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Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 3 Marxism Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 3 Marxism

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is Marxism? Discuss four important principles of Karl Marx.
Or
Discuss any six principles of Marxian Socialism.
Or
Critically evaluate the main principles of Marxism.
Answer:
Karl Marx has been acknowledged as an originator of communism. He tried to give socialism a scientific and practical form for the first time. Marxist society is called Proletariat Socialism and Scientific Socialism. Marx regards his socialism scientific as it is based on History. Simon and Oven presented their views on socialism even before Marx, but their socialism is not considered to be scientific since it is purely based on assumption and not on History.

In the words of Wayper, these writers merely depicted beautiful sight of the roses, but never prepared a ground to plant the rose plants. Prof. Joad is of the view that Marx was the first writer on Socialism as his writings can be called scientific. He not only prepared a background for the society of his objectives, but also dealt with it in detail as to how it (society) passes through different situations and is ultimately established.

Washerman has written about Marx that “he found socialism a conspiracy and left it a movement.” Marx studies the development of society in a scientific manner. Marx’s materialistic and economic interpretation of society is called Marxism. Generally speaking, some people think that Marxism is nothing but the voice of working class and a revolutionary, violent political conception. But Marxism, as Wayper opines, is not only the raised voice of labour class rather it is a system to understand the definite form of the effect and complications of present society. Its object is to study the revolutionary circumstances and different forms of society.

Marx has not only propounded his views in a systematic way but has also suggested the ways to apply them. In the words of Catlin, “Marxist philosophy is vast and well- connected. It is influential as revolutionary system is based on the principle of class- struggle; the principle of class struggle is based on the theory of surplus value; the theory of surplus value is based on economic principle,”. Thus
Marxist conception is an inseparable unit which has six main propositions:
1. Dialectical Materialism.
2. Materialistic Interpretation of History.
3. Theory of Class-struggle.
4. Theory of Surplus Value.
5. Views about Religion.
6. Self-destruction of Capitalism.

1. Dialectical Materialism:
Marx believed that contrary forces are present in every stage of history and this is the moving force of history. The internal contradictions are inherent in things because all things have something which is dying away and something which is still developing. This process of development is a process of thesis, anti-thesis leading to synthesis. It means that two different forces act and react and give rise to a third new force.

Applying the above principle of dialectical materialism to the various stages of evolution of society, Marx declared that contradictions have existed at each stage of its evolution. The present society in which the few capitalists control the economic forces is also not free from it. The present capitalist is also faced with its anti-thesis-the proletariat. The capitalists and the workers are in conflict with each other. Marx was of the opinion that the result of this class-struggle will be the coming into existence of a classless society.

2. Materialistic interpretation of History:
Historical materialism or the materialist conception of history is the direct application of the principles of dialectical materialism to the development of society. Karl Marx made it the corner-stone of his political philosophy. Although Marx does not very much explain as to what he means by his theory of historical materialism ; it is, in fact, an economic interpretation of history.

To quote Marx, “The materialistic conception of history starts from the principle that production, and with production the exchange of its products, is the basis of every social order, that in every society which has appeared in history the distribution of the products, and with it the division of society into classes or estates is determined by what is produced and how it is produced, and how the product is exchanged.

According to this conception, the ultimate causes of all social changes and political revolutions are to be sought, not in the minds of men, in their increasing insight into eternal truth and justice, but in changes in the mode of production and exchange; they are to be sought not in the philosophy but in the economics of the period concerned.”

3. Theory of Class-struggle:
According to Marx, the history of humanity is the history of class-struggle. It is the story of the struggles of the underdog against the master. Whatever may be the form of the struggle, the basic factor is the class war. Marx holds that in every society the forces of economic production divide the society into two hostile classes-the capitalists and the workers. The capitalists have control over the means of production-the land, the workshop, raw material and the working capital.

They earn their living by ‘owning these material means of production.’ On the other hand, the workers do not possess these economic forces of production; they have labour and earn their living by the sale thereof. The workers either plough the field owned by the landlord or work in the workshop or the factory on the material supplied by the capitalist. These two classes are interdependent and greatly require each other. In the absence of the worker the factory would stop turning out production and fields would remain unploughed. The worker in the absence of the capitalist would starve as he would have no work. However, each class wants to derive the maximum advantage from the other.

The capitalists want to extract more and to pay less wages, while the workers desire to get the highest possible wages for their labour. But in this struggle the workers stand at a great disadvantage because their labour is a perishable commodity, it cannot be stored. They must find work to avoid starvation. The capitalists do not suffer from such disability. The result is that the wage-earners have to accept the wages, whatever is offered to them by the capitalists.

Thus the capitalists in their hands possess a weapon of oppression and suppression, which the wage-earners never like. Whenever the workers become conscious of their exploitation, they organise themselves, rise and revolt. In this way there comes into existence a permanent and irreconcilable hostility between the capitalists and the workers. This hostility has reached its climax in modern age. It is both oppressive and unjust. Its oppresssive character lies in the fact that it compels the wage-earners to accept the wage, whatever is offered to them by the capitalists ; it is unjust in the sense that it deprives the workers of the wealth which is the product of their own labour.

4. Theory of Surplus Value:
Marx describes surplus value as ‘concealed labour’ or ‘unpaid labour’. Surplus value is the difference between the value of a commodity and the wages received by the labourer. Marx holds that since labour is the primary source of value, the whole price of the value should be paid to the labourer. But, this is not done in practice. The labourer is paid only a small fraction of it and the rest goes to the pocket of the capitalist.

To this amount of wealth ‘concealed labour’ not paid to the labourer and pocketed by the capitalist, Marx gives the name of surplus value. The theory of surplus value supplies a linchpin to his economic interpretation of Russian history. It points out how the social structure largely depends oil the distribution of wealth in the society. By this theory of surplus value, Marx tries to show the injustice that prevails in the capitalist society.

5. Views about Religion:
Marx held that religion was used to convince the proletariat that if they obeyed the state and their bosses, they would be rewarded in another life. The proletarian was lulled into accepting his way of life by the vision of heaven. This life might be harsh, but if he just stood in taking it as God’s gift, he would be rewarded in the next life. Marx felt that this kept the workers from actively seeking to change the system.

He saw what he believed to be the superstition and ‘hocus and pocus’ of religion used by the dominant class—the bourgeoisie, to hold the proletariat in its downtrodden position. This is what Marx meant by his famous statement that religion is the opium of the people. Thus, Marx made scathing attack against the religious system of his day and argued that the future proletarian society would have no need for religion.

6. Self-destruction of Capitalism:
Marx was of the opinion that capitalism carries with itself the seeds of its destruction, therefore, its destruction is inevitable. He says that in capitalist production there is tendency towards the concentration of wealth into fewer and fewer hands. The small businessmen are eliminated in the open and cut-throat competition, become propertyless and ultimately join the class of workers. Thus on the one hand, the number of the capitalists decreases, on the other hand, the number of labourers increases. What is important is that the labourers become class conscious owing to the similarity in the conditions.

As industrialisation progresses, workers and labourers begin to live at one place. This gives birth to class consciousness and the spirit of co-operation in them. They form unions and associations against the bourgeoisie. Capitalism increases the miseries of the workers day-by-day. Marx opined that when wealth is concentrated in the hands of a few individuals, it would become easy for the proletariat to dispose of the few individuals and thereby establish their supremacy.

Establishment of Classless and Stateless Socialist Society:
The aim of communists is to establish a Stateless and Classless society evolving out of class-struggle, the control would be exercised by society as a whole. All the class distinctions would disappear and with the disappearance of class distinctions the class-struggle would naturally come to an end. The State would also wither away. Thus the new communist society would be Classless and Stateless where the freedom of each is the condition of the free development of all. The wage system will also wither away giving place to the principle, from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs. Marx is of the opinion that a Stateless and Classless society will come into existence after the stages mentioned below:

1. Revolution:
Karl Marx says that a communist society will be established through a social revolution. No doubt capitalism has the germs of its own destruction but still the workers will have to take certain steps in order to improve their lot. The workers should organize themselves and should try to create class-consciousness among themselves. They should resort to violent method in order to destroy capitalism. The workers should make use of all the possible methods for capturing governmental authority.

2. Dictatorship of the Proletariat:
According to Karl Marx, capitalism is inevitably doomed to destruction and communism is bound to blossom. But after capitalism is destroyed communism will not spring up all at once. Its march will be preceded by what Marx calls “Proletarian Dictatorship.” The dictatorship of all Proletariat is an essential stage in the course of transition from the capitalistic society to the socialistic society. Before communism can be established the bureaucratic and military machine erected by the bourgeoisie must be completely smashed and a new order must be set up in its place.

Marx thus contemplated a transitional stage between the conquest of power by the proletariat and the establishment of a new social order. Engels says, “As the State is only a temporary institution which is to be made use of in the revolution in order to forcibly suppress the opponents, it is perfectly absurd to talk about a free popular State, so long as the proletariat need the State, it needs it not in the interests of freedom but in order to suppress its opponents and when it becomes possible to speak of freedom the State as such ceases to exist.”

Classless and Stateless Society. After the destruction of capitalism the class-struggle in society will come to an end. This way the society will become a classless society. Economic equality will come to stay in society. Under such circumstances the State will be rendered useless and hence it will be abolished. Voluntary associations formed by the people will take the place of the State. To establish such a society is the ultimate aim of communism.

Effects:
The ideas of Karl Marx have greatly influenced the people. Marx was considered as the father of labour movement in Europe. Many countries of the world have adopted communism today. After second World War a communist bloc emerged in the world.

Question 2.
On what grounds has Marxism been criticised?
Answer:
Marxism has been criticised on the following grounds:
1. It is based on wrong conceptions:
Economic factor plays an important role in shaping and moulding the historical changes and movements but it cannot be asserted that all the historical movements are exclusively determined and shaded by the modes of production and exchange. Non¬economic factors also play a role in the development of history. Human passions, sentiments, religion and emotions have also vitally determined and shaped the human history.

2. History is not the story of class war:
The law that sustains the universe and makes for progress is not the law of struggle and competition but the law of love, co-operation and sacrifice. Plato’s analysis of society, as based on the need of mutual co-operation for the satisfaction of common needs is more true than that of Marx. History is not at all the story of class-war.

3. State is not an evil:
The Communists consider the State as an evil because it helps the capitalists in exploiting the poor. The State also helps in increasing the class-struggle. But all this is wrong. The State is not an evil but it is something good. The state is based not on force but on the will of the people. The State power can be used rightly as well as wrongly. When the State authority passes on into the hands of selfish people only then it is used for exploiting the poor and the workers. History bears testimony to the fact that many a time the power of the State is exercised for the public welfare. The aim of the State is to help in the development of individual’s life.

4. Abolition of the State is not possible:
The Communists favour the idea of abolishing the State but this thing is not possible. The State instead of withering away is getting more and more powers. The individual today is very much dependent on the State for the satisfaction of his needs. In so many communist countries capitalism has been abolished but there seems to be a little possibility of the abolition of the state.

5. Nobody wants to lose power easily:
Power is such a thing that nobody wants to lose easily. If a person gets power just once, he tries to keep a hold on it for ever. The working class also wants to capture power but there is no guarantee that they will ever quit it. In China there is communism and the rulers of that country have not abolished the State so far. There is no guarantee that the working class will never misuse authority.

6. Labour alone is not responsible for production:
The Communists attach importance only to the labour in production but it is not correct. Capital also plays an important role in case of production. The capitalist is to take many pains for selling the manufactured commodities. Sometimes it so happens that the capitalist is to sell the material below the cost price. Under such circumstances the worker has no right even to accept wages. The worker is concerned only with the wages and about nothing else.

7. Prediction of Marx proved wrong:
Marx’s prediction about the increasing misery and degradation of the working class has not proved true. The worker of at least the affluent societies in the West has shared in the growing prosperity of the bourgeoisie and now enjoys more amenities than his predecessors a hundred years back. The society does not show any sign of proletarianism. In between the working class and the capitalist class there has arisen a fairly large middle class.

