

6. सेना से भाग जाने से (Desertion from Army)- यदि कोई नागरिक सेना से भाग कर दूसरे देश में चला जाता है तो उसकी नागरिकता समाप्त हो जाती है।

7. दोहरी नागरिकता प्राप्त होने का अर्थ है एक देश की नागरिकता को छोड़ना (Acquisition of Double Citizenship means the loss of citizenship of one country)— a fost afara at at poest ost नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है तब उसे एक राज्य की नागरिकता छोड़नी पड़ती है।

8. देश-द्रोह (Treason)-जब कोई व्यक्ति राज्य के विरुद्ध विद्रोह अथवा क्रान्ति करता है तो उसकी नागरिकता छीन ली जाती है। परन्तु देश-द्रोह के आधार पर उन्हीं नागरिकों की नागरिकता को छीना जा सकता है जो राज्यकृत नागरिक हों।

9. गोद लेना (Adoption) यदि कोई बच्चा किसी विदेशी द्वारा गोद ले लिया जाए, तो बच्चे की नागरिकता समाप्त हो जाती है और वह अपने नए मां-बाप की नागरिकता प्राप्त कर लेता है।

10. विदेशी सरकार से सम्मान प्राप्त करना (Acceptance of honour from Foreign Government)यदि कोई नागरिक अपने देश की आज्ञा के बिना किसी विदेशी सरकार द्वारा दिए गए सम्मान को स्वीकार कर लेता है, तो वह अपनी मूल नागरिकता से वंचित कर दिया जाता है।

11. विदेश में सम्पत्ति खरीदना (Purchase of Property in Foreign Land)–यदि किसी देश का नागरिक मैक्सिको या पीरू आदि देशों में सम्पत्ति खरीद ले तो वह उस देश का नागरिक बन जाएगा और उसकी अपने देश की नागरिकता समाप्त हो जाएगी।

12. न्यायालय के निर्णय द्वारा (Judgement by the Judiciary) कई देशों में यह नियम अपनाया गया है कि वहां की न्यायपालिका किसी भी नागरिक को दण्ड के रूप में देश-निकाले का आदेश दे सकती है। ऐसी स्थिति में उस व्यक्ति की नागरिकता स्वयं समाप्त हो जाती है।

प्रश्न 4.
आदर्श नागरिक के अनिवार्य गुणों का वर्णन करें।
(Explain the qualities essential for ideal citizen.)
अथवा
एक अच्छे नागरिक के क्या गुण हैं ?
(What are the qualities of a good citizen ?)
उत्तर-
कोई भी देश उस समय तक उन्नति नहीं कर सकता जब तक कि उस देश के नागरिक अच्छे न हों। राज्य की उन्नति नागरिकों पर निर्भर है। अच्छे नागरिक से अभिप्राय ऐसे नागरिक से है जो अपने कर्तव्यों को पहचाने और उनका पालन करे, जो अपने अधिकारों के प्रति सचेत हो और उनका पूरा-पूरा प्रयोग करे, जो औरों की स्वतन्त्रता का आदर उसी तरह से करे जैसा वह चाहता है कि अन्य लोग उसकी स्वतन्त्रता का आदर करें, जो केवल अपने लिए ही नहीं बल्कि पूरे समाज के लिए जीता है और जो मानव सभ्यता के विकास और प्रगति में अपना पूरा-पूरा योगदान देता है। लॉर्ड ब्राइस ने आदर्श नागरिक के लिए तीन गुण-बुद्धि, आत्मसंयम और उत्तरदायित्व पर जोर दिया है। डॉ० ई० एम० व्हाइट के अनुसार, “सामान्य बुद्धि, ज्ञान तथा कर्तव्य पालन अच्छी नागरिकता के गुण हैं।”

एक आदर्श नागरिक में निम्नलिखित गुण होने चाहिएं-

1. शिक्षा (Education)-अच्छा नागरिक बनने के लिए व्यक्ति का सुशिक्षित होना आवश्यक है। शिक्षा ही अच्छे जीवन का आधार मानी गई है। नागरिक को शिक्षा के द्वारा अपने अधिकारों तथा कर्त्तव्यों का ज्ञान होता है और ज्ञान प्राप्त होने पर ही वह अधिकारों का प्रयोग कर सकता है तथा कर्तव्यों का पालन कर सकता है। शिक्षा द्वारा व्यक्ति का मानसिक विकास भी होता है और उनमें उदारता व नैतिकता की भावनाएं जागृत होती हैं। शिक्षा प्राप्त करने पर उसकी बुद्धि का विकास होता है जिससे वह देश की समस्याओं को समझने, उन पर विचार करने तथा उनको सुलझाने में अपनी राय बनाने तथा प्रकट करने के योग्य बनता है। शिक्षा के बिना लोकतन्त्र सफलतापूर्वक नहीं चल सकता।

2. सामाजिक भावना (Social Spirit) एक अच्छे नागरिक में सामाजिक भावना का होना भी आवश्यक है। नागरिक व्यक्ति पहले है और वह भी सामाजिक। समाज के बिना उसकी आवश्यकताओं की पूर्ति तथा जीवन का विकास नहीं हो सकता। अच्छे नागरिक केवल अपनी भलाई और स्वार्थ के लिए ही कार्य नहीं करते बल्कि मिल-जुल कर कार्य करते हैं और समस्त समाज के हित में कार्य करते हैं। यदि कोई व्यक्ति केवल अपना ही भला सोचता है तो वह एक अच्छा या आदर्श नागरिक नहीं कहा जा सकता। यदि कोई नागरिक केवल अपने ही कल्याण की बात सोचता रहे, दूसरों के साथ मिल-जुल कर चलने की बजाए सबसे अलग रहता हो, दूसरों के काम में हाथ न बंटाता हो, दूसरों के दुःख-सुख में भाग न लेता हो अर्थात् दूसरों से सम्बन्ध न रखता हो वह भी अच्छा नागरिक नहीं कहा जा सकता। लॉस्की (Laski) के अनुसार, “शिक्षित बुद्धि को सार्वजनिक हित में प्रयोग करना ही नागरिकता है।” (“Citizenship is the contribution of one’s instructed judgement to public good.”)

3. कर्त्तव्यपरायणता (Dutifulness)-अच्छे नागरिकों को अपने कर्तव्य के प्रति सजग रहना और ईमानदारी से पालन करना आवश्यक है। जिस किसी के प्रति भी उनका कोई कर्त्तव्य है, उसे पूरी तरह से निभाएं। एक लेखक का कहना है, “अच्छी नागरिकता कर्त्तव्यों को उचित ढंग से निभाने में ही निहित है।” (“Citizenship consists in the right ordering of loyalities.”) यदि सब नागरिक अपने-अपने कर्तव्यों का ईमानदारी से पालन करें तो अधिकार स्वयं प्राप्त हो जाएंगे और लड़ाई-झगड़े भी अपने आप बन्द हो जाएंगे। नागरिकों के कर्त्तव्य केवल राज्य के प्रति ही नहीं होते बल्कि परिवार, पड़ोस, मुहल्ले, शहर, प्रान्त तथा देश के प्रति भी हैं और इन सभी कर्तव्यों का उन्हें ईमानदारी से पालन करना चाहिए। जिस देश के नागरिक अपने कर्तव्यों का ठीक ढंग से पालन नहीं करते, वह देश कभी प्रगति नहीं कर सकता।

4. आत्मसंयम तथा सहनशीलता (Self-control and Tolerance)-एक अच्छे नागरिक को अपने ऊपर संयम होना चाहिए तथा उसमें सहनशीलता की भावना भी होनी चाहिए। देश में उसका सम्पर्क विभिन्न विचारों और मतों के व्यक्तियों से होता है, वे सब विचार उसे सुनने पड़ते हैं। विरोधी विचारों को सुन कर उसे जोश और गुस्सा नहीं आना चाहिए। इससे देश में लड़ाई-झगड़े ही बढ़ते हैं। प्रत्येक व्यक्ति को अपने विचार प्रकट करने का पूर्ण अधिकार है। दूसरों की बातें उसे शान्ति से सुननी चाहिएं और दूसरों के साथ प्रेमपूर्ण व्यवहार करना चाहिए। दूसरों के विचारों पर प्रभाव दलीलों द्वारा ही डालना चाहिए। विचारों के अदल-बदल से ही समाज की प्रगति होती है। (“Conflict of ideas is more creative than the clash of arms.”) उसका हृदय भी उदार होना चाहिए तथा ऊंच-नीच, छुआछूत, जातिभेद आदि की भावनाएं नहीं होनी चाहिएं। उसे उच्च तथा उदार विचार रखते हुए दूसरों के साथ मिल-जुलकर समस्त समाज के कल्याण के कार्य करने चाहिएं।

5. प्रगतिशीलता (Progressive outlook)—अच्छे नागरिक की अच्छाई केवल यहां तक ही सीमित नहीं है कि वह सामाजिक ढांचे के प्रति श्रद्धा रखे और राजनीतिक व सामाजिक नियमों का पालन करे बल्कि अपने समाज की कुरीतियों और प्रतिक्रियावादी रूढ़ियों को शान्तिपूर्ण ढंग से बदलने के लिए क्रियात्मक प्रयत्न करे। वर्तमान से असन्तुष्टि और सुधार के लिए उमंग एक अच्छे नागरिक के गुण हैं। मानव-सभ्यता और ज्ञान में प्रगति और विकास लाना हर नागरिक का कर्त्तव्य होता है।

6. परिश्रम (Hard Work)-अपने हर कर्त्तव्य के पालन के लिए, अपनी आजीविका कमाने के लिए और मानवसभ्यता में विकास लाने के लिए परिश्रम अत्यावश्यक है। आलस्य और काम-चोरी एक अच्छे नागरिक के महान् शत्रु हैं। परिश्रम के द्वारा अन्य के गुणों को क्रियाशील और साकार किया जा सकता है। कार्लाइल Carlyle) के शब्द बहुत उचित है, “काम ही पूजा है।” (“Work is worship.”) पंडित नेहरू भी कहा करते थे कि, “आराम हराम है।” संसार भर के महान् व्यक्तियों की जीवन गाथाएं इस बात को सिद्ध करती हैं कि उनकी सफलता का प्रमुख कारण परिश्रम ही था। इस कथन के अनुसार, “परिश्रम ही सफलता की कुंजी है।” (“Hard work is the key to success.”)

7. अच्छा स्वास्थ्य (Good Health)-अच्छा नागरिक बनने के लिए स्वास्थ्य भी ठीक होना आवश्यक है। जिस देश के नागरिक कमज़ोर, दुबले-पतले तथा डरपोक होंगे, वह देश अधिक दिन स्वतन्त्र नहीं रह सकता। स्वस्थ नागरिक अपनी रक्षा भी करता है, साथ ही देश की भी। कमज़ोर व्यक्ति अधिक परिश्रम भी नहीं कर सकता। इसके साथ ही बीमार नागरिक विकास भी नहीं कर सकता क्योंकि स्वस्थ मन स्वस्थ शरीर में (Sound mind in a sound body) ही रह सकता है। बीमार और कमज़ोर नागरिकों का स्वभाव भी चिड़चिड़ा हो जाता है और उन्हें क्रोध भी जल्दी आने लगता है। बीमार नागरिक देश की समस्या पर अच्छी प्रकार से विचार नहीं कर सकता। स्पष्ट है कि अच्छे शरीर के बिना नागरिक कोई काम ठीक प्रकार से नहीं कर सकता, जिस देश के नागरिक अपने कर्तव्यों का ठीक ढंग से पालन नहीं करते वह देश कभी प्रगति नहीं कर सकता।

8. मत का उचित प्रयोग (Proper use of Vote)-प्रजातान्त्रिक सरकार में प्रत्येक नागरिक को अपना मत देने का अधिकार प्राप्त होता है। वोट का उचित प्रयोग करके नागरिक अपने इस कर्त्तव्य को पूर्ण कर सकता है। नागरिकों को वोट का अधिकार प्रयोग करते समय धर्म, भाषा, जात-पात आदि से ऊंचा उठना चाहिए। उन्हें वोट उस उम्मीदवार को देना चाहिए जो देश सेवक, ईमानदार तथा योग्य हो। आदर्श नागरिक का यही गुण होता है कि वह वोट का प्रयोग देश के हित के लिए करता है। योग्य उम्मीदवारों को वोट देकर ही कुशल शासन की उम्मीद रखी जा सकती है। इसीलिए तो कहा जाता है कि प्रजातन्त्र प्रणाली में जैसे नागरिक होते हैं वैसी ही सरकार होती है।

9. कानूनों का पालन (Obedience to Law) आदर्श नागरिक कानूनों का पालन करता है। प्रायः यह देखा जाता है कि लोग कानून के पालन में लापरवाही कर जाते हैं। परन्तु यह राष्ट्रीय हित में नहीं है। एक अच्छा नागरिक कानूनों के प्रति पूरी निष्ठा रखता है।

10. निष्काम सेवा (Selfless Service) आदर्श नागरिक अपने स्वार्थ को त्याग कर दूसरों की निष्काम सेवा करता है। लोक-कल्याण उसका उद्देश्य होता है।

11. स्वदेश भक्ति ! Patriotism)—प्रत्येक नागरिक को अपने देश और राज्य के प्रति वफ़ादार होना चाहिए। देशभक्ति की भावना जितनी अधिक नागरिकों में होगी, उतना ही अधिक उस देश का कल्याण होगा। देश की रक्षा और उन्नति के लिए नागरिक को तन-मन-धन सब कुछ बलिदान करने के लिए तैयार रहना चाहिए। अपने बड़े-से-बड़े लाभ को भी त्याग देना चाहिए यदि उससे अपने देश का थोड़ा भी अहित हो। देश-द्रोह सब से बड़ा अपराध है। देश का हित ही व्यक्ति का हित होना चाहिए। जिस देश के नागरिक सच्चे देश-भक्त होंगे, वह देश न तो कभी दूसरों का गुलाम बन सकता है और न ही किसी क्षेत्र में पिछड़ा हुआ रह सकता है।

12. प्रेम की भावना (Spirit of Love)-आदर्श नागरिक में प्रेम की भावना होती है। वह दूसरे मनुष्यों से प्रेम करता है और प्रत्येक से सद्व्यवहार करता है। वह ग़रीब तथा पिछड़ी जातियों के लोगों से नफरत नहीं करता। जो नागरिक दूसरे व्यक्तियों से लड़ता, झगड़ता रहता है वह अच्छा नागरिक नहीं है।

13. अनुशासन (Discipline) आदर्श नागरिक में अनुशासन का होना आवश्यक है। मनुष्यों की ज़िन्दगी नियमों के अधीन बंधी होती है। नियम का पालन करना ही अनुशासन है। आदर्श नागरिक सदैव समाज तथा राज्य के नियमों का पालन करता है। जिस राज्य के नागरिकों में अनुशासन की भावना नहीं होती, उस राज्य की समस्याएं दिन-प्रतिदिन बढ़ती जाती हैं और भविष्य की समस्याओं को हल करना अति कठिन हो जाता है। देश की उन्नति के लिए नागरिकों में अनुशासन का होना अति आवश्यक है।

14. अच्छा चरित्र (Good Character)-अच्छा चरित्र भी एक नागरिक का बहुत बड़ा गुण है। चरित्रवान् व्यक्ति में बहुत से गुण अपने आप आ जाते हैं। जीवन में उन्नति करने और नाम कमाने में चरित्र का बड़ा प्रभाव पड़ता है। यदि किसी देश के नागरिक बेईमान, धोखेबाज़, व्यभिचारी और शराबी होंगे तो वह देश कभी उन्नति नहीं कर सकता। हमारी भारतीय संस्कति में भी चरित्र को सब से अधिक मूल्यवान् माना गया है। चरित्रवान् व्यक्ति में आज्ञा पालन, अनुशासन का होना अति आवश्यक है।