Thus, instead of becoming sharply divided into two classes the society has come to be divided into three or more sections. Most of the people belonging to the middle class reflect the ideas of the bourgeoisie and do not feel very enthusiastic about the proletarian cause. Capitalism has also hitherto been showing signs of growth and expansion. It has adjusted itself to the changing circumstances.

8. No importance to good means:
Karl Marx has emphasized the need of achieving the object and for this purpose, he says, all the means can be used. He favoured the idea of establishing a communist society by making use of violent means. But peace and order is disturbed by the use of violent activities. Moreover, the critics doubt if a violent revolution can provide a secure foundation of the socialist order of society.

9. Workers can be happy even in a capitalistic society:
It is wrong to assume that the condition of the workers in a capitalist society will be quite deplorable. There are many countries today where there is capitalism but at the same time every possible effort is being made to improve the lot of the workers. The defects of capitalism can be removed if the State takes certain steps to this effect.

10. Attack on religion is unjustified:
The communist attack on religion is unjustified. Religion exercises a greater degree of influence on the life of the individual. Hallowell is of the opinion that, in theory Marxism rejects religion, but in practice the passion which informs it is religious in character. For God, Marx substitutes Historical necessity, for the chosen people the proletariat and for the Messianic kingdom the realm of freedom.”

11. It ends individuality of the individual:
Communism has been criticised on the ground that it ends the individuality of the individual. In a communist society the individual can do nothing of his own sweet accord. He cannot get the incentive to hard work. The abolition of property will also prove a hindrance in the way of the individual.

12. Democracy is not a mere myth:
Marx has called the modem democracy as a mere myth. He is of the opinion that liberty in the absence of economic equality is meaningless. Real liberty lies in getting rid of hunger and unemployment. But the fact is that man does not live by bread alone. At certain occasions the individual would like to remain hungry for the sake of his freedom. Today it is an age of democracy and it cannot be called meaningless and useless.

13. It gives no importance to moral character:
Laski says, “Communism is a creed in which there is intellectual error, moral blindness and social perversity.” Communism gives no importance to moral character. Economic needs pale into insignificance before moral principles.

Estimate of Marxism:
Nevertheless, the ideas of Marx have gained a powerful hold over the intellectuals as well as the masses. He uncovered vital truths and foresaw important developments that were hidden from his contemporaries. He unravelled the relation between economic factors and social change and made a powerful attack on the squalor and complacency. He gave a philosophy which has changed the face of the world. In the words of ‘Wayper, “For the power of his message, for the inspiration of his teaching, and for his effect upon further development, Marx can be sure of his place in any collection of the world’s great masters of political thought.”

Russell says, “Marxist doctrines like those of other men, are partly true and partly false. There is much that can be controverted but there are some points in his theory that are of such importance as to prove him a man of supreme intelligence. ” Hallowell says, “We may reject the programme of Marxism, but we cannot ignore the indictment which it makes of capitalism.”

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Who was Karl Marx?
Answer:
Karl Marx has been acknowledged as an originator of communism. He tried to give socialism a scientific and practical form for the first time. Karl Marx was born on May 5, 1818 (New Style) in the city of Trier (Rhenish Prussia). His father was a lawyer, a jew, who in 1824 adopted Protestantism. The family was well to do, cultured but not revolutionary. After graduating from a Gymnasium in Trier, Marx entered the university, first at Bonn and later in Berlin, where he read law, majoring in history and philosophy.

Question 2.
What is Marxism?
Answer:
Marxism is the doctrine and programme of revolutionary or scientific socialism. Its basis is Marx’s analysis of history which traces the origin of social institutions to economic forces. As a political theory it deals with the class structure of society in which the state is the executive committee of the economically dominant class. As an economic theory it is a critique of the capitalism mode of production, explanation of how labour is exploited by the owners of the capital and how the process leads to the decay of capitalism. As a revolutionary programme it is an analysis of tactics of the proletarian dictatorship and the final establishment of classless and stateless social

Question 3.
Explain briefly Karl Marx’s Materialistic Interpretation of history.
Or
What, according to Marx, is the economic interpretation of history?
Answer:
Historical materialism or the materialistic conception of history is the direct application of the principles of dialectical materialism to the development of society. Karl Marx made it the cornerstone of his political philosophy. Although Marx does not very much explain as to what he means by his theory of historical materialism, it is in fact an economic interpretation of history. To quote Marx, “The materialistic conception of history starts from the principle that production, and with production the exchange of its products, is the basis of every social order in every society which has appeared in history.

The distribution of the products, and with it the division of society into classes or estates is determined by what is produced and how it is produced, and how the product is exchanged. According to this conception, the ultimate causes of all social changes and political revolutions are to be sought, not in the minds of men, in their increasing insight into eternal truth and justice, but in changes in the mode of production and exchange. They are to be sought not in the philosophy but in the economics of the period concerned.”

Question 4.
Explain four basic principles of Marxism.
Answer:
Following are the four main principles of Marxism:
1. Dialectical Materialism:
Dialectical materialism is the basic principle of Marxism and the whole political philosophy of Marx rests on it. Marx believed that contrary forces are present in every stage of history and this is the moving force of history. The process of development is the process of thesis, anti-thesis leading to synthesis.

2. Materialistic Interpretation of History:
According to Karl Marx, economic system of the society determines the general character of social, political and spiritual process of life. Whenever changes occur in the mode or relation of production, the whole social and cultural pattern undergoes a rapid change.

3. Theory of Class-Struggle:
According to Marx, the history of humanity is the history of class-struggle. It is the story of the struggle of the underdog against the master. According to Karl Marx, hitherto, society has been divided into two classes — the capitalists and the workers, exploiters and the exploited, rulers and the ruled. The interests of the two classes are opposed to each other and hence a continuous struggle between the two classes.

4. Another Principle of Marxism is theory of Surplus Value.

Question 5.
Write down Karl Marx’s theory of class-struggle.
Or
Write down Karl Marx’s theory of class-struggle.
Or
What is Karl Mark’s theory of class-war?
Answer:
According to Marx, the history of humanity is the history of class-struggle. It is the story of the struggles of the underdog against the master. Whatever may be the form of the struggle, the basic factor is the class war. Marx holds that in every society the forces of economic production divide the society into two hostile classes the capitalists and the workers. These two classes are interdependent and greatly require each other. However, each class wants to derive the maximum advantage from the other. The capitalists want to extract more and to pay less wages, while the workers desire to get the highest possible wages for their labour.

Thus, the capitalists in their hands possess a weapon of oppression and suppression, which the wage-earners never like. Whenever the workers become conscious of their exploitation, they organise themselves, rise and revolt. In this way there comes into existence a permanent and irreconciliable hostility between the capitalists and the workers. This hostility has reached its climax in modem age.

Question 6.
To what extent do you agree with Marx’s theory of class-struggle.?
Answer:
According to Marx, the history of humanity is the history of class-struggle but this view of Marx is not acceptable. The law of love, co-operation and sacrifice Plato’s analysis of society as based on the need of mutual co-operation for the satisfaction of common needs is more true than that of Marx. History is not at all the history of class-war.

Question 7.
What is Karl Marx’s theory of Surplus Value?
Or
What is Marx’s Principle of Surplus Value?
Answer:
Marx describes surplus value as ‘concealed labour’ or ‘unpaid labour’. Surplus value is the difference between the value of a commodity and the wages received by the labourer. Marx holds that since labour is the primary source of value, the whole price of the value should be paid to the labourer. But, this is not done in practice. The labourer is paid only a small fraction of it and the rest goes to the pocket of the capitalist. To this amount of wealth ‘concealed labour’ not paid to the labourer and pocketed by the capitalist, Marx gives the name of surplus value. The theory of surplus value supplies a linchpin to his economic interpretation of Russian history. It points out how the social structure largely depends on the distribution of wealth in the society. By this theory of surplus value, Marx tries to show the injustice that prevails in the capitalist society.

Question 8.
Write down Marx’s view about state.
Answer:
Marx has expressed his views about state in the ‘Communist Manifesto’:
According to Marx, State is neither a divine institution nor a result of social contract. State is a result of social evolution and it is a product of class-struggle. According to Marx, state could not represent all the classes. It has always favoured that class which controls resources of production. State is based on force. The state is against public welfare. State protects the capitalists in the name of public welfare. According to Marx, State has always caused misery.

Marx has observed that the state is a mill that crushes the working class. Marx believes that a day will come when workers | will organise themselves to snatch power from the capitalists and the dictatorship of the proletariat will be established. Dictatorship of the Proletariat will be a transitional state before the establishment of a classless society.

Question 9.
Explain any four bases of the criticism of Marxism.
Answer:
Marxism has been criticised on the following grounds:
1. It is based on wrong conceptions:
Economic factor plays an important role in shaping and moulding the historical changes and movements but it cannot be concluded that all the historical movements are exclusively determined and shaded by the modes of production and exchange.

2. History is not the story of class war:
The law that sustains the universe and makes for progress is not the law of struggle and competition but the law of love, co-operation and sacrifice. Plato’s analysis of society, as based on the need of mutual co-operation for the satisfaction of common needs, is more true than that of Marx. History is not at all the story of class-war.

3. State is not an evil:
The Communists consider the State as an evil because it helps the capitalists in exploiting the poor. The State also helps in increasing the class-struggle. But all this is wrong. The State is not an evil but it is something good.

4. Marxism gives no importance to moral character.

Question 10.
What is Karl Marx’s principle of Dialectical Materialism?
Answer:
Marx believed that contrary forces are present in every stage of history and this is the moving force of history. The internal contradictions are inherent in things because all things have something which is dying away and something which is still developing. This process of development is a process of thesis, anti-thesis leading to synthesis. It means that two different forces act and react and give rise to a third new force.

Applying the above principle of dialectical materialism to the various stages of evolution of society, Marx declared that contradictions have existed at each stage of its evolution. The present society in which the few capitalists control the economic forces is also not free from it. The present capitalist is also faced with its anti thesis the proletariat. The capitalists and the workers are in conflict with each i other. Marx was of the opinion that the result of this class-struggle will be the coming into existence of a classless society.

Question 11.
Write down the names of three important works of Karl Marx.
Answer:
The main works of Karl Marx are:

1. Communist Manifesto
2. Critique of Political Economy
3. A Critical Analysis of Capital Production
4. Das Kapital.

Question 12.
What do you understand by the Marxian concept of classless society?
Or
What do you understand by classless and stateless concept of Marxism?
Answer:
The aim of communists is to establish a Stateless and Classless society, evolving out of class-struggle. Marx is of the opinion that after the destruction of capitalism, the class-struggle in society will come to an end. This way the society will become a classless society. Economic equality will come to stay in society. Thus the new communist society would be classless and stateless where freedom of each is the condition for free development of all. The wage system will also wither away giving place to the principle, from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs. Under such circumstances the state will be rendered useless and hence it will be abolished.

Question 13.
What do you understand by Marx’s dictatorship of Proletariat?
Or
According to Marxists what is meant by ‘Dictatorship of Proletariat’?
Answer:
The dictatorship of the proletariat is an essential stage in the course of transition from the capitalistic society to the socialistic society. Before communism can be established the bureaucracy and military erected by the bourgeoisie must be completely smashed and a new order must be set up at its place. During the transitional period the proletariat shall gradually socialise the natural resources and destroy the last remnants of capitalism. The dictatorship of the proletariat shall aim at the abolition of all the classes and thus prepare the way for its own extinction. During the period of dictatorship of the proletariat, the state becomes a representative of the whole society and not of one class.

Question 14.
Why, according to Marx, will state wither away?
Answer:
Karl Marx regards state as a class institution. According to him, State is nothing more than a machine for the exploitation of one class by the other. But once Capitalism is crushed, the state becomes superfluous and it must wither away. Since the state is a class institution, it will continue only till the remnants of the Capitalist class. Since it is the result of class-struggle, with the end of class-struggle and establishment of classless society it shall wither away of its own.

Question 15.
Write Marx’s view on Religion.
Or
What was Karl Mark’s opinion about religion?
Answer:
Marx held that religion was used to convince the proletariat that if they obeyed the state and their bosses, they would be rewarded in another life. The proletarian was lulled into accepting his way of life by the vision of heaven. This life might be harsh, but if he just stood in taking it as God’s gift, he would be rewarded in the next life. Marx felt that this kept the workers from actively seeking to change the system.

He saw what he believed to be the superstition and ‘hocus and pocus’ of religion used by the dominant class the bourgeoisie, to hold the proletariat in its downtrodden position. This is what Marx meant by his famous statement that religion is the opium of the people. Thus, Marx made scathing attack against the religious system of his day and argued that the future proletarian society would have no need for religion.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Who was Karl Marx?
Answer:
Karl Marx has been acknowledged as an originator of communism. He tried to give socialism a scientific and practical form for the first time. Karl Marx was born on May 5, 1818 in the city of Trier (Rhenish Prussia).

Question 2.
What do you mean by Marxism?
Answer:
Marxism is the doctrine and programme of revolutionary or scientific socialism. Its basis is Marx’s analysis of history which traces the origin of social institutions to economic forces. As a political theory it deals with the class structure of society in which the state is the executive committee of the economically dominant class.

Question 3.
Explain any two basic principles of Marxism.
Answer:
Following are the two main principles of Marxism:
1. Dialectical Materialism:
Dialectical materialism is the basic principle of Marxism and the whole political philosophy of Marx rests on it. Marx believed that contrary forces are present in every stage of history and this is the moving force of history. The process of development is the process of thesis, anti-thesis leading to synthesis.

2. Materialistic Interpretation of History:
According to Karl Marx, economic system of the society determines the general character of social, political and spiritual process of life.

Question 4.
Write down Karl Marx’s theory of class-struggle.
Answer:
According to Marx, the history of humanity is the history of class-struggle. It is the story of the struggles of the underdog against the master. Whatever may be the form of the struggle, the basic factor is the class war. Marx holds that in every society the forces of economic production divide the society into two hostile classesthe capitalists and the workers. The capitalists want to extract more and to pay less wages, while the workers desire to get the highest possible wages for their labour.

Question 5.
What is Karl Marx’s theory of Surplus Value?
Answer:
Surplus value is the difference between the value of a commodity and the wages received by the labourer. The labourer is paid only a small fraction of it and the rest goes to the pocket of the capitalist. To this amount of wealth ‘concealed labour’ not paid to the labourer and pocketed by the capitalist, Marx gives the name of surplus value.

Question 6.
Write down Marx’s view about state.
Answer:
Marx has expressed his views about state in the ‘Communist Manifesto’. According to Marx, State is neither a divine institution nor a result of social contract. State is a result of social evolution and it is a product of class-struggle. According to Marx, state could not represent all the classes. It has always favoured that class which controls resources of production.

Question 7.
Discuss any two bases of the criticism of Marxism.
Answer:
1. It is based on wrong conceptions. Economic factor plays an important role in shaping and moulding the historical changes and movements but it cannot be concluded that all the historical movements are exclusively determined and shaded by the modes of production and exchange.

2. History is not the story of class war. The law that sustains the universe and makes for progress is not the law of struggle and competition but the law of love, co-operation and sacrifice.

Question 8.
Write down the names of two important works of Karl Marx.
Answer:
The main works of Karl Marx are:

1. Communist Manifesto
2. Das Kapital.

Question 9.
Why, according to Marx, will state wither away?
Answer:
Karl Marx regards state as a class institution. According to him, State is nothing more than a machine for the exploitation of one class by the other. But once Capitalism is crushed, the state becomes superfluous and it must wither away. Since the state is a class institution, it will continue only till the remnants of the Capitalist class. Since it is the result of class-struggle, with the end of class-struggle and establishment of classless society it shall wither away of its own.

Question 10.
Explain Karl Marx’s idea towards religion.
Answer:
Marx meant by his famous statement that religion is the opium of the people. Thus, Marx made scathing attack against the religious system of his day and argued that the future proletarian society would have no need for religion.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Write down names of two famous works of Karl Marx.
Answer:

1. Communist Manifesto
2. Das Kapital.

Question 2.
Write two main theories of Karl Marx.
Answer:

• Dialectical Materialism
• Economic Interpretation of History.

Question 3.
Write down Marx’s view on state.
Answer:
Karl Marx called state as the Executive committee of the bourgeois class. According to Karl Marx, state is a political means of the
capitalist class by which it exploits the workers.

Question 4.
Describe any one important characteristic of Marxian view of the nature of state.
Answer:
State is neither a natural institution nor a moral institution.

Question 5.
Mention Marxian view about the welfare state.
Answer:
Marxist ideology considers the welfare state a means of capitalistic system. It considers such a state an evil as it is exploitative in nature.

Question 6.
Write the names of two works (books) of Karl Marx.
Answer:
1. Communist Manifesto
2. Das Kapital.

Question 7.
Write one criticism of Marxism.
Answer:
Individual liberty has not been given any importance in Marxism.

Fill In The Blanks

1. Marxism is based on the ideas of ……………. .
Answer:
Karl Marx

2. Marx is acknowledged as the father of ……………. .
Answer:
Scientific Socialism

3. According to Marx, the history of humanity is the history of ……………. .
Answer:
class struggle

4. Dialectical Materialism is not an original contribution of ……………. .
Answer:
Karl Marx

5. The ideas of Karl Marx have greatly influenced the ……………. .
Answer:
people.

True or False Statement

1. Marx interprets history from materialistic point of view.
Answer:
True

2. Marx describes surplus value as concealed labour.
Answer:
True

3. Karl Marx was in favour of Capitalism and labour exploitation.
Answer:
False

4. Stalin was the writer of Das Kapital.
Answer:
False

5. Karl Marx’s works include Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital.
Answer:
True

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Who is acknowledged as the father of scientific socialism?
(a) Plato ,
(b) Karl Marx
(c) T.H. Green
(d) Lenin.
Answer:
(b) Karl Marx

Question 2.
Which of the following is not a basic principle of Marxism?
(a) Dialectical Materialism
(b) Class Struggle
(c) Theory of Surplus Value
(d) Laissez-faire.
Answer:
(d) Laissez-faire.

Question 3.
Who said, “Religion is the opium of the people.”?
(a) Lenin
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Benthan
(d) J.S. Mill.
Answer:
(b) Karl Marx

Question 4.
Who said, “Historical Materialism is the heart of Marxism.”?
(a) Plamentaz
(b) Stalin
(c) G.D.H. Cole
(d) Hegel.
Answer:
(a) Plamentaz

Question 5.
Which of the following is a basic principle of Marxism?
(a) Dialectical Materialism
(b) Class Struggle
(c) Theory of Surplus Value
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Question 6.
Who applied Historical Materialism to explain both the past history and the future possible evolution?
(a) Kant
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Hegel
(d) G.D.H. Cole.
Answer:
(b) Karl Marx

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 7 Party System Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 7 Party System

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define Political Party and discuss its characteristics.
Or
Explain the main characteristics of Political Parties.
Answer:
It is an age of political parties. It is not possible to run the administration of any country without the existence of political parties. Elections are held on party basis and the legislative work is also done by the parties. The administration is also run according to the programme of the political party which has a majority in the legislature. Lord Bryce is of the opinion that the existence of political parties is most essential and no great country can do without them.

Definitions of Political Parties:
Different writers have defined political parties differently. We hold out here some of the traditional as well, as modern definitions of a political party.
Traditional Definitions:
1. According to Burke, “A political party is a body of men united for the purpose of promoting, by their joint endeavours, the public interest upon some principles on which they are all agreed.”

2. According to Dr. Leacock, “By a political party we mean, a more or less organized group of citizens who act together as a political unit. They share or profess to share the same opinions on public questions and by exercising their voting power towards a common end, seek to obtain control of the government.”

3. According to Maclver, “A political party is an association organised in support of some principle or policy which by constitutional means endeavours to make the determinant of the government.”

4. According to R. G. Gettell, “A political party consists of a group of citizens more or less organised, who act as a political unit and who, by the use of their voting power, aim to control the government and carry out their general policies.”

5. According to Gilchrist, “A political party may be defined as an organised group of citizens who profess to share the same political views and who by acting as a political unit, try to control the government.” From the above given definitions we can conclude that a political party is a group of citizens who held identical views on national problems and in an organized way try to capture the government machinery through constitutional means in order to promote national interest.

Modern Definitions:
The modern writers have defined political party is an organised group of individuals seeking to seize power in order to enjoy the benefits to be derived from such control. According to Schumpeter, “A party as a group whose members propose to act in concert in the competitive struggle for political power.” The French scholar Maurice Duverger believes that a party consists of a few ‘notables’ and a large body of dues paying members who are interested mainly in ‘electoral activity’.

Essentials of a Political Party. A political party should possess the following essentials:

1. Same Views on Public Matters:
The first essential of a political party is that all its members should hold same view point on public matters. Common political views act as a cement for their common views and keep them united.

2. Fixed Programme:
Every political party has its own policies and programmes which it wants to implement after winning the election. Every political party prepares a comprehensive programme for the economic, social, political and cultural development of the country.

3. Organization:
It is necessary that the political party should be well- organized. Every political party has its own constitution according to which the organisation of a political party is determined.

4. Control of Gqvernment for Common Good. The aim of political party is to capture the government machinery.

5. Faith in Peaceful and Constitutional MeAns. The political parties keep faith in peaceful and constitutional meAns.

6. True and Proper Basis. Political parties should be organised on economic and political basis.

7. To promote National Interests. Political party is a group of people who by their joint efforts seek to promote national interest.

Question 2.
Define Political Parties. Describe any four functions of Political Parties in democracy.
Or
Discuss the role of Political Parties in Democratic State.
Answer:
Meaning and Definition of Political Party.
It is an age of political parties. It is not possible to run the administration of any country without the existence of political parties. Elections are held on party basis and the legislative work is also done by the parties. The administration is also run according to the programme of the political party which has a majority in the legislature. Lord Bryce is of the opinion that the existence of political parties is most essential and no great country can do without them.

Definitions of Political Parties. Different writers have defined political parties differently. We hold out here some of the traditional as well, as modern definitions of a political party.
Traditional Definitions:
1. According to Burke, “A political party is a body of men united for the purpose of promoting, by their joint endeavours, the public interest upon some principles on which they are all agreed.”

2. According to Dr. Leacock, “By a political party we mean, a more or less organized group of citizens who act together as a political unit. They share or profess to share the same opinions on public questions and by exercising their voting power towards a common end, seek to obtain control of the government.”

3. According to Maclver, “A political party is an association organised in support of some principle or policy which by constitutional means endeavours to make the determinant of the government.”

4. According to R. G. Gettell, “A political party consists of a group of citizens more or less organised, who act as a political unit and who, by the use of their voting power, aim to control the government and carry out their general policies.”

5. According to Gilchrist, “A political party may be defined as an organised group of citizens who profess to share the same political views and who by acting as a political unit, try to control the government.” From the above given definitions we can conclude that a political party is a group of citizens who held identical views on national problems and in an organized way try to capture the government machinery through constitutional means in order to promote national interest.

Modern Definitions:
The modern writers have defined political party is an organised group of individuals seeking to seize power in order to enjoy the benefits to be derived from such control. According to Schumpeter, “A party as a group whose members propose to act in concert in the competitive struggle for political power.” The French scholar Maurice Duverger believes that a party consists of a few ‘notables’ and a large body of dues paying members who are interested mainly in ‘electoral activity’.

Essentials of a Political Party. A political party should possess the following essentials:

1. Same Views on Public Matters:
The first essential of a political party is that all its members should hold same view point on public matters. Common political views act as a cement for their common views and keep them united.

2. Fixed Programme:
Every political party has its own policies and programmes which it wants to implement after winning the election. Every political party prepares a comprehensive programme for the economic, social, political and cultural development of the country.

3. Organization:
It is necessary that the political party should be well- organized. Every political party has its own constitution according to which the organisation of a political party is determined.

4. Control of Gqvernment for Common Good. The aim of political party is to capture the government machinery.

5. Faith in Peaceful and Constitutional MeAns. The political parties keep faith in peaceful and constitutional meAns.

6. True and Proper Basis. Political parties should be organised on economic and political basis.

7. To promote National Interests. Political party is a group of people who by their joint efforts seek to promote national interest.