15. सचेतता (Vigilance)—एक आदर्श नागरिक के लिए यह आवश्यक है कि वह अपने अधिकारों के लिए सचेत रहे। आलस्य तथा लापरवाही आदर्श नागरिक के शत्रु हैं। लॉस्की (Laski) ने सर्वसिद्ध बात कही है, “निरन्तर सतर्कता स्वतन्त्रता का मूल्य है।” (“Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.”) अपनी स्वतन्त्रता के प्रति उदासीनता एक नागरिक के लिए आत्म-हत्या के समान है। भले ही देश में प्रजातन्त्रीय शासन हो और नागरिकों के अधिकार संविधान द्वारा सुरक्षित हों, परन्तु ये सब बातें महत्त्वहीन होंगी यदि नागरिक अपनी जागरूकता का प्रदर्शन करने में कोई भी ढील करेंगे।

16. आत्मनिर्भरता (Self-sufficient)-आदर्श नागरिक यथासम्भव आत्मनिर्भर होता है। आत्मनिर्भरता व्यक्ति को स्वावलम्बी बना कर एक ऐसे व्यक्ति के रूप में परिवर्तित करती है जो किसी भी परिस्थिति में अपने पथ से विचलित नहीं हो सकता। ऐसे व्यक्ति समाज के लिए वरदान होते हैं।

17. रचनात्मक दृष्टिकोण (Constructive Attitude)-आदर्श नागरिक का दृष्टिकोण रचनात्मक होता है। वह आलोचना केवल आलोचना के लिए ही नहीं करता बल्कि सरकारी नीति का संशोधन करने तथा उसे लागू करने में आलोचना द्वारा सरकार की सहायता करता है। उसका कार्य केवल अवगुण ढूंढना नहीं होता बल्कि उसे दूर करने के लिए सुझाव भी देना होता है।

18. अन्तर्राष्ट्रीयता की भावना (Spirit of Internationalism)-आदर्श नागरिक में अन्तर्राष्ट्रीयता की भावना का होना आवश्यक है। नागरिक को अपने देश से ही प्यार नहीं होना चाहिए बल्कि मानव जाति से प्यार होना चाहिए। आदर्श नागरिक दूसरे राज्य के नागरिकों को अपना भाई मानते हैं और उनसे मित्रता का व्यवहार करते हैं। आदर्श नागरिक का यह गुण है कि अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय शान्ति की स्थापना के लिए प्रयत्नशील रहता है। वह देश के हित से बढ़ कर विश्व के हित के लिए कार्य करता है।

निष्कर्ष (Conclusion)-उपर्युक्त चर्चा से स्पष्ट हो जाता है कि केवल मात्र नागरिक होना ही काफ़ी नहीं है बल्कि एक अच्छा नागरिक होना आवश्यक है। लॉर्ड ब्राइस (Lord Bryce) ने आदर्श नागरिक के गुण “बुद्धि, आत्म संयम और सच्चाई” (Intelligence, self-control and conscience) कहे हैं। डॉ० विलियम ने “नागरिकता को वफ़ादारियों का उचित क्रम बताया है।” (“Citizenship consists in the right ordering of loyalities.”)

उपर्युक्त गुणों का विकास कोई कठिनाई की बात नहीं है। इन गुणों के विकास के लिए दृढ़ निश्चय और अभ्यास की ज़रूरत है। एक बार गुणों के पनपने के बाद सारी कठिनाइयां दूर हो जाती हैं और इन गुणों का प्रयोग स्वाभाविक सा हो जाता है।

लघु उत्तरीय प्रश्न-

प्रश्न 1.
नागरिक किसे कहते हैं ?
उत्तर-
‘नागरिक’ का शाब्दिक अर्थ है किसी नगर का निवासी, परन्तु नागरिक शास्त्र में ‘नागरिक’ शब्द का विशेष अर्थ है। नागरिक शास्त्र में उस व्यक्ति को नागरिक कहा जाता है जिसे राजनीतिक तथा सामाजिक अधिकार प्राप्त हों। विभिन्न लेखकों ने नागरिक की विभिन्न परिभाषाएं की हैं-

अरस्तु के अनुसार, “नागरिक उस व्यक्ति को कहा जाता है, जिसे राज्य के शासन प्रबन्ध विभाग तथा न्यायविभाग में भाग लेने का पूर्ण अधिकार है।”
वाटल के अनुसार, “नागरिक किसी राज्य के सदस्य होते हैं, जो कुछ कर्त्तव्यों द्वारा राजनीतिक समाज में बन्धे होते हैं तथा इससे प्राप्त होने वाले लाभ के बराबर के हिस्सेदार होते हैं।”

प्रश्न 2.
नागरिक की कोई चार विशेषताएं बताइए।
उत्तर-
नागरिक के लिए निम्नलिखित बातों का होना आवश्यक है-

नागरिक किसी राज्य का सदस्य होता है।
नागरिक अपने राज्य में स्थायी रूप से रह सकता है।
नागरिक को सामाजिक अधिकार प्राप्त होते हैं।
नागरिक को कुछ कर्तव्यों का पालन करना पड़ता है।

प्रश्न 3.
नागरिक और विदेशी में चार अन्तर बताएं।
उत्तर-
नागरिक तथा विदेशी में निम्नलिखित अन्तर पाए जाते हैं-

स्थिति के आधार पर-नागरिक राज्य का सदस्य होता है, जिस कारण उसे निश्चित नागरिकता तथा कुछ अधिकार प्राप्त होते हैं परन्तु विदेशी राज्य का सदस्य नहीं होता। वह कुछ उद्देश्यों के लिए राज्य में रहता है। उसका उद्देश्य व्यापार-प्रसार या अपनी सरकार का प्रतिनिधित्व करना हो सकता है।
राज्य भक्ति के आधार पर-नागरिक को अपने राज्य के प्रति वफादार होना पड़ता है, परन्तु विदेशी उस राज्य के प्रति वफादारी नहीं दिखाता जहां कि वह रहता है बल्कि वह उस राज्य के प्रति वफादार रहता है, जहां से वह आया है।
अधिकारों के आधार पर-नागरिक को सामाजिक और राजनीतिक दोनों प्रकार के अधिकार प्राप्त होते हैं, परन्तु विदेशियों को केवल सामाजिक अधिकार प्राप्त होते हैं। विदेशियों को वोट डालने, चुनाव लड़ने, सरकारी पद सम्भालने इत्यादि अधिकार प्राप्त नहीं होते।
युद्ध के समय विदेशियों को राज्य की सीमा से बाहर जाने के लिए कहा जा सकता है, परन्तु नागरिक को देश से नहीं निकाला जा सकता।

प्रश्न 4.
नागरिकता का अर्थ तथा परिभाषाएं लिखें।
उत्तर-
आज नागरिकता केवल राज्य के प्रशासन में भाग लेने वाले को प्राप्त न होकर बल्कि विकास के आधार पर प्राप्त होती है। समस्त व्यक्ति बिना जात-पात, लिंग या ग्राम या नगर के निवास तथा सम्पत्ति के भेद-भाव के बिना आधुनिक राज्यों के नागरिक माने जाते हैं। राज्य के प्रशासन में प्रत्यक्ष तौर पर भाग लेना अनिवार्य नहीं है। नागरिकता उस वैधानिक या कानूनी सम्बन्ध का नाम है जो व्यक्ति को उस राज्य के साथ, जिसका वह नागरिक है, सम्बद्ध करता है।

लॉस्की के शब्दों में, “अपनी सुलझी हुई बुद्धि को जन-हितों के लिए प्रयोग करना ही नागरिकता है।”

गैटेल के अनुसार, “नागरिकता व्यक्ति की उस अवस्था को कहते हैं जिसके कारण वह अपने राज्य में राष्ट्रीय और राजनीतिक अधिकारों का प्रयोग कर सकता है और कर्त्तव्य के पालन के लिए तैयार रहता है।”

बायड के अनुसार, “नागरिकता अपनी वफ़ादारियों को ठीक निभाना है।”
इस प्रकार किसी राज्य और उसके नागरिकों के आपसी सम्बन्धों को ही नागरिकता कहते हैं जिससे राज्य की ओर से नागरिकों को कुछ सामाजिक व राजनीतिक अधिकार मिलते हैं तथा वे राज्य के प्रति कुछ कर्त्तव्यों का पालन करते हैं।

प्रश्न 5.
नागरिकता की चार प्रमुख विशेषताएं बताओ।
उत्तर-
नागरिकता की मुख्य विशेषताएं निम्नलिखित हैं

राज्य की सदस्यता-नागरिकता की प्रथम विशेषता यह है कि नागरिक को किसी राज्य का सदस्य होना आवश्यक होता है। एक राज्य का सदस्य होते हुए भी वह किसी दूसरे राज्य में अस्थायी तौर पर निवास कर सकता है।
सर्वव्यापकता-आधुनिक नागरिकता की एक महत्त्वपूर्ण विशेषता सर्वव्यापकता है। यह न केवल नगर निवासी बल्कि ग्रामों के लोगों, स्त्रियों व पुरुषों को भी प्राप्त होती है। नागरिकता प्रदान करते समय ग़रीब-अमीर, जाति-पाति आदि को नहीं देखा जाता।
राज्य के प्रति भक्ति-नागरिकता की तीसरी विशेषता यह है कि नागरिक अपने राज्य के प्रति वफ़ादारी रखता है।
नागरिक को राज्य की ओर से कुछ अधिकार प्राप्त होते हैं।

प्रश्न 6.
जन्मजात नागरिकता प्राप्त करने के ढंग लिखें।
उत्तर-
जन्मजात नागरिकता दो तरीकों से प्राप्त होती है-

1. रक्त सम्बन्धी सिद्धान्त-जन्मजात नागरिकता प्राप्त करने का प्रथम ढंग रक्त सम्बन्ध है। इसके अनुसार बच्चे की नागरिकता का निर्णय उसके माता-पिता की नागरिकता से होता है। बच्चे का जन्म किसी भी स्थान पर क्यों न हो, उसे अपने पिता की नागरिकता प्राप्त होती है। एक भारतीय नागरिक का बच्चा दुनिया के किसी भी देश में पैदा हो, वह भारतीय ही कहलाएगा। फ्रांस, इंग्लैंड, इटली, जर्मनी, स्विट्ज़रलैण्ड तथा स्वीडन में भी इसी सिद्धान्त को अपनाया गया है।

2. जन्म स्थान सिद्धान्त-इस सिद्धान्त के अनुसार बच्चे की नागरिकता का निर्णय उसके जन्म स्थान के आधार पर किया जाता है। इस सिद्धान्त के अनुसार बच्चे को उसी देश की नागरिकता प्राप्त होती जहां उसका जन्म होता है। बच्चे के पिता की नागरिकता को ध्यान में नहीं रखा जाता है। यह सिद्धान्त अर्जेन्टाइना में प्रचलित है। एक भारतीय की सन्तान को जिसका जन्म जापान में हुआ हो तो जापानी नागरिक माना जाएगा।

प्रश्न 7.
राज्यकृत नागरिकता से आपका क्या अभिप्राय है ?
उत्तर-
राज्यकृत नागरिक वे नागरिक होते हैं जिन्हें नागरिकता जन्मजात सिद्धान्त से प्राप्त नहीं होती बल्कि सरकार की तरफ से प्राप्त होती है। यदि कोई व्यक्ति अपने देश को छोड़कर किसी दूसरे देश में बस जाता है और कुछ समय पश्चात् उस देश की नागरिकता प्राप्त कर लेता है तो वह राज्यकृत नागरिक कहलाता है। नागरिकता देना अथवा न देना राज्य पर निर्भर करता है। कोई व्यक्ति, किसी राज्य को नागरिकता देने के लिए मजबूर नहीं कर सकता। ऐसी नागरिकता प्रार्थना-पत्र देकर प्राप्त की जा सकती है। कई भारतीय विदेशों में जाकर बस गए हैं और उन्होंने वहां की नागरिकता प्राप्त कर ली है।

प्रश्न 8.
नागरिकता प्राप्त करने के चार ढंग लिखो।
उत्तर-
नागरिकता प्राप्ति के मुख्य ढंग निम्नलिखित हैं-

निश्चित समय के लिए निवास- यदि कोई व्यक्ति किसी दूसरे देश में जाकर बहुत समय के लिए रहे तो वह प्रार्थना-पत्र देकर वहां की नागरिकता प्राप्त कर सकता है। सभी देशों में निवास की अवधि निश्चित है। इंग्लैण्ड और अमेरिका में निवास की अवधि 5 वर्ष है। फ्रांस में 10 वर्ष और भारत में 5 वर्ष है।
विवाह-विवाह करने से भी नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है। यदि कोई स्त्री किसी दूसरे देश के नागरिक से विवाह कर लेती है तो उसे अपने पति की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है। परन्तु जापान में इसके उलट नियम है। जापान में यदि कोई पुरुष जापानी लड़की से शादी कर ले तो उसे जापान की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है।
सम्पत्ति द्वारा सम्पत्ति खरीदने से भी नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है। ब्राज़ील, पीरू और मैक्सिको में ऐसा नियम प्रचलित है कि यदि कोई विदेशी वहां सम्पत्ति खरीद लेता है तो उसे वहां की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है।
जब एक राज्य का नागरिक किसी दूसरे राज्य के नागरिक को गोद ले लेता है, तो गोद लिए जाने वाले व्यक्ति को अपने पिता के देश की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है।

प्रश्न 9.
नागरिकता किन चार कारणों द्वारा छीनी जा सकती है ?
उत्तर-
नागरिकता को निम्नलिखित कारणों से छीना जा सकता है-

लम्बे समय तक अनुपस्थिति-कई देशों में यह नियम है कि यदि उनका नागरिक लम्बे समय तक बाहर रहे तो उसकी नागरिकता समाप्त कर दी जाती है। यदि फ्रांस का कोई नागरिक 10 वर्ष से भी अधिक लम्बे समय तक फ्रांस से अनुपस्थित रहे तो उसकी नागरिकता समाप्त कर दी जाती है।
विवाह-स्त्रियां विदेशी नागरिकों से विवाह करके अपनी नागरिकता खो बैठती हैं। भारत का नागरिक जापानी स्त्री से विवाह करके जापान की नागरिकता प्राप्त कर लेता है। परन्तु स्त्री को अपनी नागरिकता छोड़नी पड़ती है।
विदेश में सरकारी नौकरी-यदि एक देश का नागरिक दूसरे देश में सरकारी नौकरी कर लेता है तो उसकी अपने देश की नागरिकता समाप्त हो जाती है।
यदि कोई नागरिक सेना से भाग कर दूसरे देश में चला जाता है, तो उसकी नागरिकता समाप्त हो जाती है।

प्रश्न 10.
जन्मजात नागरिकता के जन्म स्थान सिद्धान्त का वर्णन करें।
उत्तर-
जन्मजात नागरिकता के जन्म स्थान सिद्धान्त के अनुसार बच्चे की नागरिकता का निर्णय उसके जन्म-स्थान के आधार पर किया जाता है। इस सिद्धान्त के अनुसार बच्चे को उसी देश की नागरिकता प्राप्त होती है जिस देश की भूमि पर उसका जन्म हुआ हो। बच्चे के पिता की नागरिकता को ध्यान में नहीं रखा जाता। अर्जेन्टाइना में यह सिद्धान्त लागू है। अर्जेन्टाइना में यदि कोई विदेशी सैर के लिए जाते हैं तो उनकी सन्तान अर्जेन्टाइना में उत्पन्न होती है तो बच्चे को अर्जेन्टाइना की नागरिकता प्राप्त होती है। एक भारतीय की सन्तान को जिसका जन्म जापान में हुआ हो, जापानी नागरिक माना जाएगा।

प्रश्न 11.
रक्त-सम्बन्धी सिद्धान्त के अनुसार नागरिकता कैसे प्राप्त होती है ?
उत्तर-
इस सिद्धान्त के अनुसार बच्चे की नागरिकता का वर्णन उसके माता-पिता की नागरिकता से होता है। बच्चे का जन्म किसी भी स्थान पर क्यों न हो, उसे अपने पिता की नागरिकता प्राप्त होती है। भारत में इस सिद्धान्त को अपनाया गया है। एक भारतीय नागरिक का बच्चा कहीं भी पैदा हो, चाहे जापान में, चाहे अमेरिका में, वह भारतीय ही कहलायेगा। इसी तरह एक अंग्रेज़ का बच्चा कहीं भी पैदा हो चाहे फ्रांस में, चाहे भारत में, अंग्रेज़ ही कहलायेगा। एक जर्मन का बच्चा चाहे कहीं उत्पन्न हुआ हो, जर्मनी ही कलगाएगा। फ्रांस, इटली, स्विट्ज़रलैण्ड तथा स्वीडन में भी इस सिद्धान्त को अपनाया गया है।

प्रश्न 12.
आदर्श नागरिकता के चार गुण लिखें।
उत्तर-
एक आदर्श नागरिक में अग्रलिखित गुण होने चाहिएं-

शिक्षा-अच्छा नागरिक बनने के लिए व्यक्ति का सुशिक्षित होना आवश्यक है। शिक्षा द्वारा नागरिक को अपने अधिकारों व कर्तव्यों का ज्ञान होता है। शिक्षा द्वारा व्यक्ति का मानसिक विकास भी होता है और उसमें उदारता व नैतिकता की भावनाएं जागृत होती हैं।
सामाजिक भावना-एक अच्छे नागरिक में सामाजिक भावना का होना भी आवश्यक है। नागरिक समाज में पहले आया तथा राज्य में बाद में। समाज के बिना उसकी आवश्यकताओं की पूर्ति तथा विकास नहीं हो सकता।
कर्त्तव्यपरायणता-अच्छे नागरिकों को अपने कर्तव्यों के प्रति सजग रहना और उनका ईमानदारी से पालन करना अति आवश्यक है। यदि सब नागरिक अपने-अपने कर्तव्यों का ईमानदारी से पालन करें तो सभी अधिकार स्वयं प्राप्त हो जाएंगे। जिस देश के नागरिक अपने कर्तव्यों का पालन ठीक ढंग से नहीं करते वह देश कभी प्रगति नहीं करता।
नागरिक परिश्रमी होना चाहिए।

प्रश्न 13.
आदर्श नागरिकता के मार्ग में आने वाली चार बाधाओं का वर्णन करें।
उत्तर-
आदर्श नागरिकता के मार्ग में निम्नलिखित बाधाएं आती हैं :-

अनपढ़ता-शिक्षा एक अच्छे जीवन का आधार है। शिक्षा के बिना व्यक्ति को अपने अधिकारों व कर्तव्यों का ज्ञान नहीं होता और न ही देश की समस्याओं को समझ कर उनमें सहयोग देने योग्य बन पाता है। अशिक्षित व्यक्ति न तो अपने वोट का ठीक प्रयोग कर सकता है और न ही शासन में भाग ले सकता है।
अकर्मण्यता या आलस्य-आलसी व्यक्ति भी एक अच्छा नागरिक नहीं बन पाता। ऐसा व्यक्ति अपना पेट भरने के अतिरिक्त किसी काम में रुचि नहीं लेता। आलसी व्यक्ति इतना परिश्रम एवं पुरुषार्थ भी नहीं करता जितना वह कर सकता है। अतः देश के उत्थान पर बुरा प्रभाव पड़ता है।
ग़रीबी-ग़रीबी भी एक अच्छे नागरिक के मार्ग में बहुत बड़ी रुकावट है। ग़रीब व्यक्ति 24 घण्टे रोटी कमाने के चक्कर में लगा रहता है अतः उसके पास देश की समस्याओं पर विचार करने के लिए समय नहीं होता। ग़रीब व्यक्ति लालच में लाकर अपने मत का भी दुरुपयोग करता है।
आदर्श नागरिकता के मार्ग में बेरोज़गारी एक बड़ी बाधा है।

प्रश्न 14.
आदर्श नागरिकता के मार्ग में आने वाली बाधाओं को दूर करने के चार उपाय लिखो।
उत्तर-

शिक्षा का प्रसार-अनपढ़ता सभी बुराइयों की जड़ है अतः इसे समाप्त करने के लिए शिक्षा का प्रसार होना चाहिए। जनता को शिक्षित करने के लिए अधिक संख्या में स्कूल-कॉलेज खोले होने जाने चाहिएं।
आर्थिक सुधार-ग़रीबी को दूर करने और लोगों की आर्थिक दशा में सुधार करने से भी अच्छे नागरिकों की संख्या बढ़ेगी। सरकार को लोगों में परिश्रम करने व आलस्य छोड़ने का प्रचार करना चाहिए। सरकार को चाहिए कि वह अधिक मात्रा में उद्योग-धन्धे स्थापित करे और लोगों को रोज़गार प्रदान करे।
सामाजिक भावना-नागरिकों में सामाजिक भावना के महत्त्व पर विचार किया जाना चाहिए। सामाजिक भावना के जागृत होने से ही व्यक्ति का स्वार्थ नष्ट होता है और वह अपने स्वार्थ की ओर ध्यान न देकर समाज के हितों का ध्यान रखने लगता है।
बेरोजगारी को दूर करना चाहिए।

प्रश्न 15.
नागरिक कितने तरह के होते हैं ?
उत्तर-
नागरिक दो तरह के होते हैं-

जन्मजात नागरिक (Natural Citizens)
राज्यकृत नागरिक (Naturalised Citizens) ।

1. जन्मजात नागरिक (Natural Citizens)-पैदायशी या जन्मजात नागरिक वह है, जो जन्म से ही राज्य के नागरिक बनते हैं और स्वाभाविक रूप से ही नागरिकता प्राप्त करते हैं। ऐसे नागरिकों को जन्म स्थान या रक्त सिद्धान्त के आधार पर वहां की नागरिकता प्राप्त होती है।

2. राज्यकृत नागरिक (Naturalised Citizens)-राज्यकृत नागरिक जन्म से किसी अन्य देश का नागरिक होता है परन्तु राज्य में बस जाने के कारण और दूसरी शर्ते पूरी करने पर सरकार द्वारा उन्हें राज्य का नागरिक मान लिया जाता है।

प्रश्न 16.
भारतीय संविधान में नागरिकता के सम्बन्ध में किन नियमों का वर्णन किया गया है ?
उत्तर-
संविधान में भारतीय नागरिकता के सम्बन्ध में निम्नलिखित नियमों का वर्णन किया गया है-

संविधान के लागू होने पर प्रत्येक व्यक्ति जिसका जन्म भारत में हुआ है और भारत में रहता है, भारत का नागरिक है।
ऐसे बच्चे जिनका जन्म विदेश में हुआ है परन्तु जिसके माता या पिता में से किसी का जन्म भारत के राज्य क्षेत्र में हुआ है, तो वह भारत का नागरिक है।
ऐसे व्यक्ति जो संविधान लागू होने के पांच वर्ष से भारत में रहते हैं भारत के नागरिक होंगे।
पाकिस्तान से भारत आने वाले व्यक्तियों के लिए संविधान में वर्णन किया गया है कि 19 जुलाई, 1948 से पूर्व आने वाले ऐसे व्यक्ति जिनका माता-पिता, दादा-दादी, नाना-नानी या इनमें से कोई एक अथवा स्वयं अविभाजित भारत में जन्मे हों, तो उन्हें भारत का नागरिक माना जाएगा। 19 जुलाई, 1948 के बाद पाकिस्तान से भारत आने वाले व्यक्तियों को नागरिकता प्राप्त करने के लिए सरकार द्वारा नियुक्त अधिकारी को नागरिकता प्राप्त करने के लिए प्रार्थनापत्र देना होगा।
विदेशों में बसने वाले ऐसे भारतीय जिनका स्वयं का, अथवा जिनके माता-पिता, दादा-दादी, नाना-नानी में से किसी का जन्म अविभाजित भारत में हुआ है और वे भारतीय नागरिकता प्राप्त करना चाहते हैं तो ऐसे भारतीय अपना नाम भारतीय दूतावास में दर्ज करा लें। ऐसा करने पर उन्हें भारत की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जायेगी।

प्रश्न 17.
भारतीय नागरिकता अधिनियम, 1955 की मुख्य व्यवस्थाएं लिखो।
अथवा भारतीय नागरिकता कैसे प्राप्त की जा सकती है ?
उत्तर-
विदेशियों को भारतीय नागरिकता प्राप्ति के सम्बन्ध में भारतीय संसद् ने 1955 में ‘नागरिकता अधिनियम’ (Citizenship Acquisition Act) पारित किया। इस अधिनियम में निम्नलिखित व्यवस्थाएं हैं-

भारत की नागरिकता प्राप्त करने का इच्छुक व्यक्ति किसी ऐसे देश का नागरिक नहीं होना चाहिए जो भारतीयों को नागरिकता प्रदान नहीं करता।
भारत की नागरिकता प्राप्त करने का इच्छुक व्यक्ति नागरिकता के लिए प्रार्थना-पत्र देने की तारीख से पहले वह या तो एक वर्ष तक भारत में निवास करता रहा हो अथवा सरकारी सेवा में रहा हो।
उपर्युक्त एक वर्ष से पहले के सात वर्षों के भीतर वह भारत में कुल मिलाकर कम-से-कम 4 वर्ष रहा हो या 4 वर्ष तक सरकारी सेवा में रहा हो।
भारत की नागरिकता प्राप्त करने का इच्छुक व्यक्ति अच्छे चरित्र का व्यक्ति हो।
संविधान की 8वीं अनुसूची में दी गई भाषाओं में से किसी एक भाषा का ज्ञान होना चाहिए।
भारत की नागरिकता प्राप्त कर लेने के पश्चात् वह या तो भारत में निवास करने अथवा यहां किसी सरकारी सेवा में बने रहने का इरादा रखता हो।
यदि किसी विदेशी ने विज्ञान, कला, दर्शन, साहित्य, विश्व-शान्ति अथवा मानव विकास के क्षेत्र में कोई विशेष योग्यता प्राप्त कर ली है तो उसे उपर्युक्त शर्तों को पूरा किए बिना भारत का नागरिक बनाया जा सकता है।

प्रश्न 18.
नागरिक और देशीय शब्द में अन्तर स्पष्ट करें।
उत्तर-
साधारण भाषा में नागरिक उस व्यक्ति को कहते हैं जो किसी नगर की निश्चित परिधि के अन्दर निवास करता है। अतः इस अर्थ के अनुसार जो व्यक्ति गांवों में रहते हैं, उन्हें नागरिक नहीं कहा जा सकता। परन्तु आधुनिक युग में नागरिक शब्द का यह अर्थ नहीं लिया जाता है। नागरिक उस व्यक्ति को कहा जाता है जिसे राज्य में राजनीतिक तथा सामाजिक अधिकार प्राप्त होते हैं। भारत में 18 वर्ष के पुरुष और स्त्री को मत देने का अधिकार प्राप्त है। वह व्यक्ति नगर निवासी भी हो सकता है और ग्रामीण भी।

देशीय (National) राज्य का सदस्य होता है परन्तु उसे वे सारे अधिकार प्राप्त नहीं होते हैं जोकि एक नागरिक को प्राप्त होते हैं। उदाहरण के लिए देशीय को सामाजिक तथा आर्थिक अधिकार तो प्राप्त होते हैं परन्तु उसे राजनीतिक अधिकार प्राप्त नहीं होते हैं। जब उसे राजनीतिक अधिकार प्राप्त हो जाते हैं तो वह नागरिक बन जाता है। प्राय: यह अधिकार एक निश्चित आयु जैसे भारत में 18 वर्ष की आयु प्राप्त करने पर मिल जाता है। भारत में 18 वर्ष की आयु से कम आयु वाले व्यक्ति देशीय हैं, इन्हें नागरिक नहीं कहा जा सकता है।

प्रश्न 19.
विदेशी कितने प्रकार के होते हैं ?
उत्तर-
विदेशी तीन प्रकार के होते हैं

स्थायी विदेशी (Resident Aliens)—स्थायी विदेशी उन व्यक्तियों को कहा जाता है जो अपने देश को छोड़कर दूसरे देश में बस जाते हैं। वे अपना व्यवसाय वहीं आरम्भ कर देते हैं। उनमें अपने देश वापिस जाने की इच्छा नहीं होती अर्थात् उनका निश्चय स्थायी रूप से वहीं रहने का होता है। जब उन्हें नागरिकता मिल जाती है तब वे उस राज्य के नागरिक बन जाते हैं। भारत के अनेक नागरिक कनाडा, इंग्लैंड तथा दक्षिणी अफ्रीका में जाकर स्थायी रूप से बस गए हैं।
अस्थायी विदेशी (Temporary Aliens) अस्थायी विदेशी उन व्यक्तियों को कहा जाता है जो सैर करने के लिए या किसी उद्देश्य के लिए दूसरे राज्य में थोड़े समय के लिए जाते हैं और फिर अपने देश वापिस लौट आते
राजदूत (Ambassadors)-एक राज्य के दूसरे राज्यों के साथ कूटनीतिक सम्बन्ध होते हैं। इन सम्बन्धों की स्थापना राजदूतों के आदान-प्रदान करके होती है। दूसरे देशों के राजदूत हमारे देश में आकर रहते हैं और हमारे देश के राजदूत दूसरे देशों में जाकर रहते हैं। परन्तु राजदूतों पर उनके देश का ही कानून लागू होता है। राजदूत भी विदेशी होते हैं। परन्तु राजदूतों को अन्य विदेशियों की अपेक्षा सरकार से बहुत सुविधाएं प्राप्त होती हैं।

अति लघु उत्तरीय प्रश्न-

प्रश्न 2.
नागरिक की कोई दो परिभाषाएं दीजिए।
उत्तर-

अरस्तु के अनुसार, “नागरिक उस व्यक्ति को कहा जाता है, जिसे राज्य के शासन प्रबन्ध विभाग तथा न्याय-विभाग में भाग लेने का पूर्ण अधिकार है।” ।
वाटल के अनुसार, “नागरिक किसी राज्य के सदस्य होते हैं, जो कुछ कर्तव्यों द्वारा राजनीतिक समाज में बन्धे होते हैं तथा इससे प्राप्त होने वाले लाभ के बराबर के हिस्सेदार होते हैं।”

प्रश्न 3.
नागरिक की कोई दो विशेषताएं बताइए।
उत्तर-
नागरिक के लिए निम्नलिखित बातों का होना आवश्यक है-

नागरिक किसी राज्य का सदस्य होता है।
नागरिक अपने राज्य में स्थायी रूप से रह सकता है।

प्रश्न 4.
नागरिक और विदेशी में दो अन्तर बताएं।
उत्तर-

नागरिक राज्य का सदस्य होता है, जिस कारण उसे निश्चित नागरिकता तथा कुछ अधिकार प्राप्त होते हैं परन्तु विदेशी राज्य का सदस्य नहीं होता।
नागरिक को अपने राज्य के प्रति वफादार होना पड़ता है, परन्तु विदेशी उस राज्य के प्रति वफादारी नहीं दिखाता।