Functions of Political Parties in a Modern Democracy:
In a democratic state political parties are of great importance. They perform the following functions :
1. Formation of Public Policies:
The main function of the political parties is to frame public policies. The parties are to frame the best political programme for the general welfare of the society. They form a policy to deal with national and international problems. In order to get full support of the people upon this programme, they arrange public meetings, distribute pamphlets and start newspapers to propagate their policy. In this way the people can judge the merits and demerits of all programmes put before them. They can decide to support one or the other party.

2. Formulation of Public Opinion in its Favour:
The political party aims at capturing the government so that it can put its programme into practice. Each political party tries to win the support of the maximum number of the people, and this is why the political parties frame their policies and put them before the general public. They explain the national and other problems to the people and impress upon them that it is by following the policy of their party that these problems can be solved. If they succeed in winning the majority of the voters to their side, they can capture the government.

3. Political Education:
The political parties explain to the people their programmes and policies through press, through speeches and the publication of literature. It is through such propaganda that parties create and influence public opinion. Education of the public is very important in a democracy and parties undertake this task of education not only before elections, but even afterwards. The majority party in power explains government’s programmes and actions and the parties in opposition criticise government’s inaction and its bad policies. All such education of public helps to determine the general will, which is very important in a democracy.

4. To Contest Election:
The political parties select candidates for contesting election. If the candidates are not men of ability and reputation, the voters will not send them into power and the party is condemned for future. Election campaigns are conducted for the purpose of securing office and power for the party. In these elections every effort is made to persuade voters that they are to vote for the party because its policy and candidates are better than its rivals. Nowadays, the independent candidates contest election in a small number because the people have little faith in an independent candidate. His policy is quite independent and hence it may not be in public interest. The voter of today generally votes for a party and not for an individual.

5. To Run the Government:
The main function of the political party is to run the administration. If a party gets the majority of seats in the legislature, it forms its government and runs the administration of the State. It puts its policies and programmes into pr. ’tice. The political parties which cannot run the administration efficiently cannot become popular with the people. The party in power must try to fulfil the promises to the voters. Often however, once the party gets a majority it conveniently forgets its promises.

6. Criticism of Government:
The parties try to find out the defects of the government in power by a sound criticism for the welfare of the people. By such criticism the party in power remains efficient and is always kept on its right path because the government can learn more from the criticism of its opposite parties than the praises of its own members who wish to seek some promotion in their States by unnecessary praise.

7. Link between the Government and the People:
The political parties serve as good links between the government and the voters. The important members of the party remain in touch with their supporters, explain the policy of the government to them and carry grievances to the government for removal. In this way the contact between government and voter is properly maintained.

8. To Keep Control on its Members:
The political parties are to keep control on their members. The parties keep the members in discipline. The members who are elected on the party ticket to the legislature are very much under the rigid control of the party. The members are to express their opinion in the House in the light of the policy framed by the party. The members of the legislature cannot function properly without some leadership and this leadership is provided by different parties in the legislature. The members who hold the same views organize themselves under different enlightened leaders who maintain the whole discipline in the legislature. Without this discipline the legislature becomes an arena of conflict between the different members.

Conclusion:
In the modem age the political parties play an important role in the administration of the country. Man has come out victorious in political life only with the help of political parties. Some writers think that the political parties are the fourth organ of the State. To exercise the right to vote, to contest election, to create public opinion, to give political education to the people, to run the government and to criticise the working of the government we feel the need of political parties. According to Lord Bryce, ‘Parties are inevitable. No free large country has been without them. No one has shown how representative government could be worked without them.”

Question 3.
Examine the basis of formation of political parties in modern times. In your view, which basis is the best for the formation of a political party?
Or
What are the different bases on which political parties are organised?
Answer:
At any moment certain issues-social, economic and political continuously press for solution. A political party may be organized on the basis of any one of them. Moreover, all the individuals do not hold the same opinion on all the issues. People see all things from different angles. All the people can’t be unanimous on all issues. All people have different solutions to different problems.

But it does not mean that two persons can never reach an agreement. If it had been so then social life could not have been possible. People do possess different opinions on different issues but still there are people who hold identical views on certain issues. The people who hold same view point come closer to one another, organize themselves politically and try to achieve the required end. The group of people who hold identical views on public matters or political matter is called a political party. The political parties are based on various grounds and they are given below:

1. Political Basis:
A political party may be formed on the basis of certain political issues. There may be differences in the community about the form of government, the rights of the people and utility of any particular institution. In India the Indian National Congress was organized for the achievement of independence. In England Whigs and Torries came into being on the question of what should be the position of monarchy in the State.

2. Economic Basis:
The political parties are formed on economic basis. Such parties stand for or against a particular system in vogue. The Communist Party of India wants to do away with the system of private property. To counter this the Indian National Congress has also framed an economic programme for itself which is more or less a compromise between Socialism and Capitalism. In fact no political party can exist in modern times unless it has an economic programme to offer to the community.

3. Religious Basis:
Sometimes political parties are formed on religious basis. The people belonging to one religious community do not like to come closer to the people having faith in another religion. These parties want to solve the political problems in their own way and to attain their purpose they form a separate party. In India there are quite a number of such parties. But such parties are not a healthy type since they introduce a narrow outlook in the political life of the country.

4. Social Basis:
A political party may be formed to remove certain social ills in the society. The social ills are of the nature of disabilities relating to certain sections of community, or certain anti-social customs resulting in certain social injustices. An example of such a party in India is the All India Depressed Classes League or Scheduled Caste Federation. These parties have a programme for the uplift of the Scheduled Castes in India.

5. Racial Basis:
Some political parties are formed on the basis of caste or race. The people of a particular race consider themselves as superior to others and they always try to promote their own interests. Hitler formed the Nazi party on the racial basis.

6. Psychological or Natural Basis:
There is always a large number of such people in society who consider the past culture as the best as compared to the present one. They always aim at reviving the past customs, traditions and modes of life. They are called Reactionaries. Some people are of the opinion that the present system is the best and they do not favour any change in it. They are called Conservatives. Persons who want a total change in society are called Radicals. The parties which are in favour of reforms and progress are called parties of the Left and the parties which are in favour of old way of living are called parties of the Right.

Question 4.
Discus the merits and demerits of Political Parties.
Or
Define the term ‘Political Party’ and mention three advantages and two disadvantages of the multi-party system.
Answer:
The present age is an age of democracy. All the citizens have the right to express their views and to criticise the functioning of the government. People have got the right to run the administration. The individual cannot himself make the proper use of these rights and this is why the political parties came into existence. In the absence of political parties our political life will be incomplete today.

Meaning and Definition of Political Party.
It is an age of political parties. It is not possible to run the administration of any country without the existence of political parties. Elections are held on party basis and the legislative work is also done by the parties. The administration is also run according to the programme of the political party which has a majority in the legislature. Lord Bryce is of the opinion that the existence of political parties is most essential and no great country can do without them.

Definitions of Political Parties. Different writers have defined political parties differently. We hold out here some of the traditional as well, as modern definitions of a political party.
Traditional Definitions:
1. According to Burke, “A political party is a body of men united for the purpose of promoting, by their joint endeavours, the public interest upon some principles on which they are all agreed.”

2. According to Dr. Leacock, “By a political party we mean, a more or less organized group of citizens who act together as a political unit. They share or profess to share the same opinions on public questions and by exercising their voting power towards a common end, seek to obtain control of the government.”

3. According to Maclver, “A political party is an association organised in support of some principle or policy which by constitutional means endeavours to make the determinant of the government.”

4. According to R. G. Gettell, “A political party consists of a group of citizens more or less organised, who act as a political unit and who, by the use of their voting power, aim to control the government and carry out their general policies.”

5. According to Gilchrist, “A political party may be defined as an organised group of citizens who profess to share the same political views and who by acting as a political unit, try to control the government.” From the above given definitions we can conclude that a political party is a group of citizens who held identical views on national problems and in an organized way try to capture the government machinery through constitutional means in order to promote national interest.

Modern Definitions:
The modern writers have defined political party is an organised group of individuals seeking to seize power in order to enjoy the benefits to be derived from such control. According to Schumpeter, “A party as a group whose members propose to act in concert in the competitive struggle for political power.” The French scholar Maurice Duverger believes that a party consists of a few ‘notables’ and a large body of dues paying members who are interested mainly in ‘electoral activity’.

Essentials of a Political Party. A political party should possess the following essentials :

1. Same Views on Public Matters:
The first essential of a political party is that all its members should hold same view point on public matters. Common political views act as a cement for their common views and keep them united.

2. Fixed Programme:
Every political party has its own policies and programmes which it wants to implement after winning the election. Every political party prepares a comprehensive programme for the economic, social, political and cultural development of the country.

3. Organization:
It is necessary that the political party should be well- organized. Every political party has its own constitution according to which the organisation of a political party is determined.

4. Control of Government for Common Good. The aim of political party is to capture the government machinery.

5. Faith in Peaceful and Constitutional Means. The political parties keep faith in peaceful and constitutional means.

6. True and Proper Basis. Political parties should be organised on economic and political basis.

7. To promote National Interests. Political party is a group of people who by their joint efforts seek to promote national interest.

Merits of Party System:
1. It helps democracy:
Parties are essential for the successful working of a democratic government, since democracy is based on the will of the people and parties create this will. Stable Government is only possible in a country where the parties are fully organized. No government can be stable unless it is sure of general support of a majority in the legislature. If there is no organized party to back it in the legislature, a government will be weak since it will always be in doubt about the attitude of the legislature which ultimately controls the government in most countries. A democratic government ultimately is possible only when people organize themselves politically and act on set lines.

2. Political Education:
If parties did not exist most of the citizens would remain ignorant of current political questions. It is mainly through an organization like that of a party that the average citizen can get himself acquainted with the various aspects of a political problem and its solution. Particularly, the election campaign becomes primarily an educative campaign.

3. Government becomes stable:
The administration can be sound and stable only if the political parties exist in the country. The ruling party runs the administration quite strongly because it is certain about the support of majority of the members in the legislature. Moreover the members of a well- organized political party very rarely defect from the party. It is a system that ensures stability in administration and, orderly change for democratic parties in discussion and exchange of ideas rather than violent demonstrations and exchange of blows.

4. Essential for Parliamentary form of Government:
The Parliamentary system of government is based on political parties. It is an important feature of parliamentary form of government that the Prime Minister would be the person who is the leader of the majority party in the legislature. All other members of the Council of Ministers are also to be taken from the majority party. The members of the legislature cannot organise themselves in the absence of political parties and it cannot be ascertained who is the leader of the majority of the members in the House if there are no political parties.

5. They put a check on the autocratic activities of the government:
The political parties are a great check on the absolutist and autocractic activities of the government. The opposition parties criticise the wrong actions and policies of the government and they keep the government on the right path. The opposition parties bring to light the drawbacks of the administration and in this way the public opinion goes against the government party. No party can afford to lose public support. The ministers never do any such thing which goes against the party. The opposition parties always exploit the weakness of the ruling party. The government always does everything keeping in view the opinion of the public.

6. Formulation of public opinion:
Public opinion cannot be created in the absence of political parties, because in the society everyone has his individual opinion and unanimity of opinions can only be had with the help of political parties. The political parties are the brokers of ideas. The political parties select the more important, urgent problems and offer solutions to these problems. This thing helps in the formation of public opinion.

7. Political Parties establish relation between the Executive and the Legislature in Presidential government:
In a presidential form of government there is no relationship between the legislature and the executive and it leads to deadlocks in administration. This defect is removed by the political parties. The party to which the President belongs has its members in the Congress also. The political parties coordinate the working of the executive and the legislature and it brings efficiency in the administration of the State. The executive can succeed in getting the laws framed according to its needs.

8. Poor people can also contest elections:
The rich people can afford to contest election but the poor cannot afford to spend a huge sum on the elections. But this hindrance in the way of the poor people is removed by the political parties. Each political party possesses an election fund and the candidates are given financial help from this fund. If a member of a political party is capable and popular among the people but he is financially unsound, he is given financial aid by the party. Political parties help the poor to contest election. A poor person having rich ideas can help the legislature in many ways.

9. Discipline among the representatives:
The political parties impose strict discipline upon their members. The members who win the election on party ticket are kept in discipline. The members are not permitted to do anything of their own accord. The main advantage of imposing strict discipline is that the members do not forget the promises which the party made with the people during elections. The members are to act according to the election manifesto.

10. Reforms:
Political parties introduce various reforms in the society. Each party performs such functions in order to win public opinion. Each party expresses its opinions on the social evils prevailing in society. The parties try to remove these evils.

11. National unity:
The political parties help a lot in the maintenance of national unity. In each political party there are members from different castes, religions and communities. All these people have the same view¬points and it leads to the abolition of religious and caste differences. All members of the party work for the promotion of national interests. This leads to the development of the spirit of national unity among them.

Demerits of Party System:
The political parties suffer from various defects-
1. Dictatorship of the Majority Party:
The main effect of political parties is that the majority party establishes its dictatorship for a definite period in the State. The elections are held after four or five years and a party which gains majority in the legislature, forms its own government. The government is certain about its absolute majority in the legislature so it can afford to be dictatorial. The members of the party cannot go against the directives of the party and hence they do what is desired by the party. The governing party does not care about the criticism of the opposition parties.

2. No Importance of the Individual Opinion and Liberty with the Representatives:
The party system destroys individuality. It tends to make men put reliance more and more on party labels. Measures are judged not on their merits but according to the quarter they proceed from. A man who is a member of a party is not allowed, under the rules of party discipline, to hold and express an opinion in opposition to the principles and commitments of the party. All members must accept the policy of the party. All of them are expected to support the party policy in public. There is no room in the party for a member with independent views. The best men are more likely to possess some independent views of their own which may not suit the party.

3. Obstacle in National Unity:
Some people are of the opinion that the political parties are a big obstacle in national unity. The political parties divide the people and go on fighting among themselves. There are as many divisions of the country as there are political parties. Each party tries to promote its personal ends. The parties sacrifice the national interests at the altar of their personal interests. The party expects that all the members should remain loyal to it and they should always act according to the directives of the party. Loyalty to the country is replaced by loyalty to the party. Where there are political parties based on caste and religion, there is always a danger to national unity.

4. Standard of Public Morality is Degraded:
The political parties are responsible for degrading the moral standard of the people. Under the party system the people are unduly flattered for the purpose of capturing votes. This results sometimes in what is known as catching legislation. Proper legislation of this type is usually unscientific, bad legislation. The party organisation passes into the hands of unscrupulous people to private cliques which arrange matters to suit themselves. The leaders of these private cliques utilize the forces of the State to promote the selfish interests. The party system is responsible for the introduction of spoiled system in the matter of distribution of governmental jobs.

5. Encouragement to Communalism:
The party system encourages communalism. There is no scarcity of the tactful, wicked and shrewd persons. Such persons are always after achieving their ends. They form a political party by organising the people on the basis of caste and religion and exploit the people in the name of religion. In India there are a number of communal parties. They are always a danger to national unity.

6. Government becomes Unstable:
Multiplicity of parties within the legislature results in the formation of an unstable government. In France the governments used to change very frequently due to this reason. The opposition parties unnecessarily criticise the government and never co-operate with the government in the execution of its policies. The people’s progress is hampered when the governments change too frequently.

7. Laws are made to attract Public Opinion:
The political parties tap all the possible measures to win public opinion in their favour. The ruling party frames such laws as can attract public opinion to its side. These laws may not be in the best interests of the nation but they must stand the party in good stead. Sometimes laws are framed which seem to be good at the value, but in fact they do not serve the purpose of the people. Moreover the opposition parties consider it as their primary duty that they must criticise the government, whether the government is right or wrong.

8. Clique of Selfish Leaders in the Party:
Another serious objection against the party system is that the parties are run by small cliques of leaders commanding their followers. The leaders deceive their unintelligent followers, the average masses and frustrate the will of the people for better government.

9. Embitter the Local Atmosphere:
Political parties necessarily extend national political issues to local election. In election to local bodies like municipalities or corporations, votes should be cast on the personal merits of candidates or on local issues of policy. But political parties spoil the local atmosphere and decisions in local bodies are not taken impartially.

Conclusion:
The party system has been regarded by many as more of a curse than a blessing yet nobody denies that it is essential for the working of a representative government. It is true that parties are liable to serious abuses but the remedy lies in the creation of a sound, just and vigilant public opinion. The party system is essential for the creation of public opinion. Parties should be organised on right fines and controlled by the honest citizens of the State.

Question 5.
Discuss the different party systems. Also describe their respective merits and demerits.
Or
Describe the types of Party System. Which party system do you like and why?
Answer:
Party system is essential for a democratic system of government. Party system is of various types Two party system, Multiple-party system and Single party system. In each country there exists some party system. In Britain and America there exists a two party system, in France Multiple-party system and in China Single party system.

Where there are two main political parties we call that a Dual Party or Double Party or Bi-party system. The essence of such a party system is that there are only two well organized parties which may enjoy public confidence. After the elections, one party forms the government and the other party sits in the opposition. The system, however, is elastic enough to provide for the existence of certain minor political parties.

But they are of no major consequence because the people habitually are not prepared to put their confidence in one of them. The real contest is usually confined to the two major political parties. In England there exists a two-party system, as the labour party and conservative party are the two major parties in the country. All other minor parties have no importance in the country.

Merits of Two-Party System:
Following are the merits of two-party system-
1. Formation of Government is easy:
The main advantage of the two-party system is that in it the formation of ministry is very easy. The council of ministers is chosen from the members of majority party in the legislature. In a two party system, one party gets a clear majority and the leader of that party is appointed the Prime Minister and all other ministers are appointed on his recommendations. In case of a failure on the part of the party in power the electorate can easily express their dissatisfaction by voting the other party to power at the new elections.

2. People directly choose the Government:
In a two-party system the government is chosen according to the wishes of the people. The leaders of both the parties are already known to the people. It is the will of the people to elect either of the two to head the government. Moreover, it is quite easy for the voters to cast their votes. The people can cast their votes for the party which they want to come to power. The party which gets the majority of the seats controls the government. In a two-party system the government is stable and strong.

3. Government remains responsible:
In a two-party system the responsibility for a good or bad government can be easily fixed. The administration is more responsible because administrative responsibility falls on a particular political party. If the ruling party does not run the administration smoothly the people will vote it down and they vote to power the other party. The government cannot be dictatorial because the opposition party criticises its wrong actions and policies. The opposition keeps the government always alert.

4. Government becomes stable:
In a two-party system the government generally remains stable. The government is formed by the majority party. All the ministers are taken from a single party. As a matter, of course, they work as a team and they remain in office as long as they continue to enjoy the confidence of that party.

5. Strong Government:
In a two-party system the government is strong. The ministry is always sure of the support of majority party and therefore whatever decisions it takes it can pursue it strongly. The ministry is certain about the fact that the measures introduced by it in the legislature will be carried out because they will be backed by the majority party. The opposition party may criticise the government to any possible extent but the measures initiated by the ruling party are always carried out.

6. Strong Opposition:
In a two-party system the opposition party also plays a very important role. One party forms the government and the other party is called the opposition party. The opposition party always makes a constructive criticism of the government. It brings to light the defects of the ruling party and tries to create public opinion in support of its policies.

Demerits of Two-Party System:
No doubt in most of the countries two-party system is considered the best but still it suffers from various defects. Following are the defects in a two-party system:
1. Limited choice before the voters:
The main defect of the Bi-party system is that the voter enjoys no more independence except the right to vote. The voter is to cast his vote in favour of either of the two parties, he has no other choice. He should either cast his vote in favour of these two parties or he should not exercise his right to vote at all. The choice in this system is very limited.

2. Nation is divided into two halves:
In a two-party system the nation is divided into two groups. These two groups never come closer to each other. Both the parties always try to defeat each other at the elections. Each party criticises the other on unhealthy grounds. The system promotes an intolerant party spirit.

3. Dictatorship of the Cabinet:
Under two-party system one of the parties is sure to be in the majority. Having gained the majority the party can exercise governmental powers in utter disregard of public good. Having an absolute majority in the legislature the government may even indulge in corrupt practices with impunity. This despotism of majority has further led to the establishment of Cabinet dictatorship in England. The members of the Council of Ministers are to work under the directives of the party. The Cabinet being sure of its majority in the legislature can act according to its sweet will. It can afford to ignore public welfare.

4. Prestige of the legislature is lowered:
The importance of the legislature is affected under a two-party system. The legislature becomes a plaything in the hands of the Council of Ministers. The legislature can do nothing which is contrary to the wishes of the ministry. It is said that in England the legislature does not exercise any control over the Cabinet, rather it is the Cabinet which controls the legislature. These are the ministers who prepare the bill, pilot them and see that they are passed. The legislature is only a forum for discussion and these are the ministers who do all the important jobs.

5. Legislature does not represent all shades of opinion:
In a two-party system small communities do not get due representation in the legislature. In no country live the people who have only two types of opinions. People have various types of opinions over public matters and political matters and only two political parties cannot safeguard and promote their interests. Therefore such a legislature cannot satisfy the needs of all communities.

6. Tyranny of the majority party:
In a two-party system the majority party controls the government. It has every temptation to misuse authority. The party members are bound by party discipline to follow the decisions of the party. No member can afford to violate party discipline. The majority party always aims at furthering its own interests and it ignores the interests of the minority parties. It tries to get such laws framed which help it in gaining control of the administration. It tries to remain in power through fair or foul means.

If there are more than two well organized parties that share almost an equal degree the confidence of the people, we may say that there is a multiple-party system. Let us suppose that there are five political parties namely A, B, C, D, E and A got 30%, B got 20%, C got 15%, D got 25% and E got 10% seats in the legislature and this system is called multiple-party system. The multiple-party system prevails in France, Japan, Switzerland, Italy and in India.

The merits and demerits of the multiple-party system are given below:
Merits of Multiple-Party System:
Following are the merits of multiple-party system:

1. Representation of all shades of opinion:
An important merit of multiple- party system is that in the legislature all shades of opinion get representation. There exist various political parties that represent different shades of opinion and each party gets somewhat representation in the legislature. The members of each political party support their view-point in the legislature. This way the legislature becomes such an institution which represents every type of view-point.

2. More choice to the voters:
In multiple-party system the voter enjoys a greater degree of independence and choice because so many
parties contest the elections. The voter can vote for a candidate of his own choice.

3. Position of the legislature becomes significant:
In a multiple-party system the legislature does not become a tool in the hands of the cabinet, rather it keeps the cabinet under its control. No party gets absolute majority in the legislature and therefore no party can establish its dictatorship. A measure can be passed in the legislature if two or more than two parties support the measure. In fact the ministry functions in accordance with the wishes of the legislature. It gives importance to legislature.

4. Government changes according to times easily:
In multiple-party system the government can be changed easily even before the next election. In this system no single party can have its own way. Therefore if the ministry does not change its policy according to the time then one or other party quits the ministry and thus the government falls. This way the ministry can be changed when the time so demands.

5. Nation is not divided into two halves:
In a multiple-party system the political parties do not bitterly criticise one another because after the resignation of the cabinet no single party is confident of forming the government.

Demerits of Multiple-Party System
Following are the demerits of multiple-party system:
1. Formation of Government is not easy:
The main defect of the Multiple- Party System is that great difficulty is experienced in the formation of government. No party gets majority of the seats in the legislature and it is not easy for two or three parties to join hands in order to form the government. The parties differ in ideologies and hence they cannot come closer.

2. Government is Unstable:
In a multiple-party system the government is unstable. The governments are usually coalitions composed of diverse elements. There goes on a war of privileges between these elements. Compromise is reached and broken frequently, consequently the governments are formed and broken also too frequently. In France governments are notoriously unstable.

3. Weak position of the Prime Minister:
The position of the Prime Minister is very weak in a multiple-party system. The party of the Prime Minister is not the majority party in the legislature, so he is to depend upon other parties for support. He can do nothing of his own accord. He is to please his ministers and normally he acts on the dictates of the ministers.