प्रश्न 5.
नागरिकता का अर्थ लिखें।
उत्तर-
आज नागरिकता केवल राज्य के प्रशासन में भाग लेने वाले को प्राप्त न होकर बल्कि विकास के आधार पर प्राप्त होती है। समस्त व्यक्ति बिना जात-पात, लिंग या ग्राम या नगर के निवास तथा सम्पत्ति के भेद-भाव के बिना आधुनिक राज्यों के नागरिक माने जाते हैं। राज्य के प्रशासन में प्रत्यक्ष तौर पर भाग लेना अनिवार्य नहीं है। नागरिकता उस वैधानिक या कानूनी सम्बन्ध का नाम है जो व्यक्ति को उस राज्य के साथ, जिसका वह नागरिक है, सम्बद्ध करता है।

प्रश्न 6.
नागरिकता की कोई दो परिभाषा दें।
उत्तर-
लॉस्की के शब्दों में, “अपनी सुलझी हुई बुद्धि को जन-हितों के लिए प्रयोग करना ही नागरिकता है।” गैटेल के अनुसार “नागरिकता व्यक्ति की उस अवस्था को कहते हैं जिसके कारण वह अपने राज्य में राष्ट्रीय और राजनीतिक अधिकारों का प्रयोग कर सकता है और कर्त्तव्य के पालन के लिए तैयार रहता है।” बायड के अनुसार “नागरिकता अपनी वफ़ादारियों को ठीक निभाना है।”

प्रश्न 7.
नागरिकता की दो प्रमुख विशेषताएं बताओ।
उत्तर-

राज्य की सदस्यता-नागरिकता की प्रथम विशेषता यह है कि नागरिक को किसी राज्य का सदस्य होना आवश्यक होता है।
सर्वव्यापकता-आधुनिक नागरिकता की एक महत्त्वपूर्ण विशेषता सर्वव्यापकता है। यह न केवल नगर निवासी बल्कि ग्रामों के लोगों, स्त्रियों व पुरुषों को भी प्राप्त होती है।

प्रश्न 8.
नागरिकता प्राप्त करने के दो ढंग लिखो।
उत्तर-

निश्चित समय के लिए निवास-यदि कोई व्यक्ति किसी दूसरे देश में जाकर बहुत समय के लिए रहे तो वह प्रार्थना-पत्र देकर वहां की नागरिकता प्राप्त कर सकता है।
विवाह-विवाह करने से भी नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है। यदि कोई स्त्री किसी दूसरे देश के नागरिक से विवाह कर लेती है तो उसे अपने पति की नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है।

प्रश्न 9.
नागरिकता किन दो कारणों द्वारा छीनी जा सकती है ?
उत्तर-

लम्बे समय तक अनुपस्थिति-कई देशों में यह नियम है कि यदि उनका नागरिक लम्बे समय तक बाहर रहे तो उसकी नागरिकता समाप्त कर दी जाती है।
विवाह-स्त्रियां विदेशी नागरिकों से विवाह करके अपनी नागरिकता खो बैठती हैं।

प्रश्न 10.
आदर्श नागरिकता के दो गुण लिखें।
उत्तर-

शिक्षा-अच्छा नागरिक बनने के लिए व्यक्ति का सुशिक्षित होना आवश्यक है।
सामाजिक भावना-एक अच्छे नागरिक में सामाजिक भावना का होना भी आवश्यक है। नागरिक समाज में पहले आया तथा राज्य में बाद में। समाज के बिना उसकी आवश्यकताओं की पूर्ति तथा विकास नहीं हो सकता।

वस्तुनिष्ठ प्रश्न-

प्रश्न I. एक शब्द/वाक्य वाले प्रश्न-उत्तर-

प्रश्न 1. नागरिक को अंग्रेज़ी में क्या कहते हैं ?
उत्तर-नागरिक को अंग्रेज़ी में सिटीज़न (Citizen) कहते हैं।

प्रश्न 2. सिटीजन का क्या अर्थ लिया जाता है ?
उत्तर-सिटीज़न का अर्थ है-नगर-निवासी।

प्रश्न 3. आदर्श नागरिक के कोई दो गुण लिखें।
उत्तर-

सामाजिक भावना से परिपूर्ण
प्रगतिशील तथा परिश्रमी।

प्रश्न 4. आदर्श नागरिक के मार्ग में आने वाली कोई दो बाधाएं लिखें।
उत्तर-

अनपढ़ता
सांप्रदायिकता।

प्रश्न 5. आदर्श नागरिकता के मार्ग में आने वाली बाधाओं को दूर करने के कोई दो उपाय लिखें।
उत्तर-

शिक्षा का प्रसार
समान अधिकारों की प्राप्ति।

प्रश्न 6. “नागरिक वह व्यक्ति है, जिसको राज्य के कानून सम्बन्धी विचार-विमर्श और न्याय प्रबन्ध में भाग लेने का अधिकार है।” यह कथन किसका है?
उत्तर- अरस्तु।

प्रश्न 7. ‘अपनी सुलझी हुई बुद्धि को जनहितों के लिए प्रयोग करना ही नागरिकता है।’ यह कथन किसका है?
उत्तर-लॉस्की।

प्रश्न 8. किन्हीं दो साधनों के नाम लिखें, जिनसे राज्यकृत नागरिकता प्राप्त की जा सकती है?
उत्तर-

विवाह
सरकारी नौकरी ।

प्रश्न 9. किन्हीं दो साधनो का नाम लिखें, जिनसे नागरिकता समाप्त हो सकती है?
उत्तर-

लंबी अनुपस्थिति
पराजय द्वारा।

प्रश्न 10. नागरिकता के उदारवादी सिद्धान्त का समर्थन किसने किया?
उत्तर-टी० एच० मार्शल।

प्रश्न 11. नागरिकता के स्वेच्छातंत्रवादी सिद्धान्त का समर्थन किसने किया?
उत्तर-राबर्ट नॉजिक।

प्रश्न 12. नागरिकता के बहुलवादी सिद्धान्त का समर्थन किसने किया?
उत्तर-डेविड हैल्ड ने।

प्रश्न 13. नागरिक की कोई एक विशेषता लिखें।
उत्तर-नागरिक को राज्य की ओर से कुछ अधिकार मिले होते हैं, जिन्हें वह अपने और समाज कल्याण के लिए प्रयोग करता है।

प्रश्न 14. नागरिकता की कोई एक विशेषता लिखें।
उत्तर-नागरिकता सर्वव्यापक होती है।

प्रश्न II. खाली स्थान भरें-

1. नागरिक शब्द को अंग्रेज़ी में …………. कहते हैं।
2. दीर्घ निवास नागरिकता प्राप्त करने का एक ……….. है।
3. पराजय द्वारा …………… समाप्त हो सकती है।
4. नागरिकता का उदारवादी सिद्धान्त …………… ने दिया।
5. नागरिकता का स्वेच्छातंत्रवादी सिद्धान्त …………. ने दिया।
6. नागरिकता का बहुलवादी सिद्धान्त …………… ने दिया।
उत्तर-

सिटीज़न
साधन
नागरिकता
टी० एच० मार्शल
राबर्ट नॉजिक
डेविड हैल्ड।

प्रश्न III. निम्नलिखित में से सही एवं ग़लत का चुनाव करें-

1. नागरिक को राज्य की ओर से कुछ अधिकार मिले होते हैं।
2. नागरिक कर्त्तव्यों का पालन नहीं करते।
3. नागरिक अपने राज्य के प्रति वफादारी रखता है।
4. ब्राजील में सम्पत्ति खरीदने से भी नागरिकता प्राप्त हो जाती है।
5. एक अच्छे नागरिक में सामाजिक भावना का होना आवश्यक नहीं है।
उत्तर-

सही
ग़लत
सही
सही
गलत।

प्रश्न IV. बहुविकल्पीय प्रश्न-

प्रश्न 1.
“नागरिक वह व्यक्ति है जिसको राज्य के कानून संबंधी विचार-विमर्श और न्याय प्रबंध में भाग लेने का अधिकार है।” यह कथन किसका है ?
(क) अरस्तु
(ख) श्री निवास शास्त्री
(ग) प्लेटो
(घ) वाटल।
उत्तर-
(क) अरस्तु।

प्रश्न 2.
“अपनी सुलझी हुई बुद्धि को जनहित के लिए प्रयोग करना ही नागरिकता है”-यह कथन किसका है ?
(क) डेविस हैल्ड
(ख) लॉस्की
(ग) गैटल
(घ) श्री निवास शास्त्री।
उत्तर-
(ख) लॉस्की।

प्रश्न 3.
निम्न में से कौन-सा राज्यकृत नागरिकता प्राप्त करने का साधन है ?
(क) विवाह
(ख) सरकारी नौकरी
(ग) दीर्घ निवास
(घ) उपरोक्त सभी।
उत्तर-
(घ) उपरोक्त सभी।

प्रश्न 4.
निम्न में से कौन-सा नागरिकता खोने का साधन है ?
(क) दीर्घ निवास
(ख) सरकारी नौकरी
(ग) सेना में भर्ती
(घ) लंबी अनुपस्थिति।
उत्तर-
(घ) लंबी अनुपस्थिति।

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Solutions Chapter 6 समाजीकरण

September 20, 2024September 19, 2024 by Prasanna

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 6 समाजीकरण Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 6 समाजीकरण

पाठ्य-पुस्तक के प्रश्न (Textual Questions)

I. निम्नलिखित प्रश्नों के उत्तर 1-15 शब्दों में दीजिए :

प्रश्न 1.
समाजीकरण से आप क्या समझते हो ?
उत्तर-
वह प्रक्रिया जिसके द्वारा व्यक्ति समाज में रहने के तथा जीवन जीने के तरीके सीखता है।

प्रश्न 2.
समाजीकरण के स्तरों के नाम लिखो।
उत्तर-
बाल अवस्था, शैशवास्था, किशोरावस्था, युवावस्था तथा वृद्धावस्था।

प्रश्न 3.
किशोरावस्था क्या है ?
उत्तर-
वह अवस्था जो 12-13 वर्ष से शुरू होकर 18-19 वर्ष तक चलती है तथा व्यक्ति में शारीरिक परिवर्तन आते हैं।

प्रश्न 4.
शिशु अवस्था क्या है ?
उत्तर-
वह अवस्था जो पैदा होने से शुरू होकर एक-डेढ़ वर्ष तक चलती है तथा बच्चा अपनी आवश्यकताओं के लिए अन्य लोगों पर निर्भर होता है।

प्रश्न 5.
समाजीकरण की प्राथमिक अभिकरण (संस्थाएं) कौन-सी हैं ?
उत्तर-
परिवार, स्कूल तथा खेल समूह समाजीकरण के प्राथमिक साधन हैं।

प्रश्न 6.
समाजीकरण की औपचारिक संस्था के दो उदाहरण लिखो।
उत्तर-
सरकार, न्यायालय, कानून, राजनीतिक व्यवस्था इत्यादि।

प्रश्न 7.
समाजीकरण की अनौपचारिक संस्था के दो उदाहरण लिखो।
उत्तर-
परिवार, संस्थाएं, धर्म, खेल-समूह इत्यादि।

II. निम्नलिखित प्रश्नों के उत्तर 30-35 शब्दों में दीजिए :

प्रश्न 1.
समाजीकरण को परिभाषित कीजिए।
उत्तर-
बोर्गाडस (Bogardus) के अनुसार, “समाजीकरण वह प्रक्रिया है जिसके द्वारा व्यक्ति मानवीय कल्याण के लिए निश्चित रूप से मिलकर व्यवहार करना सीखते हैं तथा ऐसा करने से वह आत्मनियन्त्रण, सामाजिक उत्तरदायित्व तथा संतुलित व्यक्तित्व का अनुभव करते हैं।”

प्रश्न 2.
समाजीकरण के स्तरों को लिखिए।
उत्तर-

शिशु अवस्था (Infancy)
बचपन अवस्था (Childhood stage)
किशोरावस्था (Adolescent stage)
युवावस्था (Adulthood stage)
वृद्धावस्था (Old age)।

प्रश्न 3.
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया में परिवार की भूमिका पर विचार-विमर्श करो।
उत्तर-
व्यक्ति के समाजीकरण में परिवार का विशेष स्थान है। बच्चे के अचेतन मन पर जो प्रभाव परिवार का पड़ता है वह किसी और का नहीं पड़ता है। परिवार में बच्चा कई प्रकार की भावनाओं जैसे कि प्यार, हमदर्दी इत्यादि सीखता है। परिवार ही बच्चे को परंपराएं, रीति-रिवाज, कीमतें, रहने-सहने के तरीके सिखाता है जिससे उसका समाजीकरण होता है।

प्रश्न 4.
समाजीकरण की तीन औपचारिक संस्थाएं लिखो।
उत्तर-
पुलिस, कानून और राजनीतिक व्यवस्था समाजीकरण के तीन औपचारिक साधन हैं। अगर कोई व्यक्ति अपराध करता है तो पुलिस उसे पकड़ लेती है। फिर कानूनों की सहायता से उस व्यक्ति को कठोर सज़ा दी जाती है। हमारी राजनीतिक व्यवस्था कठोर कानूनों का निर्माण करती है ताकि व्यक्ति अपराध न करें। इस प्रकार इनसे डर कर व्यक्ति अपराध नहीं करता और उसका समाजीकरण हो जाता है।

प्रश्न 5.
प्राथमिक समाजीकरण को संक्षिप्त रूप में लिखो।
उत्तर-
परिवार तथा खेल समूह व्यक्ति का प्राथमिक समाजीकरण करते हैं। परिवार में रह कर बच्चा समाज में रहने के, जीवन जीने के तौर-तरीके सीखता है तथा समाज का अच्छा नागरिक बनता है। खेल समूह में रहकर उसे पता चलता है कि उसकी तरह अन्य बच्चे भी हैं तथा उनका ध्यान भी रखना पड़ता है। इस तरह उसका समाजीकरण होता रहता है।

प्रश्न 6.
मास मीडिया समाजीकरण की संस्था है चर्चा करो।
उत्तर-
आजकल व्यक्ति के जीवन में मास मीडिया का महत्त्व काफ़ी बढ़ गया है। अलग-अलग समाचार-पत्र, खबरों के चैनल लगातार 24 घण्टे चलते रहते हैं तथा हमें अलग-अलग प्रकार की जानकारी देते हैं। इनसे हमें संसार में होने वाली घटनाओं के बारे में पता चलता रहता है जिससे उसका समाजीकरण होता रहता है।

III. निम्नलिखित प्रश्नों के उत्तर 75-85 शब्दों में दीजिए :

प्रश्न 1.
समाजीकरण की विशेषताओं पर विचार-विमर्श कीजिए।
उत्तर-

समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया एक सर्वव्यापक प्रक्रिया है जो प्रत्येक समाज में एक जैसे रूप में ही मौजूद है।
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया एक सीखने वाली प्रक्रिया है जिसमें व्यक्ति तमाम आयु सीखता रहता है।
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया के अलग-अलग स्तर होते हैं तथा इसके अलग-अलग स्तरों में सीखने की प्रक्रिया भी अलग-अलग होती है।
जवान होने के पश्चात् समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया में सीखने की प्रक्रिया कम हो जाती है परन्तु यह मृत्यु तक चलती रहती है।
समाजीकरण के बहुत से साधन होते हैं परन्तु परिवार सबसे महत्त्वपूर्ण साधन होते हैं जो उसमें महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाता है।

प्रश्न 2.
समाजीकरण में क्रीड़ा समूह की महत्ता क्या है ?
उत्तर-
परिवार के बाद समाजीकरण के साधन के रूप में क्रीड़ा समूह की बारी आती है। बच्चा घर से बाहर निकलकर अपने मित्रों के साथ खेलने जाता है तथा क्रीड़ा समूह बनाता है। खेल समूह में ही बच्चे की सामाजिक शिक्षा शुरू हो जाती है। यहाँ वह सब कुछ सीखता है जो वह परिवार में नहीं सीख सकता। यहाँ उसे अपनी इच्छाओं का त्याग करना पड़ता है तथा उसे पता चल जाता है कि उसकी तरह अन्य लोगों की भी इच्छाएं होती हैं। खेल समूह में समानता वाले संबंध होते हैं। इसलिए जब वह क्रीड़ा समूह में भाग लेता है तो वह वहाँ अनुमान तथा . सहयोग सीखता है। यह उसके भविष्य पर प्रभाव डालते हैं। यहाँ उसमें नेता जैसे गुण उत्पन्न हो जाते हैं। खेलते समय बच्चे लड़ते भी हैं। साथ ही वह दूसरों के अधिकारों की रक्षा करना भी सीखते हैं। इस प्रकार समाजीकरण में खेल समूह का काफ़ी महत्त्व है।

प्रश्न 3.
युवावस्था तथा वृद्धावस्था में समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया को दर्शाइए।
उत्तर-
युवावस्था-समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया में इस स्तर का काफ़ी महत्त्वपूर्ण स्थान है। इस अवस्था में वह दूसरों के साथ अनुकूलन करना सीखता है। यहाँ उसके आगे जीवन का सबसे महत्त्वपूर्ण प्रश्न पेशा ढूंढ़ना होता है। पेशा ढूंढ़ते समय इसे कई स्थानों पर नकार दिया जाता है परन्तु वह हार नहीं मानता तथा लगातार प्रयास करता है। इससे वह काफ़ी कुछ सीखता है। विवाह तथा बच्चे होने के पश्चात् उसकी भूमिकाएं बदल जाती हैं जो उसे काफी कुछ सिखाती हैं।

वृद्धावस्था-इस अवस्था में आकर उसे जीवन के नए पाठ सीखने पड़ते हैं। उसे पता चल जाता है कि अब वह अपने परिवार पर निर्भर है, उसे कई प्रकार की बीमारियां लग जाती हैं तथा उसे जीवन से नए ढंग से अनुकूलन करना सीखना पड़ता है। उसे अपने बच्चों के अनुसार जीवन व्यतीत करना पड़ता है जिससे कई प्रकार की समस्याएं उत्पन्न हो जाती हैं तथा वह इनसे तालमेल बिठाने का प्रयास करता रहता है।

IV. निम्नलिखित प्रश्नों के उत्तर 250-300 शब्दों में दें:

प्रश्न 1.
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया के द्वारा एक व्यक्ति के विकास पर विचार-विमर्श कीजिए।
उत्तर-
व्यक्ति समाज में रहने के योग्य कैसे बनता के यह लोगों एवं पदार्थों के सम्पर्क में आने से बनता है। जब एक बच्चा पैदा होता है तो उसमें कोई भी सामाजिक कार्य करने की योग्यता नहीं होती और वह अपने आसपास की वस्तुओं के प्रति अनजान सा होता है। परन्तु धीरे-धीरे वह अपने आस-पास की वस्तुओं की तरफ़ ध्यान देने लग पड़ता है। बच्चा आरम्भ में जिन व्यक्तियों के द्वारा घिरा रहता है उन्हीं के कारण ही सामाजिक व्यक्ति बन जाता है क्योंकि यही उसके आस-पास के व्यक्ति उसको रहने-सहने के बारे में सिखाते हैं और रहन-सहन के नियम बताते हैं। वह दूसरों का अनुसरण करता है और अपने एवं दूसरों के कार्यों की तुलना करता है।

धीरे-धीरे अपने अनुभव से वह सीखता है कि अन्य लोग भी उसी की तरह हैं और अपनी भावनाएं एवं आनन्द दूसरों को दिखाता है। यह वह उस समय करता है जब उसको महसूस होता है कि अन्यों की भी उस की तरह ही भावनाएं हैं। इस तरह जब वह इधर-उधर घूमने लगता है तो वह प्रत्येक वस्तु जो उसको सामने आती है को जानने की कोशिश करता है कि वह क्या है? और क्यों है इस तरह माता-पिता इशारों से बच्चों को अवस्थाओं के बारे में समझाते हैं कि वह चीज़ गलत है और वह चीज़ ठीक है। धीरे-धीरे बच्चे को मन्दिर जाना, स्कूल जाना, शिक्षा आदि के बारे में बताया जाता है उसको स्कूल भेजा जाता है, जहां पर वह अन्य अवस्थाओं के बारे में अनुकूलन करना सीखता है और ज़िन्दगी के प्रत्येक उस तरीके को सीखता है, जो उसके जीवन जीने के लिये आवश्यक हैं। इस तरह समाज में एक सदस्य धीरे-धीरे बड़ा होकर समाज के नियमों को सीखता है।

बच्चे का सबसे पहला सम्बन्ध अपने परिवार के साथ होता है। पैदा होने के बाद उसकी सबसे पहली आवश्यकता उसकी भौतिक आवश्यकताएं, भूख, प्यास इत्यादि होती हैं। उसकी रुचि अपनी मां में सबसे अधिक होती है क्योंकि वह उसकी भौतिक आवश्यकताएं पूरी करती है। मां के पश्चात् ही परिवार के अन्य सदस्य पिता, भाई, बहन, चाचा-चाची, दादा-दादी आते हैं। ये सभी सदस्य उसको संसार के बारे में बताते हैं जिसमें उसको अपना सम्पूर्ण जीवन व्यतीत करना होता है और परिवार में ही रहकर उसे प्यार, शक्ति, अधिकार आदि वस्तुओं का अनुभव होता है क्योंकि यह सब कुछ उसे परिवार में ही मिलता है।

आरम्भ में बच्चे को जो भी कुछ चीज़ उसे पसन्द होती है वह उसे प्राप्त करना चाहता है क्योंकि वह उस पर अपना अधिकार समझता है। वस्तुएं न मिलने पर वह रोता है और ज़िद्द भी करता है। दो या तीन वर्ष की आयु में आते-आते उसे समझ आने लग जाती है कि जिन वस्तुओं पर वह अधिकार समझता है वह किसी और की भी हो सकती हैं और वह उसको प्राप्त नहीं कर सकता। वह मनमानी करने की कोशिश भी करता है तो उसकी माता उसे शुरू में मना करती है। आरम्भ में वस्तुओं की प्राप्ति न होने से उसे निराशा अनुभव होती है। परन्तु धीरेधीरे वह अपनी निराशा पर नियन्त्रण रखने लगता है। बच्चा अपनी आवश्यकताओं की पूर्ति के लिए परिवार पर निर्भर करता है जिनके लिए उसे अपने परिवार का सहयोग प्राप्त करना आवश्यक होता है। उनका सहयोग उसे स्वयं नियंत्रण से ही प्राप्त हो जाता है और वह समाज के प्रतिमानों, परिमापों का आदर करना सीखता है जो कि उसके लिये समाज में रहने एवं व्यवहार करने के लिये आवश्यक है।

जब व्यक्ति का विकास होता है तो वह समाज के तौर तरीके, शिष्टाचार, बोल-चाल, उठने-बैठने एवं व्यवहार करने के तरीके सीखता है। इसके साथ ही उसके स्वैः (Self) का विकास होता है। जब व्यक्ति अपने कार्यों के प्रति चेतन हो जाता है तो इसे चेतना का स्वैः (Self) कहते हैं। आरम्भ में वह अपने एवं पराये में भेदभाव नहीं समझता, क्योंकि उसे दुनियादारी व रिश्तों का पता नहीं होता। परन्तु धीरे-धीरे जब वह अन्यों एवं परिवार के अन्य सदस्यों के साथ अन्तक्रिया करता है तो इस बारे में भी सीख जाता है। परिवार के सदस्यों के पश्चात् उसके अन्य साथी या मित्र मिलते हैं। यह मित्र अलग-अलग अवस्थाओं में पलकर बड़े हुए होते हैं। इन सभी साथियों के भिन्नभिन्न आदर्श होते हैं और बच्चा धीरे-धीरे इनको सीखता है और कठिन अवस्थाओं से तालमेल करता है जोकि समाजीकरण की ही एक प्रक्रिया का नाम है। यहां पर बच्चे की ज़िन्दगी में एक अन्य महत्त्वपूर्ण परिवर्तन आता है, जब वह स्कूल में पढ़ने के लिये जाता है। स्कूल में उसके ऊपर अन्य विद्यार्थियों एवं अध्यापकों के आचरण का प्रभाव पड़ता है। इस प्रकार वह कॉलेज के प्रोफ़ैसरों से नौजवान लड़के एवं लड़कियों से उठना बैठना, विचार करना, व्यवहार करने के तरीके सीखता है जो कि उसकी आगे की ज़िन्दगी के लिये आवश्यक हैं।

कॉलेज के बाद व्यवसाय, विवाह इत्यादि के साथ उसका समाजीकरण होता है जो इस कार्य में महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाते हैं। पति पत्नी का एक-दूसरे के व्यक्तित्व पर काफ़ी प्रभाव पड़ता है। विवाहोपरान्त व्यक्ति को कई नई जिम्मेदारियां जैसे-पति और पिता की देखभाल करनी पड़ती है। यह नयी जिम्मेदारियां उसे काफ़ी कुछ सिखाती हैं। इस प्रकार समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया उसके जन्म से लेकर मृत्यु तक चलती रहती है। व्यक्ति यद्यपि मर जाता है, परन्तु समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया समाप्त नहीं होती।

प्रश्न 2.
समाजीकरण के विभिन्न स्तरों के बारे में लिखिए।
उत्तर-
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया काफ़ी व्यापक होती है। यह बच्चे के जन्म से ही आरम्भ हो जाती है। बच्चा जब जन्म लेता है तो वह पशु से अधिक कुछ नहीं होता है। क्योंकि उसे समाज के तौर-तरीकों का ज्ञान नहीं होता है। परन्तु जैसे-जैसे बच्चा बड़ा होता है, उसकी समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया भी साथ-साथ चलती रहती है और वह सामाजिक जीवन के अनुसार ढलता रहता है। वह समाज के आदर्शों, कीमतों, परिमापों, नियमों, विश्वासों एवं प्रेरणाओं को ग्रहण करता रहता है। बच्चा जब जन्म लेता है तो उसमें सहज प्रवृत्ति होती है। परन्तु समाज के सम्पर्क में आने के पश्चात् वह प्रवृत्तियां आदतों में परिवर्तित हो जाती हैं। यह सब कुछ अलग-अलग समय पर होता है। समाजीकरण के अलग-अलग समय पर अलग-अलग स्तर होते हैं जो इस प्रकार हैं-

शिशु अवस्था (Infant Stage)
बचपन अवस्था (Childhood Stage)
किशोरावस्था (Adolescent Stage)
युवावस्था (Adulthood Stage) 5. वृद्धावस्था (Old Age)

1. शिशु अवस्था (Infant Stage)—पहली अवस्था की व्याख्या करते हुए जानसन ने कहा है कि ये अवस्था बच्चे के जन्म से लेकर डेढ़ साल तक ही होती है। इस अवस्था में बच्चा न तो बोल सकता है और न ही चलफिर सकता है। इसके अतिरिक्त वह अपनी आवश्यकताओं की पूर्ति भी स्वयं नहीं कर सकता। उसको अपनी मां पर ही निर्भर रहना पड़ता है। यह अवस्था ऐसी अवस्था होती है कि वह वस्तुओं का विभेदीकरण नहीं कर सकता। भूख, प्यास आदि की आवश्यकता के लिए वह अपने परिवार के सदस्यों पर निर्भर रहता है। जो भी वस्तु उसे अच्छी लगती है वह उस पर नियन्त्रण रखना चाहता है और अधिकार समझता है। पारसन्स ने भी इस अवस्था को आरम्भिक पहचान की अवस्था कहा है। अधिकांश तौर पर वह अपनी मां को पूर्ण तौर पर पहचान लेता है और उसके सम्पर्क में खुशी और आनन्द प्राप्त करता है। उसकी काल्पनिक और वास्तविक अवस्था में कोई अन्तर नहीं होता।

2. बचपन अवस्था (Childhood Stage)-यह अवस्था डेढ़ साल से 12-13 साल तक चलती है। बच्चा इस अवस्था में अच्छी तरह बोलना व चलना सीख लेता है। कुछ सीमा तक वह अपनी आवश्यकताओं की पूर्ति स्वयं करने लग पड़ता है। 2 साल की आयु तक पहुंचते-पहुंचते वह समझने लग पड़ता है कि उसके अतिरिक्त अन्य बच्चों के भी अधिकार हैं और वह जितनी भी कोशिश कर ले सभी वस्तुओं को प्राप्त नहीं कर सकता। अपनी इच्छाओं की पूर्ति न होने पर उसे बार-बार निराशा होती है। इस निराशा के कारण ही वह अपने ऊपर नियन्त्रण रखना सीख जाता है। इस समय में उसे सज़ा और इनाम देकर अच्छी आदतें डालने की कोशिश की जाती है। इस समय में वह प्यार की कीमतें सीख जाता है और अपने परिवार के सदस्यों का अनुकरण करने लग पड़ता है।

इस अवस्था में बच्चा कुछ-कुछ कार्य स्वयं करने लग जाता है। उदाहरण के तौर पर बच्चा जब मलमूत्र करता है या तो वह पहले बता देता है या फिर बाद में इस बारे में सफ़ाई की ओर इशारा करने लग पड़ता है। कई बार ज़ोर से रोने भी लग जाता है। इस अवस्था में वह बोलने भी लग पड़ता है और चलने भी। वह अपनी इच्छाओं पर भी नियन्त्रण रखने लग जाता है। इस अवस्था में इनाम एवं सज़ा (Reward & Punishment) आदि के द्वारा बच्चे को अच्छी आदतों को ग्रहण करने की सीख दी जाती है। उदाहरण के लिए जब बच्चा माता-पिता की आवाज़ सुनकर उनके कहने के अनुसार कार्य करता है तो माता-पिता प्रसन्न होकर उसे इनाम भी देते हैं और कहते हैं कि कितना अच्छा बच्चा है।

दूसरी तरफ़ जब वह कोई गलत कार्य करता है तो उसे गुस्सा किया जाता है और कई बार थप्पड़ भी लग जाता है। इस अवस्था में वह अपने परिवार की कीमतों को ग्रहण करना आरम्भ कर देता है। उसके ऊपर परिवार के दूसरे सदस्यों का भी प्रभाव पड़ने लग जाता है। वह परिवार की कई बातें तो स्वाभाविक रूप में ही सीख जाता है। इसमें वह प्यार लेना एवं प्यार देना भी सीख जाता है। कुछ बातें तो वह नकल करके भी सीख जाता है। नकल करना उसके लिये मनोरंजन का साधन होता है। जैसे वह अपने पिता को अखबार पढ़ते हुए देखता है तो वह स्वयं भी अखबार पढ़ने लग जाता है। इस अवस्था में वह परिवार के विभिन्न सदस्यों को जैसे करते हुए देखता है वह भी उनकी तरह व्यवहार करने लग जाता है। ‘पारसन्स’ ने इस अवस्था को ‘दोहरा कार्य ग्रहण’ करने का भी नाम दिया है। इस अवस्था में बच्चे के अन्दरूनी गुणों का विकास होने लग जाता है व इस प्रकार बच्चे के द्वारा ठीक एवं गलत कार्यों की पहचान करनी भी आरम्भ हो जाती है।’