4. Government is not the direct choice of the people:
The government in the multiple- party system is not formed according to the wishes of the people. As no party attains majority in the legislature so it is always uncertain that who will become the Prime Minister of the State. It is also always uncertain which parties will participate in the coalition government.

5. Responsibility of the Government cannot be determined:
In a multiple- party system many parties join hands and form a coalition government. This way the responsibility of administration is divided and rather the government becomes irresponsible. Each party shifts the responsibility to the other party. No party can be held responsible for the weaknesses in the administration. No party takes responsibility and hence the public welfare is completely ignored.

6. Continuity of policy is not possible:
The ministry is never certain about the tenure of office. The ministry little knows when it will have to tender its resignation. Therefore the ministry cannot execute any policy forcefully and strongly. The ministry never makes long term plans.

7. Lack of well organised and strong opposition party:
In a multiple- party system there is always lack of well organized and strong opposition party. Normally many parties join hands and form a strong opposition. But in a multiple party system most of the parties are partners in a coalition government and there are no effective opposition parties. Therefore government’s wrong actions and policies do not come under criticism. The opposition is never sure whether after the fall of the government it will be able to form the new government and this is why the opposition party is never particular about criticising the wrongs committed by the government.

8. Lack of party discipline among the Legislators:
In a multiple-party system there is lack of party discipline among the legislators. The governments are the outcome of manipulation and manoeuvring. Self-seeking parties come together not because they have common interest but because through such combination they can acquire power.

A single party system is that system where only one political party functions in the whole of the State. The same party runs the administration of the State and no other party can come into existence. In fact the single party system cannot exist in a democracy. It is but natural that the party will establish its dictatorship in the State. There is a single party system in Cuba, China and some other communist countries. In these countries nobody can criticise the communist party and people have no right to form a second party.

Merits of Single Party System:
A single party system is in accordance with the democratic principles but still it has some merits:
1. National Unity:
A single party system helps in building up national unity. The nation is not divided into various hostile groups. The entire country becomes one political unit and functions quite successfully.

2. Strong Government:
In a single party system the government is always strong and it can carry out its policies more efficiently. Once a policy is framed, all the members of the party must follow that policy. No member of the party is allowed to criticise the policy of the party.

3. Continuity of Policy:
In a single party system there is always continuity of policy. The party can make long-term plans, because the party knows that it will remain in power for all times to come. This way the country can follow the same policy for a long time.

4. National Progress:
In a single party-system the nation progresses very speedily. The political parties have no clash and struggle for power. There is no unhealthy criticism of the government. The entire country functions as one political unit and the nation progresses by leaps and bounds.

5. Party Discipline:
There always prevails rigid and iron discipline in a single party system. No member of the party can afford to violate party discipline. If any member dares to violate party discipline it results in his political death. If a member is expelled from the party, he cannot participate in the political functions.

Demerits of Single Party System:
A single party system suffers from various defects and that is why this system has not been adopted in any democratic country. Its defects are given below:
1. It is against democratic principles:
This system is against democratic principles because in this system the people do not enjoy the right to freedom of speech and expression. The people cannot express their viewpoints on matters of public concern. All shades of opinion do not get representation in the legislature.

2. Election is a mere show:
In a single party system election is a mere show. All the candidates belong to the same political party. They do not hold different views on the problems of the State. The election or defeat of any candidate does not result in the change of policy of the government.

3. Government does not feel responsible:
The government is not responsible for all its actions and policies to the people. There is no other party to oppose and criticise the government.

4. Dictatorship of one party:
In a single party system the party establishes its dictatorship and it runs the government according to its will. All the benefits are taken by the members of the party and the general public suffers a lot.

5. No rights and liberties to the people:
In a single party system people do not enjoy rights and civil liberties and hence their personality does not develop. The individual functions like a part of the machine.

6. No political education:
In a single party system the people do not get any political education. Press and platform are used only by the ruling party. People do not come to know about different shades of opinions.
Which is the best Party System?

In all the forms of governments all party systems cannot be considered as the best. In dictatorship one party system is the best while in a democratic government a single party system finds no place. In a parliamentary form of government the two-party system is considered the best system. Multiparty system suits a country where there are many minority communities. But under such circumstances it will be better if instead of Parliamentary form of government Presidential system of government is adopted.

Question 6.
Discuss the merits and demerits of Bi-party System.
Answer:
Where there are two main political parties we call that a Dual Party or Double Party or Bi-party system. The essence of such a party system is that there are only two well organized parties which may enjoy public confidence. After the elections, one party forms the government and the other party sits in the opposition. The system, however, is elastic enough to provide for the existence of certain minor political parties.

But they are of no major consequence because the people habitually are not prepared to put their confidence in one of them. The real contest is usually confined to the two major political parties. In England there exists a two-party system, as the labour party and conservative party are the two major parties in the country. All other minor parties have no importance in the country.

Merits of Two-Party System:
Following are the merits of two-party system-
1. Formation of Government is easy:
The main advantage of the two-party system is that in it the formation of ministry is very easy. The council of ministers is chosen from the members of majority party in the legislature. In a two party system, one party gets a clear majority and the leader of that party is appointed the Prime Minister and all other ministers are appointed on his recommendations. In case of a failure on the part of the party in power the electorate can easily express their dissatisfaction by voting the other party to power at the new elections.

2. People directly choose the Government:
In a two-party system the government is chosen according to the wishes of the people. The leaders of both the parties are already known to the people. It is the will of the people to elect either of the two to head the government. Moreover, it is quite easy for the voters to cast their votes. The people can cast their votes for the party which they want to come to power. The party which gets the majority of the seats controls the government. In a two-party system the government is stable and strong.

3. Government remains responsible:
In a two-party system the responsibility for a good or bad government can be easily fixed. The administration is more responsible because administrative responsibility falls on a particular political party. If the ruling party does not run the administration smoothly the people will vote it down and they vote to power the other party. The government cannot be dictatorial because the opposition party criticises its wrong actions and policies. The opposition keeps the government always alert.

4. Government becomes stable:
In a two-party system the government generally remains stable. The government is formed by the majority party. All the ministers are taken from a single party. As a matter, of course, they work as a team and they remain in office as long as they continue to enjoy the confidence of that party.

5. Strong Government:
In a two-party system the government is strong. The ministry is always sure of the support of majority party and therefore whatever decisions it takes it can pursue it strongly. The ministry is certain about the fact that the measures introduced by it in the legislature will be carried out because they will be backed by the majority party. The opposition party may criticise the government to any possible extent but the measures initiated by the ruling party are always carried out.

6. Strong Opposition:
In a two-party system the opposition party also plays a very important role. One party forms the government and the other party is called the opposition party. The opposition party always makes a constructive criticism of the government. It brings to light the defects of the ruling party and tries to create public opinion in support of its policies.

Demerits of Two-Party System:
No doubt in most of the countries two-party system is considered the best but still it suffers from various defects. Following are the defects in a two-party system:
1. Limited choice before the voters:
The main defect of the Bi-party system is that the voter enjoys no more independence except the right to vote. The voter is to cast his vote in favour of either of the two parties, he has no other choice. He should either cast his vote in favour of these two parties or he should not exercise his right to vote at all. The choice in this system is very limited.

2. Nation is divided into two halves:
In a two-party system the nation is divided into two groups. These two groups never come closer to each other. Both the parties always try to defeat each other at the elections. Each party criticises the other on unhealthy grounds. The system promotes an intolerant party spirit.

3. Dictatorship of the Cabinet:
Under two-party system one of the parties is sure to be in the majority. Having gained the majority the party can exercise governmental powers in utter disregard of public good. Having an absolute majority in the legislature the government may even indulge in corrupt practices with impunity. This despotism of majority has further led to the establishment of Cabinet dictatorship in England. The members of the Council of Ministers are to work under the directives of the party. The Cabinet being sure of its majority in the legislature can act according to its sweet will. It can afford to ignore public welfare.

4. Prestige of the legislature is lowered:
The importance of the legislature is affected under a two-party system. The legislature becomes a plaything in the hands of the Council of Ministers. The legislature can do nothing which is contrary to the wishes of the ministry. It is said that in England the legislature does not exercise any control over the Cabinet, rather it is the Cabinet which controls the legislature. These are the ministers who prepare the bill, pilot them and see that they are passed. The legislature is only a forum for discussion and these are the ministers who do all the important jobs.

5. Legislature does not represent all shades of opinion:
In a two-party system small communities do not get due representation in the legislature. In no country live the people who have only two types of opinions. People have various types of opinions over public matters and political matters and only two political parties cannot safeguard and promote their interests. Therefore such a legislature cannot satisfy the needs of all communities.

6. Tyranny of the majority party:
In a two-party system the majority party controls the government. It has every temptation to misuse authority. The party members are bound by party discipline to follow the decisions of the party. No member can afford to violate party discipline. The majority party always aims at furthering its own interests and it ignores the interests of the minority parties. It tries to get such laws framed which help it in gaining control of the administration. It tries to remain in power through fair or foul means.

Question 7.
Discuss the merits and demerits of multi-party system.
Ans.
If there are more than two well organized parties that share almost an equal degree the confidence of the people, we may say that there is a multiple-party system. Let us suppose that there are five political parties namely A, B, C, D, E and A got 30%, B got 20%, C got 15%, D got 25% and E got 10% seats in the legislature and this system is called multiple-party system. The multiple-party system prevails in France, Japan, Switzerland, Italy and in India.

The merits and demerits of the multiple-party system are given below:
Merits of Multiple-Party System:
Following are the merits of multiple-party system:

1. Representation of all shades of opinion:
An important merit of multiple- party system is that in the legislature all shades of opinion get representation. There exist various political parties that represent different shades of opinion and each party gets somewhat representation in the legislature. The members of each political party support their view-point in the legislature. This way the legislature becomes such an institution which represents every type of view-point.

2. More choice to the voters:
In multiple-party system the voter enjoys a greater degree of independence and choice because so many
parties contest the elections. The voter can vote for a candidate of his own choice.

3. Position of the legislature becomes significant:
In a multiple-party system the legislature does not become a tool in the hands of the cabinet, rather it keeps the cabinet under its control. No party gets absolute majority in the legislature and therefore no party can establish its dictatorship. A measure can be passed in the legislature if two or more than two parties support the measure. In fact the ministry functions in accordance with the wishes of the legislature. It gives importance to legislature.

4. Government changes according to times easily:
In multiple-party system the government can be changed easily even before the next election. In this system no single party can have its own way. Therefore if the ministry does not change its policy according to the time then one or other party quits the ministry and thus the government falls. This way the ministry can be changed when the time so demands.

5. Nation is not divided into two halves:
In a multiple-party system the political parties do not bitterly criticise one another because after the resignation of the cabinet no single party is confident of forming the government.

Demerits of Multiple-Party System
Following are the demerits of multiple-party system :
1. Formation of Government is not easy:
The main defect of the Multiple- Party System is that great difficulty is experienced in the formation of government. No party gets majority of the seats in the legislature and it is not easy for two or three parties to join hands in order to form the government. The parties differ in ideologies and hence they cannot come closer.

2. Government is Unstable:
In a multiple-party system the government is unstable. The governments are usually coalitions composed of diverse elements. There goes on a war of privileges between these elements. Compromise is reached and broken frequently, consequently the governments are formed and broken also too frequently. In France governments are notoriously unstable.

3. Weak position of the Prime Minister:
The position of the Prime Minister is very weak in a multiple-party system. The party of the Prime Minister is not the majority party in the legislature, so he is to depend upon other parties for support. He can do nothing of his own accord. He is to please his ministers and normally he acts on the dictates of the ministers.

4. Government is not the direct choice of the people:
The government in the multiple- party system is not formed according to the wishes of the people. As no party attains majority in the legislature so it is always uncertain that who will become the Prime Minister of the State. It is also always uncertain which parties will participate in the coalition government.

5. Responsibility of the Government cannot be determined:
In a multiple- party system many parties join hands and form a coalition government. This way the responsibility of administration is divided and rather the government becomes irresponsible. Each party shifts the responsibility to the other party. No party can be held responsible for the weaknesses in the administration. No party takes responsibility and hence the public welfare is completely ignored.