3. किशोरावस्था (Adolescence)—यह अवस्था 14-15 साल से लेकर 20-21 वर्ष तक चलती है। इस आयु में पहुंचने पर माता-पिता का बच्चों पर नियन्त्रण नहीं रहता क्योंकि बच्चों को भी लगता है कि उन्हें और अधिक स्वतन्त्रता की आवश्यकता है और वह और अधिक स्वतन्त्रता की मांग भी करते हैं। अब उनके अंग विकसित होने लग जाते हैं और इनके अंगों के विकसित होने पर उनमें नयी भावनाएं उत्पन्न होती हैं और व्यवहार के नये ढंग सीखते पड़ते हैं। लड़कियों के लिये यह आवश्यक होता है कि लड़कों से कुछ दूरी पर रहें। दूसरे लिंग के प्रति भी उन्हें पुनः तालमेल की आवश्यकता होती है। इसके साथ-साथ उन्हें यौन, प्यार कीमतों एवं विश्वास आदि के नियमों को सिखाया जाता है। उन पर अधिक ध्यान दिया जाने लगता है जिस कारण उनमें विद्रोह की भावना भी पैदा हो जाती है। उनके अन्दर तेज़ मानसिक संघर्ष चलता रहता है। इस संघर्ष से लड़ते हुए वह आत्म नियन्त्रण करना सीखता है।

4. युवावस्था (Adulthood Stage)-इस अवस्था में व्यक्ति का सामाजिक दायरा किशोरावस्था से काफ़ी बड़ा हो जाता है। व्यक्ति कोई न कोई कार्य करने लग जाता है। यह भी हो सकता है कि वह किसी सामाजिक समूह राजनीतिक दल, क्लब, ट्रेड यूनियन का सदस्य बन जाए। इस अवस्था में उसका विवाह हो जाता है तथा उसके माता-पिता, मित्र, पड़ोसियों के अतिरिक्त वह अपनी पत्नी के साथ भी रिश्ते बनाता है। पत्नी के परिवार के साथ भी तालमेल बिठाना पड़ता है। अब वह किसी पर निर्भर नहीं है बल्कि वह एक ज़िम्मेदार व्यक्ति बन गया है। उसे अलग-अलग प्रकार की भूमिकाएं निभानी पड़ती हैं जैसे कि पति/पत्नी, माता/पिता, घर का मुखिया व देश का नागरिक। उससे एक विशेष प्रकार की भूमिका निभाने की आशा की जाती है तथा वह निभाता भी है जिससे समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया आगे बढ़ती रहती है।

5. वृद्धावस्था (Old Age)-एक उम्रदराज व्यक्ति का जीवन काफ़ी हद तक वातावरण, पेशे, मित्रों तथा कई समूहों की सदस्यता से प्रभावित होता है। उसमें बहुत-सी कीमतों का आत्मसात (internalised) होता है तथा उसे उनसे तालमेल बिठाना सीखना पड़ता है क्योंकि अब वह अधिक शक्तिशाली नहीं रहा है। उसे कई भूमिकाएं मिल जाती हैं जैसे कि सास/ससुर, दादा/दादी, नाना/नानी, रिटायर व्यक्ति इत्यादि। उसे नई परिस्थितियों के साथ तालमेल बिठाना सीखना पड़ता है तथा समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया चलती रहती है।

प्रश्न 3.
समाजीकरण की संस्थाओं को विस्तृत रूप में लिखो।
उत्तर-
1. परिवार (Family)—व्यक्ति के समाजीकरण में परिवार का विशेष स्थान है। कुछ प्रसिद्ध समाज शास्त्रियों के अनुसार एक बच्चे का मन अचेतन अवस्था में होता है और उस अचेतन मन पर जो प्रभाव परिवार का पड़ता है वह किसी और का नहीं पड़ सकता है। इसी प्रभाव के परिणामस्वरूप ही बच्चे के व्यक्तित्व पर और भविष्य पर भी प्रभाव पड़ता है। बचपन में बच्चे का मन इस तरह का होता है कि उसे जिधर भी चाहो मोड़ा जा सकता है। उसके इस कच्चे मन पर प्रत्येक वस्तु का प्रभाव पड़ता है। बच्चे के व्यक्तित्व पर माता-पिता का काफ़ी प्रभाव पड़ता है। यदि माता-पिता का बच्चे पर नियन्त्रण काफ़ी सख्त होगा तो बच्चा बड़ा होकर नियंत्रण से बाहर हो सकता है और यदि बच्चे को काफ़ी लाड-प्यार दिया जाएगा तो वह उसके बिगड़ जाने के अवसर काफ़ी हो जाएगा और यदि बच्चे को माता-पिता का प्यार न मिले तो उसके व्यक्तित्व के असन्तुलन का खतरा अधिक होता है।

बच्चे की आरम्भिक शिक्षा का आधार परिवार ही होता है। परिवार में ही बच्चे के मन के ऊपर कई प्रकार की भावनाएं, जैसे प्यार और हमदर्दी का प्रभाव पड़ता है और वह इस प्रकार के कई गुणों को सीखता है। परिवार ही बच्चे को समाज की तथा परिवार की परम्पराओं, रीति-रिवाज, परिमापों एवं कीमतों के बारे में बताता है। बच्चे को परिवार में ही व्यवहार के तरीकों एवं नियमों इत्यादि की शिक्षा दी जाती है। परिवार के बीच में रहकर बच्चा बड़ों का आदर करना और कहना मानना सीखता है। यदि बच्चे के ऊपर माता-पिता का नियन्त्रण है तो इसका अर्थ है व्यक्ति के ऊपर समाज का नियन्त्रण है क्योंकि बच्चे के समाजीकरण के समय बच्चे के माता-पिता ही समाज के प्रतिनिधि होते हैं। परिवार में तो बच्चा कई प्रकार के गुणों को सीखता है जिसके साथ वह समाज या देश का एक ज़िम्मेदार नागरिक बनता है। परिवार में ही बच्चे को अपने विचार प्रकट करने और व्यक्तित्व के विकास करने का अवसर मिलता है।

आरम्भिक काल में बच्चा जो कुछ भी देखता है उसकी ही नकल करनी आरम्भ कर देता है। इस कारण यह परिवार पर ही आधारित होता है कि वह बच्चे को सही दिशा की तरफ ले जाए। कई मनोवैज्ञानिकों के अनुसार, परिवार का प्रभाव बच्चे के अचेतन मन पर काफ़ी अधिक पड़ता है और इसका प्रभाव उसके भविष्य पर पड़ने लग जाता है। उदाहरण के लिये यदि माता-पिता के बीच परिवार में लड़ाई-झगड़ा होता रहता है तो उसका प्रभाव बच्चे के मन पर पड़ता है और वह उनका प्यार नहीं प्राप्त कर सकता। यदि कोई परिवार तलाक या अन्य किन्हीं कारणों से टूट जाते हैं तो इसका प्रभाव बच्चों पर पड़ता है और वह मनोवैज्ञानिक तौर पर तनावपूर्ण रहते हैं। प्यार के दृष्टिकोण से भी वह वंचित रह जाता है। कई बार तो शारीरिक विकास के ऊपर भी इसका प्रभाव पड़ता है। हमदर्दी, प्यार व सहयोग इत्यादि के गुणों से वह दूर हो जाता है क्योंकि परिवार के गुणों के आधार पर ही वह समाज का सदस्य बनता है। इसलिये टूटे हुए परिवारों में इन गुणों की प्राप्ति असम्भव हो जाती है।

इस तरह हम कह सकते हैं कि परिवार ही व्यक्ति के चरित्र एवं व्यक्तित्व का निर्माण करता है। इस तरह समाजीकरण में परिवार का सबसे अधिक महत्त्व होता है।

2. खेल समूह (Play Group)- परिवार के पश्चात् खेल समूह की समाजीकरण के साधन के रूप में बारी आती है। बच्चा अपने परिवार के घेरे में से निकल कर अपने साथियों के साथ खेलने जाता है और खेल समूह बनाता है। खेल समूह में ही बच्चे की सामाजिक शिक्षा आरम्भ हो जाती है। खेल समूह में रह कर बच्चा. वह सब कुछ सीखता है जो वह परिवार में रह कर नहीं सीख सकता। खेल समूह में रह कर वह अपनी इच्छाओं का त्याग करता है और उसे पता चलता है कि उसके अतिरिक्त अन्य बच्चों की भी इच्छाएं होती हैं। इसके अतिरिक्त खेल समूह में सम्बन्ध समानता पर ही आधारित होते हैं। इसलिये बच्चा जब खेल समूह में भाग लेता है तो वह वहां पर अनुशासन एवं सहयोग सीखता है।

यह उसके भविष्य में प्रभाव डालते हैं। इसके साथ हो खेल समूह में ही व्यक्ति में नेता के गुण पैदा होते हैं। खेलते समय बच्चे एक दूसरे के साथ लड़ते-झगड़ते हैं। साथ-साथ अपने और दूसरों के अधिकारों की रक्षा करने के सिद्धान्त को सीखते हैं। यहां पर आकर बच्चे को अपनी भूमिका की योग्यता व अयोग्यता का भी पता चलता है। खेल समूह में ही योग्यता एवं भावनाओं को बच्चा ग्रहण करता है। संक्षेप में बच्चे के बिगड़ने एवं बनने में खेल समूह का काफ़ी बड़ा हाथ होता है। यदि खेल समूह अच्छा है तो बच्चा अच्छा बन जाता है और यदि खेल समूह बुरा है तो उसके बुरे होने की सम्भावना अधिक है।

इस प्रकार खेल समूह का स्वस्थ होना, व्यक्ति के समाजीकरण के लिये आवश्यक होता है। विद्वानों के अनुसार खेल समूह की इतनी महत्ता होती है कि यह व्यक्ति को निम्न स्तर से उच्च स्तर तक उठा लेता है और दूसरी तरफ ऊपर से निम्न स्थिति की तरफ ले जाता है। इसलिये जहां बच्चे में प्यार, हमदर्दी, सहयोग, समानता इत्यादि के गुण पैदा होते हैं वहीं दूसरी तरफ असन्तुलित खेल समूह बच्चे को अपराधों, चोर, शराबी, जुआरी इत्यादि तक बना देता है क्योंकि जो कुछ वह अपने परिवार से नहीं सीख पाता वह सीखने के लिए खेल समूह पर निर्भर रहता है।

3. पड़ोसी (Neibourhood)- व्यक्ति का पड़ोस भी समाजीकरण का एक बहुत बड़ा साधन होता है जब बच्चा परिवार के हाथों से निकल कर पड़ोसियों के पास चला जाता है तो उसे यह पता चलता है कि उसने अन्य लोगों से किस प्रकार का व्यवहार करना है क्योंकि यदि परिवार में रह कर वह गलत व्यवहार करे तो उसको मज़ाक समझ कर टाल दिया जाता है। परन्तु यदि यह व्यवहार वह बाहर करता है तो उसके व्यवहार का बुरा मनाया जाता हैं। पड़ोस के लोगों के साथ उसे लगातार अनुकूलन करके रहना पड़ता है क्योंकि पड़ोस में उसके गलत व्यवहार को सहन नहीं किया जाता। पड़ोस के लोगों के साथ अनुकूलन बनाकर रहना पड़ता है। यही अनुकूलन उसे सम्पूर्ण ज़िन्दगी काम आता है और पता लगता है कि उसने विभिन्न अवस्थाओं में कैसे अनुकूलन करना है। पड़ोस के लोगों के साथ जब वह अन्तःक्रिया करता है तो समाज के नियमों के अनुसार कैसे अनुकूलन करना है यह सीखता है।

4. स्कूल (School)- इसके बाद बारी आती है स्कूल की जो एक असभ्य बच्चे को सभ्य बच्चे का रूप देता है या फिर आप कह सकते हैं कि कच्चे माल को तैयार माल का रूप देता है। स्कूल में ही बच्चे के गुणों का विकास होता है। स्कूल में बच्चा अन्य विद्यार्थियों के संग रहता है और विभिन्न प्रकार के अध्यापकों का भी उसके मन पर काफ़ी प्रभाव पड़ता है। अध्यापक के बोलने, उठने, बैठने, व्यवहार करने, पढ़ाने के तरीकों का उसके मन पर काफ़ी प्रभाव पड़ता है। परन्तु यहां पर एक बात ध्यान देने योग्य होती है कि किसी बच्चे के ऊपर किसी अध्यापक का प्रभाव पड़ता है और कई बच्चे तो अध्यापकों को ही अपना आदर्श मानने लग जाते हैं और उनके अपने व्यक्तित्व पर इसका काफ़ी प्रभाव पड़ता है।

अध्यापक के अतिरिक्त अन्य बच्चे भी उस बच्चे का समाजीकरण करते हैं। उनके साथ रहते हुए उसे कई पद एवं रोल मिलते हैं जो उसको अगले जीवन में काफ़ी मदद करते हैं और बच्चों के साथ बैठने से उनके व्यक्तित्व पर काफ़ी प्रभाव पड़ता है। स्कूल में जाने के साथ बच्चे के खेल समूह और अन्तक्रियाओं का दायरा काफ़ी बढ़ जाता है क्योंकि उसको कई तरह के बच्चे मिलते हैं। स्कूल में बच्चा कई प्रकार के नियम, अनुशासन, परम्पराओं, विषय आदि सीखते हैं जो उसको उसके भविष्य के जीवन में काम आते हैं।

व्यक्ति के व्यक्तित्व पर जहां अध्यापक का प्रभाव पड़ता है। वहां पर उसके आस पड़ोस के लोगों के विचारों का भी प्रभाव पड़ता है। इसके अतिरिक्त सहयोग की भावना भी बढ़ती है। बच्चे एक दूसरे के साथ मिलकर रहते हैं। लड़के एवं लड़कियों के इकट्ठे एक स्कूल में पढ़ने से दोनों के व्यक्तित्व पर विकास होता है। बच्चा स्कूल में पढ़ते हुए विभिन्न प्रकार की जातियों, धर्मों इत्यादि के सम्पर्क में आता है। इसलिए वह विभिन्न समूहों के प्रति विश्वास रखने लग जाता है। बच्चे को इतनी समझ आ जाती है कि किन परिस्थितियों में कैसा व्यवहार करना है।

5. सामाजिक संस्थाएं (Social Institutions)—समाजीकरण में परिवार एवं स्कूल के अतिरिक्त विभिन्न प्रकार की सामाजिक संस्थाएं भी महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिकाएं निभाती हैं। समाज में कई प्रकार की संस्थाएं हैं जो धार्मिक, आर्थिक, राजनीतिक इत्यादि के समाजीकरण में महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाती हैं। राजनीतिक संस्थाएं व्यक्ति को सरकार या देश के प्रति सही व्यवहार करना सिखाती हैं। आर्थिक संस्थाएं व्यापार करने का तरीका सिखाती हैं। धार्मिक संस्थाएं व्यक्ति में कई प्रकार के सद्गुण जैसे प्यार, हमदर्दी, दया इत्यादि करना सिखाती हैं। प्रत्येक व्यक्ति धर्मानुसार बनाए गए व्यवहार करने के तरीके, रहने-सहने के नियम, विश्वासों इत्यादि को अचेतन मन से स्वीकार करता है। इस प्रकार प्रत्येक समाज या जाति व्यक्ति को समाज में रहने के नियमों की जानकारी देता है। इसके अतिरिक्त कई प्रकार की मनोरंजन संस्थाएं भी व्यक्ति को समाज में क्रियाशील सदस्य बने रहने के लिए प्रेरित करती हैं।

सामाजिक संस्थाओं में आर्थिक, धार्मिक इत्यादि संस्थाओं का प्रभाव आधुनिक समाज में व्यक्ति के व्यक्तित्व पर प्रभाव डालता है। उदाहरण के लिए आर्थिक संस्थाओं को ही ले लीजिए। आर्थिक संस्थाओं के प्रभाव के अधीन व्यक्ति अपना काफ़ी समय व्यतीत करता है क्योंकि जीवित रहने के लिए उसे कमाई की आवश्यकता पड़ती है और कमाई के लिए वह व्यवसाय पर आधारित होता है। व्यक्ति को व्यवसाय उसकी योग्यता के आधार पर ही मिलता है। किसी भी व्यवसाय को अपनाने के लिए व्यक्ति को कुछ नियमों का पालन करना पड़ता है अर्थात् वह अपने आपको स्थिति के अनुकूल बना लेता है। व्यवसाय के क्षेत्र में उसके सम्बन्ध विभिन्न प्रकार के व्यक्तियों से पैदा हो जाते हैं। वह कई व्यक्तियों के सम्पर्क में आता है। इस कारण उसके व्यक्तित्व और चरित्र पर काफ़ी प्रभाव पड़ता है। इसके अतिरिक्त यदि हम राजनीतिक संस्थाओं के ऊपर नज़र डालें तो हम देखते हैं कि आजकल के समय में समाज का कोई क्षेत्र ऐसा नहीं बचा जिसके ऊपर राजनीतिक संस्थाओं का प्रभाव न हो। व्यापार, भाषा, कला, संगीत, शिक्षा, परिवार इत्यादि प्रत्येक प्रकार के समूह के ऊपर कानून का नियंत्रण होता है। व्यक्ति को प्रत्येक स्थान पर कानून का सहारा लेकर ही आगे बढ़ना पड़ता है। इस कारण व्यक्ति अपने व्यवहार को भी इनके अनुसार ढाल लेता है।

6. आवश्यकता (Needs)- मनुष्य की कई प्रकार की सामाजिक एवं शारीरिक आवश्यकताएं होती हैं जिस कारण व्यक्ति को समाज के सदस्यों के साथ तालमेल करना पड़ता है। व्यक्ति अपनी इन आवश्यकताओं की पूर्ति के लिये समाज के द्वारा प्रभावित तरीकों को अपनाता है ताकि उनकी निन्दा न हो सके। इस तरह व्यक्ति समाज से डर कर कार्य करता है और इसके साथ ही व्यक्ति में अनुकूलन की भावना पैदा होती है। .

7. भाषा (Language)- केवल एक भाषा ही है जो बच्चे का इस प्रकार से विकास कर सकती है। आप ज़रा सोचे, यदि बच्चे को भाषा का ही ज्ञान न हो तो वह अपनी भावनाओं, बातों आदि को किसके आगे प्रकट करेगा। भाषा के कारण ही वह (बच्चा) लोगों के सम्पर्क में आता है और उसे अपनी भावनाओं को प्रकट करने का अवसर मिलता है। जैसे-जैसे बच्चा भाषा को सीखता है, वैसे-वैसे ही उसके पास अपनी भावनाओं के प्रकट करने का अवसर मिलता रहता है। भाषा के कारण ही वह अनेक प्रकार के व्यक्तियों के सम्पर्क में आता है और अन्य लोगों से मिलकर अपने सामाजिक दृष्टिकोण को बढ़ाता है। भाषा के कारण ही वह अपनी आवश्यकताओं और अन्य कठिनाइयों की दूसरों को जानकारी देता है।

भाषा के कारण को ही उसका अन्य लोगों के साथ सम्बन्धों का आदान-प्रदान होता है और वह सम्बन्धों को चलाने वाले नियमों के सीखता है। इसके साथ ही उसमें धर्म एवं नैतिकता का विकास होता है। भाषा ही उसे भिन्न-भिन्न प्रकार की भूमिकाएं निभाने के लिये तैयार करती है। भाषा के कारण ही उसे अन्य लोगों के विचारों का पता चलता है। इससे उसे पता चलता है कि समाज में उसकी क्या स्थिति है इस कारण भाषा के द्वारा ही उसका काफ़ी समाजीकरण होता है।

भाषा के द्वारा ही व्यक्ति के व्यक्तित्व का विकास होता है। इस भाषा के प्रयोग के कारण ही बच्चा दूसरों के सम्पर्क में आता है और वह सामाजिक सम्बन्धों, परिमापों, नियमों, सिद्धान्तों को कहना आरम्भ कर देता है। संक्षेप में, हम कह सकते हैं कि व्यक्ति के समाजीकरण के लिए प्रत्येक प्रकार के छोटे-छोटे समूह और बड़े समूह महत्त्वपूर्ण होते हैं। व्यक्ति जैसे-जैसे, भिन्न-भिन्न क्षेत्रों के सम्पर्क में आता है, वैसे-वैसे उसका समाजीकरण भी होता है। वह अपने व्यवहारों को चेतन एवं अचेतन रूप में बदल लेता है। व्यक्ति अपनी सम्पूर्ण ज़िन्दगी ही कुछ न कुछ सीखता रहता है। अंत में हम कह सकते हैं कि समाज में और भी छोटे-बड़े समूह हैं, जो बच्चे के समाजीकरण में महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाते हैं। जिनका वर्णन करना यहां पर मुमकिन नहीं, परन्तु फिर भी इनकी भूमिका को नकारा नहीं जा सकता।

प्रश्न 4.
व्यक्ति के विकास के विभिन्न स्तरों तथा समाजीकरण की संस्थाओं के मध्य संबंधों पर चर्चा कीजिए।
उत्तर-
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया काफ़ी व्यापक होती है। यह बच्चे के जन्म से ही आरम्भ हो जाती है। बच्चा जब जन्म लेता है तो वह पशु से अधिक कुछ नहीं होता है। क्योंकि उसे समाज के तौर-तरीकों का ज्ञान नहीं होता है। परन्तु जैसे-जैसे बच्चा बड़ा होता है, उसकी समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया भी साथ-साथ चलती रहती है और वह सामाजिक जीवन के अनुसार ढलता रहता है। वह समाज के आदर्शों, कीमतों, परिमापों, नियमों, विश्वासों एवं प्रेरणाओं को ग्रहण करता रहता है। बच्चा जब जन्म लेता है तो उसमें सहज प्रवृत्ति होती है। परन्तु समाज के सम्पर्क में आने के पश्चात् वह प्रवृत्तियां आदतों में परिवर्तित हो जाती हैं। यह सब कुछ अलग-अलग समय पर होता है। समाजीकरण के अलग-अलग समय पर अलग-अलग स्तर होते हैं जो इस प्रकार हैं-

शिशु अवस्था (Infant Stage)
बचपन अवस्था (Childhood Stage)
किशोरावस्था (Adolescent Stage)
युवावस्था (Adulthood Stage) 5. वृद्धावस्था (Old Age)

समाजीकरण की संस्थाओं को विस्तृत रूप में लिखो।
1. परिवार (Family)—व्यक्ति के समाजीकरण में परिवार का विशेष स्थान है। कुछ प्रसिद्ध समाज शास्त्रियों के अनुसार एक बच्चे का मन अचेतन अवस्था में होता है और उस अचेतन मन पर जो प्रभाव परिवार का पड़ता है वह किसी और का नहीं पड़ सकता है। इसी प्रभाव के परिणामस्वरूप ही बच्चे के व्यक्तित्व पर और भविष्य पर भी प्रभाव पड़ता है। बचपन में बच्चे का मन इस तरह का होता है कि उसे जिधर भी चाहो मोड़ा जा सकता है। उसके इस कच्चे मन पर प्रत्येक वस्तु का प्रभाव पड़ता है। बच्चे के व्यक्तित्व पर माता-पिता का काफ़ी प्रभाव पड़ता है। यदि माता-पिता का बच्चे पर नियन्त्रण काफ़ी सख्त होगा तो बच्चा बड़ा होकर नियंत्रण से बाहर हो सकता है और यदि बच्चे को काफ़ी लाड-प्यार दिया जाएगा तो वह उसके बिगड़ जाने के अवसर काफ़ी हो जाएगा और यदि बच्चे को माता-पिता का प्यार न मिले तो उसके व्यक्तित्व के असन्तुलन का खतरा अधिक होता है।

वस्तुनिष्ठ प्रश्न

I. बहुविकल्पीय प्रश्न (Multiple Choice Questions) :

प्रश्न 1.
समाजीकरण में आपस में क्या मिल जाता है ?
(A) विचार
(B) खाना-पीना
(C) संस्कृति
(D) कोई नहीं।
उत्तर-
(C) संस्कृति।

प्रश्न 2.
समाजीकरण में सबसे अधिक प्रभाव किसका होता है ?
(A) व्यक्ति
(B) समाज
(C) परिवार
(D) समूह।
उत्तर-
(C) परिवार।

प्रश्न 3.
समाजीकरण का आवश्यक तत्त्व क्या है ?
(A) संस्कृति को ग्रहण करना
(B) भाषा
(C) रहने का ढंग
(D) समाज।
उत्तर-
(A) संस्कृति को ग्रहण करना।

प्रश्न 4.
किसके बिना समाजीकरण नहीं हो सकता है ?
(A) रहने का ढंग
(B) भाषा
(C) शरीर
(D) योग्यता।
उत्तर-
(B) भाषा।

प्रश्न 5.
व्यक्ति का समाजीकरण कब आरम्भ होता है ?
(A) जन्म के साथ
(B) भाषा सीखने के पश्चात्
(C) 5 वर्ष की आयु के पश्चात्
(D) 10 वर्ष की आयु में।
उत्तर-
(A) जन्म के साथ।

प्रश्न 6.
समाजीकरण कब समाप्त होता है ?
(A) विवाह के पश्चात्
(B) 50 वर्ष की आयु में
(C) मृत्यु के साथ
(D) रिटायरमेंट के पश्चात्।
उत्तर-
(C) मृत्यु के साथ।

प्रश्न 7.
‘Social Self का समाजीकरण का सिद्धान्त किसने दिया ?
(A) मीड
(B) दुर्थीम
(C) कूले
(D) वैबर।
उत्तर-
(C) कूले।

प्रश्न 8.
Id, Ego and Super Ego का समाजीकरण में प्रयोग किसने किया ?
(A) कूले
(B) फ्राइड
(C) मर्टन
(D) वैबर।
उत्तर-
(B) फ्राइड।

प्रश्न 9.
किस क्रिया के द्वारा संस्कृति एक पीढ़ी से दूसरी को हस्तान्तरित की जाती है ?
(A) संस्कृतिकरण
(B) सात्मीकरण
(C) समाजीकरण
(D) पर संस्कति ग्रहण।
उत्तर-
(C) समाजीकरण।

प्रश्न 10.
इनमें से कौन-सी समाजीकरण की विशेषता है ?
(A) उम्र भर की प्रक्रिया
(B) सीखने की प्रक्रिया
(C) सभा एवं स्थान सापेक्ष
(D) A + B + C.
उत्तर-
(D) A + B + C.

प्रश्न 11.
बच्चे का सर्वप्रथम सम्बन्ध किसके साथ होता है ?
(A) परिवार
(B) देश
(C) समाज
(D) दुनिया।
उत्तर-
(A) परिवार।

प्रश्न 12.
समाजीकरण की कितनी अवस्थाएं हैं ?
(A) एक
(B) दो
(C) तीन
(D) चार।
उत्तर-
(D) चार।

प्रश्न 13.
व्यक्ति के समाजीकरण का सबसे बढ़िया साधन है ?
(A) परिवार
(B) पड़ोसी
(C) समाज
(D) खेल समूह।
उत्तर-
(A) परिवार।

प्रश्न 14.
किस प्रक्रिया के साथ बच्चा समाज के बीच रहने के सभी नियम, परिमाप व्यवहार करने के तरीके सीखता है ?
(A) समाजीकरण
(B) पर संस्कृति ग्रहण
(C) संस्कृतिकरण
(D) सात्मीकरण।
उत्तर-
(A) समाजीकरण।

II. रिक्त स्थान भरें (Fill in the blanks) :

1. ……….. की प्रक्रिया पैदा होने के साथ ही शुरू हो जाती है।
2. समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया ………….. होने पर ही खत्म होती है।
3. ………….. का अर्थ है, व्यक्ति की विशेष पहचान।
4. स्कूल, कानून, समाजीकरण के ……….. साधन हैं।
5. …….. समाजीकरण का सबसे प्राथमिक साधन है।
6. ……….. अवस्था के पश्चात् युवा अवस्था आती है। . ‘
उत्तर-

समाजीकरण,
मृत्यु,
स्व:,
औपचारिक,
परिवार,
किशोर।

III. सही गलत (True/False) :

1. समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया जन्म से ही शुरू हो जाती है।
2. समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया के पाँच स्तर होते हैं।
3. समाजीकरण का मुख्य उद्देश्य व्यक्ति को असामाजिक बनाना है।
4. समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया सीखने की प्रक्रिया नहीं है।
5. स्कूल में बच्चा समाज में रहने के ढंग सीखता है।
6. खेल समूह में बच्चे में नेता बनने की भावनाएं जागृत होती हैं।
उत्तर-

सही,
सही,
गलत,
गलत,
सही,
सही।

IV. एक शब्द/पंक्ति वाले प्रश्न उत्तर (One Wordline Question Answers) :

प्रश्न 1.
समाजीकरण क्या होता है ?
उत्तर-
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया सीखने की वह प्रक्रिया है जिसमें बच्चा समाज में रहने के सारे नियम, परिमाप, व्यवहार करने के तरीके सीखता है।

प्रश्न 2.
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया का मुख्य उद्देश्य क्या होता है ?
उत्तर-
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया का मुख्य उद्देश्य व्यक्ति को सामाजिक व्यक्ति बनाना है ताकि वह समाज का एक नागरिक बन कर रह सके।

प्रश्न 3.
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया कब शुरू होती है ?
उत्तर-
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया जन्म से ही शुरू होती है।

प्रश्न 4.
बच्चे के समाजीकरण का सबसे महत्त्वपूर्ण साधन क्या होता है ?
उत्तर-
बच्चे के समाजीकरण का सबसे महत्त्वपूर्ण साधन परिवार होता है।

प्रश्न 5.
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया के कितने स्तर होते हैं ?
उत्तर-
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया में पाँच स्तर होते हैं।

प्रश्न 6.
बाल अवस्था कब शुरू तथा खत्म होती है ?
उत्तर-
बाल अवस्था बच्चे के जन्म से 1-12 साल तक चलती है।

प्रश्न 7.
बचपन अवस्था कब शुरू तथा कब खत्म होती है ?
उत्तर-
बचपन अवस्था 11 वर्ष से शुरू होकर 12-13 साल तक चलती है।

प्रश्न 8.
किशोर अवस्था कब शुरू तथा खत्म होती है ?
उत्तर-
किशोर अवस्था 14-15 वर्ष से लेकर 20-21 वर्ष तक चलती है।

प्रश्न 9.
किशोर अवस्था के बाद कौन-सी अवस्था आती है ?
उत्तर–
किशोर अवस्था के बाद विवाह की अवस्था आती है।

अति लघु उत्तरात्मक प्रश्न

प्रश्न 1.
समाजीकरण का अर्थ।
उत्तर-
प्रत्येक समाज के कुछ सांस्कृतिक उद्देश्य होते हैं जिन्हें प्राप्त करने के कुछ निश्चित ढंग होते हैं। व्यक्ति को इन ढंगों को सीखना पड़ता है तथा इस सीखने की प्रक्रिया को समाजीकरण कहते हैं।

प्रश्न 2.
समाजीकरण की परिभाषा।
उत्तर-
हर्टन तथा हंट के अनुसार, “समाजीकरण वह प्रक्रिया है जिसके द्वारा व्यक्ति समूहों में रहता है, उनके सामाजिक परिमापों को आत्मसात करता है, जिनकी वजह से उसके विलक्षण स्वैः का उदय होता है।”

प्रश्न 3.
समाजीकरण का एक तत्व।
उत्तर-
समाजीकरण व्यक्ति, समाज तथा समूह के लिए आवश्यक है तथा व्यक्ति समाज के मूल्यों, प्रतिमानों, ज्ञान, व्यवहार करने के तरीकों को सीखता है तथा ग्रहण करता है। यह सीखने की प्रक्रिया तमाम आयु चलती रहती