6. Continuity of policy is not possible:
The ministry is never certain about the tenure of office. The ministry little knows when it will have to tender its resignation. Therefore the ministry cannot execute any policy forcefully and strongly. The ministry never makes long term plans.

7. Lack of well organised and strong opposition party:
In a multiple- party system there is always lack of well organized and strong opposition party. Normally many parties join hands and form a strong opposition. But in a multiple party system most of the parties are partners in a coalition government and there are no effective opposition parties. Therefore government’s wrong actions and policies do not come under criticism. The opposition is never sure whether after the fall of the government it will be able to form the new government and this is why the opposition party is never particular about criticising the wrongs committed by the government.

8. Lack of party discipline among the Legislators:
In a multiple-party system there is lack of party discipline among the legislators. The governments are the outcome of manipulation and manoeuvring. Self-seeking parties come together not because they have common interest but because through such combination they can acquire power.

Question 8.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the Single Party System.
Answer:
A single party system is that system where only one political party functions in the whole of the State. The same party runs the administration of the State and no other party can come into existence. In fact the single party system cannot exist in a democracy. It is but natural that the party will establish its dictatorship in the State. There is a single party system in Cuba, China and some other communist countries. In these countries nobody can criticise the communist party and people have no right to form a second party.

Merits of Single Party System:
A single party system is in accordance with the democratic principles but still it has some merits :
1. National Unity:
A single party system helps in building up national unity. The nation is not divided into various hostile groups. The entire country becomes one political unit and functions quite successfully.

2. Strong Government:
In a single party system the government is always strong and it can carry out its policies more efficiently. Once a policy is framed, all the members of the party must follow that policy. No member of the party is allowed to criticise the policy of the party.

3. Continuity of Policy:
In a single party system there is always continuity of policy. The party can make long-term plans, because the party knows that it will remain in power for all times to come. This way the country can follow the same policy for a long time.

4. National Progress:
In a single party-system the nation progresses very speedily. The political parties have no clash and struggle for power. There is no unhealthy criticism of the government. The entire country functions as one political unit and the nation progresses by leaps and bounds.

5. Party Discipline:
There always prevails rigid and iron discipline in a single party system. No member of the party can afford to violate party discipline. If any member dares to violate party discipline it results in his political death. If a member is expelled from the party, he cannot participate in the political functions.

Demerits of Single Party System:
A single party system suffers from various defects and that is why this system has not been adopted in any democratic country. Its defects are given below:
1. It is against democratic principles:
This system is against democratic principles because in this system the people do not enjoy the right to freedom of speech and expression. The people cannot express their viewpoints on matters of public concern. All shades of opinion do not get representation in the legislature.

2. Election is a mere show:
In a single party system election is a mere show. All the candidates belong to the same political party. They do not hold different views on the problems of the State. The election or defeat of any candidate does not result in the change of policy of the government.

3. Government does not feel responsible:
The government is not responsible for all its actions and policies to the people. There is no other party to oppose and criticise the government.

4. Dictatorship of one party:
In a single party system the party establishes its dictatorship and it runs the government according to its will. All the benefits are taken by the members of the party and the general public suffers a lot.

5. No rights and liberties to the people:
In a single party system people do not enjoy rights and civil liberties and hence their personality does not develop. The individual functions like a part of the machine.

6. No political education:
In a single party system the people do not get any political education. Press and platform are used only by the ruling party. People do not come to know about different shades of opinions.
Which is the best Party System ?

In all the forms of governments all party systems cannot be considered as the best. In dictatorship one party system is the best while in a democratic government a single party system finds no place. In a parliamentary form of government the two-party system is considered the best system. Multiparty system suits a country where there are many minority communities. But under such circumstances it will be better if instead of Parliamentary form of government Presidential system of government is adopted.

Question 9.
Discuss the role of opposition in the Democratic State.
Or
Define the role of opposition in Democracy.
Answer:
Opposition Party is Essential for the Success of Democracy. Democracy is a Government by criticism. Government is run by the representatives of the people according to their wishes. Every individual has a right to criticise and oppose the policies and actions of the Government. In a Parliamentary system one party that has gained majority at the polls, forms the Government and runs the administration and other party or parties go into opposition. Because of the existence of opposition parties, the party in power or Cabinet remains alert about its duties and functions and cannot act arbitrarily. In England there are two political parties one forms the Government and the other forms the opposition.

In a democratic system opposition performs many functions and the most important are as follows:
1. Criticism:
One of the most important functions of the opposition is to criticise the government. The opposition exposes the anti-people activities of the government. This is exposed outside the Parliament through demonstrations and inside the Parliament through various questions and motions. Opposition asks questions concerning the working of various departments, misuse of powers by the civil servants and lapses on the part of government.

2. Co-operation with the Government:
The opposition does not hinder the working of the Government. As a matter of fact both the majority and the opposition work in co-operation with one another. On important matters there are always consultations between the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition. The Government gives full opportunity to the opposition to place its point of view before the House and the opposition accommodates the Government on many matters.

3. Political Education to the People:
The opposition keeps supervision over the work of the Government. The opposition knows that by criticism it cannot change the government and its policies. But it criticises to educate the people.

4. Appeal to the Electors:
The opposition criticises the Government in the House just to unmask the Government before the nation and tries to win the public opinion for next election by exposing the lapses and lacuna in the Government policies. If the Government cannot defend itself on the floor of the House, it may continue in office, but it is bound to find itself in a deplorable position in the next elections. According to Prof. Laski, “Responsible Government lives in England under the shadow of the coming defeat.”

5. Ventilation of Public Grievances:
Opposition is also an effective safeguard of the liberties of the people. If a person is wronged he can approach any member of the opposition who by putting questions can ask for the explanation of the wrong done. Thus the grievances of the people reach the Government mainly through the opposition and are got redressed.

6. It makes Democracy Real and Effective:
Thus opposition plays an important role in the working of democratic set-up. It makes democracy real and effective. Where there is no opposition, Jennings has rightly pointed out, there is no democracy. Opposition may delay legislation but does not let it be hustled through. In times of national emergencies, in England national governments have been working and the opposition has been giving full co-operation to such Governments. Thus instead of putting obstructions it has been giving a helping hand to the Government in giving the nation good, efficient and clean administration.

Conclusion:
We can conclude by saying that the opposition occupies an important place in a democracy. It criticises the Government and does not let it become arbitrary. It safeguards the interests and liberties of the people; it exposes the lapses of the Government before the people. It provides a ready alternate Government and in times of emergency fully co-operates with the Government to face any crisis. Hogy Quintin has rightly observed, “It is not a long step from the sense of an organised opposition to a complete dictatorship.”

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand by Political Parties?
Answer:
A political party is a group of citizens who hold identical views on national problems and in an organised way try to capture the government machinery through constitutional means in order to promote national interest.

1. According to Burke, “A political party is a body of men united for the purpose of promoting, by their joint endeavours the public interest upon some principles on which they are all agreed.”

2. According to Dr. Leacock, “By a political party we mean, more or less organised group of citizens who act together as a political unit. They share or profess to share the same opinions on public Question’s and by exercising their voting power towards a common end, seek to obtain control of the government.”

3. According to Maclver, “A political party is an association organised in support of some principle or policy which by constitutional means it endeavours to make the determinant of the government.”

Question 2.
Write four essentials of a Political Party.
Or
Write down three characteristics of Political Parties.
Answer:

• Same Views on Political Matters: The first essential of a political party is that all its members should hold same viewpoint on public matters.
• Organisation: It is necessary that the political party should be well- organized.
• Control of Government for Common Good: The aim of political party is to capture the governmental machinery.
• The political parties keep faith in peaceful and constitutional means.

Question 3.
On what basis the political parties are formed?
Answer:
There are many bases of the formation of Political Parties. Following are some important bases of parties:
1. Social Basis:
In those states where discriminations are made on the bases of caste, colour, creed, race, religion etc. people belonging to a particular caste, religion or social class form a particular party. In India many parties are formed on social grounds. For example B.S.P. is based on social ground.

2. Political Basis:
On various political issues, political parties hold different stand, and people holding different views form different political parties. In India Leftist Parties, Congress and B.J.P. have their particular bases.

3. Economic Basis:
Different people hold different views on economic matters and they form political parties according to their views. For example, Congress, B.J.P. and Leftist Parties are of different economic views.

4. Religious Basis: Sometimes political parties are formed on religious basis.

Question 4.
Describe the different types of political parties prevalent in the world.
Or
Mention the different types of Party System.
Answer:
Following three types of political parties are prevalent in the world:
1. Two-Party System:
In two-party system there are only two major and well organised political parties. Besides the two main parties, there can be some more political parties but having no importance in the political system. Two-Party System exists in England and America.

2. Multiple-Party System:
If there are more than two well organised parties who share in almost an equal degree the confidence of the people, we may say that there is multiple-party system. The Multiple-Party System prevails in India, France, Italy etc.

3. Single-Party System:
A Single Party System is that system where only one party functions in the whole state. The same party runs the government and the administration of the country and no other party can come into existence. These days Single Party System exists in China, Cuba etc.

Question 5.
Describe any four functions of Political Parties.
Or
Discuss in brief any four functions of Political Parties.
Answer:

• Formation of Public Policies: The main function of the political parties is to frame public policies.
• Formation of Public Opinion:Political parties explain the national and other problems to the people and also give suggestions to solve the problems. In this way political parties help in the formulation of public opinion.
• To Contest Election: Main function of political parties is to contest election. For this candidates are selected and election campaigns are conducted.
• To Run the Government: The main function of the Political Party is to run the administration.

Question 6.
Write down any four advantages of Political Parties.
Answer:

• It helps democracy. Political parties help in making democracy successful. Political parties organise the people politically.
• Political education. Political parties give political education to the people. They explain their policies to the people. The election campaign becomes primarily an educative campaign.
• Political parties are a great check on the absolutist and autocratic activities of the government.
• Government becomes stable. The administration can be sound and stable only if the political parties exist in the country.

Question 7.
Mention three main demerits of Political Parties.
Or
Write down any four demerits of Political Parties.
Answer:

• An important merit of Multi-party system is that in the legislature all shades of opinion get representation.
• In a Multiple-party system the legislature does not become a tool in the hands of the cabinet; rather it keeps the cabinet under its control.
• In a Multiple-party system the voter enjoys a greater degree of independence and choice because so many parties contest the elections. The voter can vote for a candidate of his own choice.
• In a Multiple-party system the government can be changed easily even before next election.

Question 9.
Define Multi-party system and give the example of two countries where this system is in existence.
Or
Explain Multi-party system with an example of a country where it prevails.
Answer:
If there are more than two well-organised parties who share in almost an equal degree the confidence of the people, we may say that there is Multiple-Party System. The Multiple-Party System prevails in India, France, Japan, Switzerland etc.

Question 10.
What do you understand by One-party System?
Answer:
A single-party system is that system where only one political party functions in the whole of the State. The same party runs the administration of the State and no other party can come into existence. In fact, the single-party system cannot exist in a democracy. It is but natural that the party will establish its dictatorship in the State. There is a single-party system in China, Cuba, North Korea etc. In these countries nobody can criticise the communist party and people have no right to form a second party.

Question 11.
What do you understand by Two-party System?
Answer:
Where there are two political parties, we call that a Two-Party or Double Party or Bi-Party System. The essence of such a party system is that there are only two well-organised parties which may enjoy public confidence. After the elections, one party forms the government and the other party sits in the opposition. The system, however, is elastic enough to provide for the existence of certain minor political parties. Two-party system exists in England and U.S.A.

Question 12.
Write any four merits of Two-party System.
Or
Give three arguments in favour of Bi-party System.
Answer:
1. Formation of Govt, is easy:
In a two-party system it is easy to form government. One party gets a clear majority and the leader of that party is appointed the Prime Minister and all other ministers are appointed on his recommendations.

2. Easy to fix Responsibility: In a two-party system the responsibility for a good or bad government can be easily fixed.

3. Strong Government:
In a two-party system the government is strong. The ministry is always sure of the support of majority party and therefore whatever decisions it takes it can pursue them strongly.

4. Stable Government. In a two-party system the government generally remains stable.

Question 13.
Write any four demerits of Multi-party System.
Answer:
1. Not easy to form government:
In a multi-party system it is very difficult to form government because no party gets majority in the legislature.