प्रश्न 4.
समाजीकरण का एक आधार।
उत्तर-
इंसान के बच्चे अन्य मनुष्यों पर अधिक समय के लिए निर्भर करते हैं। वह अपनी प्रत्येक प्रकार की आवश्यकता के लिए अन्य मनुष्यों पर निर्भर करता है। यह निर्भरता समाज में संबंधों के लिए दूसरों पर निर्भर करती है।

लघु उत्तरात्मक प्रश्न

प्रश्न 1.
समाजीकरण।
उत्तर–
प्रत्येक समाज में कुछ निश्चित किए गए सांस्कृतिक उद्देश्य (Cultural-goals) होते हैं जिनको प्राप्त करने के कुछ निर्धारित ढंग होते हैं। व्यक्ति इन्हें सीखे बिना किसी भी उद्देश्य की प्राप्ति नहीं कर सकता व न ही उसके व्यक्तित्व का निर्माण हो सकता है। यह सब कुछ समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया से ही व्यक्ति सीख सकता है। किंगस्ले डेविस के अनुसार, “यह वह प्रक्रिया है जिसके अनुसार मानवीय बच्चा संस्कृति ग्रहण करता है। व्यक्ति अपनी सम्पूर्ण ज़िन्दगी समाज के सांस्कृतिक (Socio-cultural) तत्त्वों को सीखता है। इसको ही समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया कहा जाता है।”

प्रश्न 2.
समाजीकरण के विभिन्न साधनों के नाम।
उत्तर-
समाजीकरण की प्रमुख साधनों के नाम नीचे लिखे हैं-

परिवार (Family)
खेल समूह (Play Group)
आस-पड़ोस (Neighbourhood)
स्कूल (School)
सामाजिक संस्थाएं (Social Institutions)।

प्रश्न 3.
“स्वैः”।
उत्तर-
व्यक्ति जन्म के एकदम पश्चात् सामाजिक व्यक्ति नहीं बनता। उसमें स्वैः का विकास भी लोगों व पदार्थों के सम्पर्क में आने से ही होता है। स्वैः का अर्थ है जब व्यक्ति कार्यों व विचारों आदि के प्रति चेतन हो जाता है उसको हम व्यक्ति का स्वैः कहते हैं। नय जन्मा बच्चा दूसरे व्यक्तियों से कोई भेद-भाव नहीं करता बल्कि दूसरे व्यक्तियों की अन्तक्रिया के परिणामस्वरूप वह उपरोक्त भेद को समझना शुरू कर देता है। व्यक्ति की इस योग्यता को ही स्वैः का नाम दिया जाता है।

प्रश्न 4.
परिवार-समाजीकरण के साधन के रूप में।
उत्तर-
व्यक्ति के समाजीकरण में परिवार का विशेष स्थान है। बच्चे की आरम्भिक शिक्षा का आधार परिवार ही होता है। परिवार में ही बच्चे के मन के ऊपर कई प्रकार की भावनाओं जैसे प्यार, हमदर्दी इत्यादि का प्रभाव पड़ता है जिससे वह कई प्रकार के गुणों को सीखता है। परिवार में ही बच्चे को समाज की तथा परिवार की परम्पराओं, रीति-रिवाजों, परिमापों, कीमतों इत्यादि के बारे में बताया जाता है। बच्चे को परिवार में ही व्यवहार के तरीकों तथा नियमों की शिक्षा दी जाती है। परिवार में बच्चा बड़ों का आदर करना सीखता है। परिवार में बच्चा कई प्रकार के गुणों को सीखता है जिससे वह समाज का एक अच्छा नागरिक बनता है। परिवार में व्यक्ति अनुशासन में रहना सीखता है तथा उसे सम्बन्धों की पहचान हो जाती है। माता-पिता घर में ऐसा वातावरण तैयार करते हैं जिससे वह अच्छी आदतें सीख सकें। इस तरह परिवार समाजीकरण का सबसे महत्त्वपूर्ण साधन है।

प्रश्न 5.
स्कूल-समाजीकरण के साधन के रूप में।
उत्तर-
परिवार के बाद सबसे महत्त्वपूर्ण साधन है स्कूल। स्कूल एक असभ्य बच्चे को सभ्य रूप देता है या फिर आप कह सकते हैं कि कच्चे माल को तैयार माल का रूप देता है। स्कूल में ही बच्चे के गुणों का विकास होता है। स्कूल में बच्चा अन्य बच्चों के साथ रहता है तथा अध्यापकों का उसके मन पर काफ़ी प्रभाव पड़ता है। अध्यापक के बोलने, उठने, बैठने, व्यवहार करने, पढ़ने के तरीकों का उसके मन पर काफ़ी प्रभाव पड़ता है। बच्चे अध्यापकों को अपना आदर्श मान लेते हैं तथा इससे उनके व्यक्तित्व पर काफी असर पड़ता है। बच्चे के जीवन का महत्त्वपूर्ण भाग स्कूल में व्यतीत होता है जिससे उसके जीवन पर काफी असर पड़ता है।

प्रश्न 6.
समाजीकरण का महत्त्व।
उत्तर-
समाजीकरण का हमारे जीवन में बहुत महत्त्व है क्योंकि समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया से ही व्यक्ति समाज में रहने के योग्य बनता है। जब बच्चा पैदा होता है तो उसे कुछ भी पता नहीं होता। वह अपनी सभी आवश्यकताओं के लिए परिवार के सदस्यों पर निर्भर होता है। परिवार उसकी सभी आवश्यकताएं पूर्ण करता है तथा उसे जीवन जीने के तरीके सिखाता है। उसे समाज में रहने, व्यवहार करने के नियमों के बारे में बताया जाता है तथा यह सिखाने की प्रक्रिया ही समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया है। इस प्रकार एक बच्चे को अच्छा नागरिक बनाने में समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया का बहुत महत्त्व होता है।

बड़े उतर वाले प्रश्न

प्रश्न-
समाजीकरण का क्या अर्थ है ? विस्तार सहित लिखो।
अथवा
समाजीकरण क्या होता है ? इसकी परिभाषा का वर्णन करो।
उत्तर-
समाजीकरण का अर्थ (Meaning of Socialization)-बच्चा इस संसार में एक छोटे से शरीर के रूप में आता है, जिसको अपने शरीर के लिये भौतिक आवश्यकताएं पूर्ण करनी पड़ती हैं और वह करता भी है। परन्तु धीरे-धीरे कुछ समय पश्चात् वह बड़ा होकर मानव बन जाता है जिसके पास अपने विचार, भावनाएं, इच्छाएं, स्वभाव व पसन्दें हैं। यह सब कुछ व्यक्ति को जन्म से प्राप्त न होकर बल्कि समाज में रहते हुए धीरे-धीरे प्राप्त होता है। यह सब वह समाज में रहकर ही सीखता हैं। इसी सीखने की प्रक्रिया को ही समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया कहा जाता है। इस प्रकार हम कह सकते हैं “समाजीकरण वह प्रक्रिया है, जिसके साथ एक बच्चा जो कि पशु के समान होता है कुछ मानवीय वृत्ति के गुण सीख कर सम्पूर्ण मानव बन जाता है। इस प्रकार समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया सामाजिक नियमों, परिमापों, गुणों को सीखने की प्रक्रिया है।” समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया पशु स्वरूप बच्चे को इन्सान बनाती है। इसके साथ-साथ यह केवल व्यक्ति को समाज की आवश्यकताओं के अनुरूप व्यवहार करना नहीं सिखाती है बल्कि व्यक्ति को अन्य कई प्रकार की वस्तुएं जैसे भाषा, योग्यता, तकनीक, परिमापों आदि के अनुसार व्यवहार करना भी सिखाती है।

इस प्रक्रिया के द्वारा व्यक्ति को यह पता चलता है कि उसने समाज के बीच रहते हुए क्या सीखना है और उसे क्या सीखना चाहिए। प्रत्येक समाज एवं उसकी संस्कृति का तभी विकास सम्भव है यदि समाज में जन्म लेने वाले प्रत्येक बच्चे को समाज एवं संस्कृति की जानकारी दी जाए। संस्कृति के प्रत्येक पक्ष की उसे जानकारी दी जाए और सब कुछ समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया के अनुसार ही मुमकिन है। इस प्रक्रिया के द्वारा ही व्यक्ति समाज में रहना और क्रिया करना सीखता है और यह सीखता है कि उसको किन नियमों के अनुसार व्यवहार करना चाहिये।

समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया के साथ व्यक्ति न केवल समाज की आवश्यकता को पूरी करता है, बल्कि व्यक्तित्व को भी संवारता है और कई पक्षों को प्राप्त करता है। इस प्रक्रिया के साथ ही वह बोलना सीखता है। समाज के नियमों के अनुसार व्यवहार करना और योग्यता आदि कई प्रकार की वस्तुओं से सीखता है। इस प्रकार समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया वह प्रक्रिया है, जिसके साथ व्यक्ति को यह पता चलता है कि उसने समाज में कैसे रहना है? क्या करना है ? और किस तरह व्यवहार करना है? प्रत्येक नये जन्मे बच्चे के लिये यह आवश्यक है कि वह धीरे-धीरे समाज में रहने के तौर तरीके-सीख ले और यह केवल वह समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया के द्वारा ही सीख सकता है। इस तरह समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया के द्वारा व्यक्ति, समाज का एक क्रियाशील सदस्य बन जाता है और समाज के नियमों, लोक-गीतों एवं व्यवहारों के अनुसार कार्य करता है।

समाजीकरण की परिभाषाएं (Definitions of Socialization) –

किंगस्ले डेविस (Kingsley Devis) के अनुसार, “समाजीकरण वह प्रक्रिया है, जिसके द्वारा एक मानवीय बच्चा संस्कृति ग्रहण करता है और समाज की संरचना में प्रवेश करता है।”
फिचर (Fichter) के अनुसार, “समाजीकरण एक व्यक्ति एवं उसके साथी व्यक्तियों के बीच एक दूसरे को प्रभावित करने की ऐसी प्रक्रिया है जिसके फलस्वरूप सामाजिक व्यवहार के ढंग स्वीकार किये जाते हैं और उनके साथ अनुकूल किया जाता है।”
हर्टन और हन्ट (Harton & Hunt) के अनुसार, “समाजीकरण वह प्रक्रिया है जिसके द्वारा व्यक्ति जिन समूहों में रहता है, उनके सामाजिक परिमापों को आदत मान करता है जिस कारण उनके विलक्षण स्वामित्व का उदाहरण होता है।”
हैरी० एम० जॉनसन (Harry M. Johnson) के अनुसार, “समाजीकरण सीखने की उस प्रक्रिया को कहते हैं जो सीखने वाले को सामाजिक भूमिकाओं को निभाने के योग्य बनाता है।”

इस तरह इन परिभाषाओं के आधार पर हम कह सकते हैं कि समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया सीखने की वह प्रक्रिया है, जिसमें बच्चा समाज में रहने के सारे नियम, परिमाप, व्यवहार करने के तरीके सीखता है। उस प्रक्रिया के द्वारा संस्कृति एक पीढ़ी से दूसरी पीढ़ी को हस्तान्तरित की जाती है। व्यक्ति जीवन के संगठित एवं प्रवाहित तरीकों के साथ अनुकूलन करना सीखता है। व्यक्ति को जीवन जीने के लिये जो तरीके की आवश्यकता, गुणों की आवश्यकता, इच्छाएं, कीमतें, रहने-सहने के ढंग की आवश्यकता होती है, वह समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया के द्वारा ही सीखी जाती है। ये प्रक्रिया न केवल जन्मे हुए नवजात बच्चे को प्रभावित करती है बल्कि ये सारी उम्र व्यक्ति को प्रभावित करती है। यह प्रक्रिया व्यक्ति के अन्दर ही चलती रहती है। इस कारण ही बच्चा बचपन से ही समाज के नियमों के साथ अनुकूलन करना सीखता है और समाज के साथ घुल-मिल जाता है।
इस तरह संक्षेप में समाज की संस्कृति समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया के साथ पीढ़ी दर पीढ़ी हस्तान्तरित होती रहती है।

समाजीकरण PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes

जब एक बच्चा पैदा होता है उसे कुछ भी नहीं पता होता। धीरे-धीरे वह बड़ा होता है तथा वह समाज में रहने के तौर-तरीके सीखता है। समाज में रहने के तौर-तरीके सीखने की प्रक्रिया को ही समाजीकरण कहा जाता है।
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया बच्चे के जन्म के बाद से ही शुरू हो जाती है तथा तमाम आयु चलती रहती है। व्यक्ति खत्म हो जाता है परन्तु यह प्रक्रिया कभी भी खत्म नहीं होती। अगर समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया नहीं होगी तो मनुष्य जानवरों की तरह व्यवहार करेंगे तथा समाज नाम की कोई चीज़ नहीं होगी।
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया तमाम आयु चलने वाली प्रक्रिया है। जैसे-जैसे बच्चा बड़ा होता जाता है, स्वतन्त्र होता जाता है तथा समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया आवश्यक हो जाती है। इस आयु में आकर उसे नियन्त्रण में रखना पड़ता है ताकि वह गलत रास्ते पर न जाए। यहाँ पर आकर समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया का वास्तविक लाभ नज़र आता है।
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया के पाँच स्तर होते हैं-बाल्यावस्था (Infant stage), बचपन अवस्था (Childhood stage), किशोरावस्था (Adolescent stage), युवावस्था (Adulthood stage) तथा वृद्धावस्था (Old age)।
बाल्यावस्था पैदा होने से शुरू होकर दो वर्ष तक चलती है। बचपन अवस्था 13-14 वर्ष की आयु तक चलती रहती है। किशोरावस्था 17-18 वर्ष तक चलती रहती है। युवावस्था 45-50 वर्ष तक चलती है तथा उसके बाद वृद्धावस्था शुरू होती है।
समाजीकरण की प्रक्रिया को पूर्ण करने के कई साधन होते हैं। इस साधनों को हम दो भागों में विभाजित करते हैं-औपचारिक तथा अनौपचारिक। समाजीकरण के अनौपचारिक साधनों में हम परिवार, खेल समूह, धर्म इत्यादि को ले सकते हैं तथा औपचारिक साधनों में कानूनी व्यवस्था, राजनीतिक व्यवस्था इत्यादि आते हैं।
समाजीकरण (Socialisation)—वह लगातार चलने वाली प्रक्रिया. जिसमें व्यक्ति अपनी व्यक्तिगत पहचान प्राप्त करता है तथा समाज में रहने के तौर-तरीके, कीमतें इत्यादि सीखता है।
स्वै (Self)-व्यक्ति की विशेष पहचान।
क्रीड़ा समूह (Play group)-व्यक्तियों का समूह, जिसमें सभी लोग साधारणतया समान आयु के होते हैं जिनके साथ व्यक्ति बैठना पसंद करता है तथा जो व्यक्ति के व्यवहार व विचार को प्रभावित कर सकते हैं।
समाजीकरण के औपचारिक साधन (Formal means of socialisation) समाजीकरण के वह साधन जिन्हें संस्थागत साधन भी कहा जाता है तथा जिनके पीछे विशेष शक्ति होती है। जैसे कि स्कूल, कानून, राजनीतिक व्यवस्था इत्यादि।
समाजीकरण के अनौपचारिक साधन (Informal means of socialisation)—इन्हें सामाजिक समूह साधन भी कहा जाता है जिसमें अन्य व्यक्ति तथा सामाजिक संस्थाएं व्यक्ति का समाजीकरण अनौपचारिक ढंग से करती हैं।