2. Unstable government: In a multi-party system generally coalition governments are formed and the result is unstable government.

3. Weak position of the Prime Minister:
The position of the Prime Minister is very weak in a multiple-party system. The party of the Prime Minister is not the majority party in the legislature. So he is to depend upon other parties for support. He can do nothing of his own.

4. Lack of Strong Opposition Party: In a multiple-party system there is always lack of well organised and strong opposition party.

Question 14.
Write any four demerits of Single-Party System.
Answer:
1. Against Democracy:
Single-party system is against democratic principles because in this system the people do not enjoy the right to form associations.

2. Election a Mere Show: In a single-party system an election is a mere show. All the candidates belong to the same political party.

3. Dictatorship:
In a single party system the party establishes its dictatorship and it runs the government according to its will. The people do not enjoy rights and civil liberties.

4. In a single party system the people do not get any political education.

Question 15.
Write four merits of Single-Party System.
Answer:

• National Unity: A single party System helps in building up national unity.
• Strong Govt: In a single party system the government is always strong and it can carry out its policies more efficiently.
• Continuity of Policy: In a single-party system there is always continuity of policy. Political party can make long-term plans, because the party knows that it will remain in power for all times to come. This way the country can follow the same for a long time.
• In a single party-system the nation progresses very speedily.

Question 16.
Mention four demerits of Two-Party System.
Answer:
1. Limited Choice:
In a two-party system the voter’s choice is limited. The voter is to cast his vote in favour of either of the two parties; he has no other choice.

2. Nation is divided into two Halves:
In a two-party system the nation is divided into two groups. These two groups never come closer to each other.

3. Dictatorship of the Cabinet:
Under two-party system one of the parties is sure to be in the majority. Having gained the majority, the party can exercise government powers in utter disregard of public good. Having an absolute majority in the legislature, the government may even indulge in corrupt practices with impunity. In a two party system, the legislature becomes a plaything in the hands of the council of ministers.

Question 17.
What is Opposition Party?
Answer:
Opposition Party is very essential for the successful working of democracy. In a parliamentary democracy one party, that has gained majority at the polls, forms the government and other party or parties go into opposition. Opposition party criticises to policies of the government and checks the despotism of the government. It makes democracy real and effective. Opposition party opposes, criticises and removes the government.

Question 18.
Explain the role of opposition party in democracy.
Or
Write any three functions of opposition in democracy.
Answer:

• The opposition criticises the wrong policies of the government. The opposition checks the anti-people policies of the government.
• The opposition gives political education to the people. The opposition parties create political consciousness among the people and make them aware of the day-to-day happenings.
• The opposition makes democracy real and effective. The opposition safeguards the rights and liberties of the people.
• The opposition makes democracy real and effective.

Question 19.
Explain the role of the political parties in democracy.
Or
Mention the importance of political parties in democracy.
Answer:

• The political party forms the government. The party which gets majority in the legislature forms its government and runs the administration of the state.
• The political parties point out the defects of the government by a sound criticism for the welfare of the people.
• The political parties mobilise public opinion. They explain the national and other problems to the people.
• The political parties serve as good links between the government and the voters.

Question 20.
What do you mean by Leftist Parties?
Answer:
Left political parties are effected by communist ideology. They are in favour of revolutionary changes in social and economic pattern and also support socialist set up. The Communist Party or Marxian Party is known as Left Political Party in India.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
What is a Political Party?
Answer:
A political party is a group of citizens who hold identical views on national problems and in an organised way try to capture the government machinery through constitutional means in order to promote national interest.

Question 2.
Define Political Party.
Answer:

1. According to Burke, “A political party is a body of men united for the purpose of promoting, by their joint endeavours the public interest upon some principles on which they are all agreed.”
2. According to Maclver, “A political party is an association organised in support of some principle or policy which by constitutional means it endeavours to make the determinant of the government.”

Question 3.
Write two essentials of a Political Party.
Answer:

• Same Views on Political Matters: The first essential of a political party is that all its members should hold same viewpoint on public matters.
• Organisation: It is necessary that the political party should be well- organized.

Question 4.
Describe the different types of political parties prevalent in the world.
Answer:
Following three types of political parties are prevalent in the world:

• Two-Party System: In two-party system there are only two major and well organised political parties.
• Multiple-Party System: If there are more than two well organised parties who share in almost an equal degree the confidence of the people, we may say that there is multiple-party system.
• Single-Party System: A Single Party System is that system where only one party functions in the whole state.

Question 5.
Write down any two functions of Political Parties.
Answer:

• Formation of Public Policies: The main function of the political parties is to frame public policies.
• Formation of Public Opinion: Political parties explain’the national and other problems to the people and also give suggestions to solve the problems. In this way political parties help in the formulation of public opinion.

Question 6.
Write any two advantages of Political Parties.
Answer:

• It helps democracy: Political parties help in making democracy successful. Political parties organise the people politically.
• Political education: Political parties give political education to the people. They explain their policies to the people. The election campaign becomes primarily an educative campaign.

Question 7.
Write down any two demerits of Political Parties.
Answer:

• The party system destroys individuality. It tends to make men put reliance more and more on party labels.
• The majority party establishes its dictatorship for a definite period in the state.

Question 8.
Mention any two merits of the Multi-party System.
Answer:

• An important merit of Multi-party system is that in the legislature all shades of opinion get representation.
• In a Multiple-party System the legislature does not become a tool in the hands of the cabinet; rather it keeps the cabinet under its control.

Question 9.
What do you understand by One-party System?
Answer:
A single-party system is that system where only one political party functions in the whole of the State. The same party runs the administration of the State and no other party can come into existence. There is a single-party system in China, Cuba, North Korea etc. In these countries nobody can criticise the communist party and people have no right to form a second party.

Question 10.
What do you understand by Two-Party System?
Answer:
Where there are two political parties, we call that a Two-Party or Double Party or Bi-Party System. The essence of such a party system is that there are only two well-organised parties which may enjoy public confidence. Two-party system exists in England and U.S.A.

Question 11.
Write any two merits of Two-party System.
Answer:

• Formation of Govt, is easy: In a two-party system it is easy to form government. One party gets a clear majority and the leader of that party is appointed the Prime Minister and all other ministers are appointed on his recommendations.
• Easy to fix Responsibility: In a two-party system the responsibility for a good or bad government can be easily fixed.

Question 12.
Name any two countries with Bi-party system.
Answer:

• England
• U.S.A.

Question 13.
Write the names of two main countries with One Party System.
Answer:

• China
• Cuba.

Question 14.
Mention any two demerits of Multi-party System.
Answer:

• Not easy to form government. In a multi-party system it is very difficult to form government because no party gets majority in the legislature.
• Unstable government. In a multi-party system generally coalition governments are formed and the result is unstable government.

Question 15.
Write any two demerits of Single-Party System.
Answer:

• Against Democracy: Single-party system is against democratic principles because in this system the people do not enjoy the right to form associations.
• Election a Mere Show: In a single-party system an election is a mere show. All the candidates belong to the same political party.

Question 16.
Write two merits of Single-Party System.
Answer:

• National Unity. A single party system helps in building up national unity.
• Strong Govt. In a single party system the government is always strong and it can carry out its policies more efficiently.

Question 17.
Write down any two demerits of Two-Party System.
Answer:

• Limited Choice. In a two-party system the voter’s choice is limited. The voter is to cast his vote in favour of either of the two parties; he has no other choice.
• Nation is divided into two Halves: In a two-party system the nation is divided into two groups. These two groups never come closer to each other.

Question 18.
Write any three functions of opposition in Democracy.
Answer:

• The opposition criticises the wrong policies of the government. The opposition checks the anti-people policies of the government.
• The opposition gives political education to the people. The opposition parties create political consciousness among the people and make them aware of the day-to-day happenings.

Question 19.
Explain the role of the Political Party in a democracy.
Answer:

• The political party forms the government. The party which gets majority in the legislature forms its government and runs the administration of the state.
• The political parties point out the defects of the government by a sound criticism for the welfare of the people.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by Political Party?
Answer:
A political party is a group of such citizens who have similar views on public matters.

Question 2.
Write down any one function of a Political Party.
Answer:
An important function of a political party is to provide political education to the people.

Question 3.
What kind of party system is found in China?
Or
Write down the name of any one country having Single Party System.
Answer:
In China, there is a one-party system.

Question 4.
Mention any one definition of a political party.
Answer:
According to Maclver, “A political party is an association organised in support of some principles or policies which by constitutional means endeavours to make it the determinant of Government.”

Question 5.
What do you mean by one-party system?
Answer:
If in a state, only one party participates in politics and other political parties do not have any freedom or right to organise themselves, such a party system is called as one-party system.

Question 6.
Mention any one merit of bi-party system.
Answer:
The greatest merit of bi-party system is that in it the government can be made very easily.

Question 7.
Mention any two countries which have adopted Bi-party system.
Or
Write down name of one country having Bi-party system.
Answer:
Bi-party system has been adopted in England and America.

Question 8.
Name any two countries which have adopted multi-party system.
Answer:
India, Russia and Switzerland have adopted the multi-party system.

Question 9.
Mention any one merit of single-party system.
Answer:
It maintains national unity.

Question 10.
Mention one demerit of one-party system.
Answer:
It is against democracy.

Question 11.
Write names of two countries of single- party system.
Answer:

• China.
• North Korea.

Question 12.
Write down the name of any one country having hi-party system.
Or
Write names of two countries of bi-party system.
Answer:

• England.
• America.

Question 13.
What is meant by Multi-party system?
Answer:
Where three or more than three political parties exist, that system is named as multi-party system.

Question 14.
Write one merit of political parties.
Answer:
They make the representative democracy creditable.

Question 15.
Write one demerit of political parties.
Answer:
They are harmful for national unity and national interests.

Question 16.
Write one basis of the formation of political parties.
Answer:
Political Basis.

Fill in The Blanks

1. In China there is ………………….. party system.
Answer:
one

2. Multi-party system exists in …………………..  .
Answer:
India

3. Government is stable in ………………….. party system.
Answer:
Bi-

4. Political parties are essential for the successful working of ………………….. government.
Answer:
Democratic

5. One party system is against …………………..  .
Answer:
Democracy

6. Political Party is the key element (compulsory) for …………………..  .
Answer:
Democracy.

True Or False Statement

1. A political party is a group of such citizens who have similar views on public matters.
Answer:
True.

2. In U.S.A. there is a multi-party system.
Answer:
False

3. In England there is a bi-party system.
Answer:
True.

4. The greatest merit of bi-party system is that in it the government can be made easily.
Answer:
True.

5. Multi-party system exists in India.
Answer:
True.

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
In which country multi-party system exists?
(a) U.S.A.
(b) China
(c) U.K.
(d) Switzerland.
Answer:
(d) Switzerland.

Question 2.
Which of the following country is having one-party system?
(a) India
(b) China
(c) France
(d) Russia.
Answer:
(b) China

Question 3.
Two party system exists in:
(a) U.S.A.
(b) France
(c) India
(d) China.
Answer:
(a) U.S.A.

Question 4.
Who said, “Parties are inevitable, no free country has been without them.”?
(a) Bryce
(b) Laski
(c) Gettell
(d) Garner.
Answer:
(a) Bryce

Question 5.
Which one of the following is not a merit of single party system?
(a) National Unity
(b) Weak government
(c) Strong administration
(d) None of the above.
Answer:
(b) Weak government

Question 6.
Which among the following countries has a disciplined opposition?
(a) Switzerland
(b) 18th Century
(c) England
(d) 20th Century.
Answer:
(c) England

Question 7.
The main goal of political parties is to:
(a) Capture political power
(b) Educate people
(c) Contest Election
(d) Form opposition.
Answer:
(a) Capture political power

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 2 Liberalism Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 2 Liberalism

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the main principles of Liberalism.
Or
Define Liberalism and explain its basic principles.
Answer:
Liberalism is an outstanding ideology of the modern world. The European countries have been greatly affected by this ideology. But it is extremely difficult to define Liberalism excactly, as it is not a certain and systematic concept. The ideals and thoughts of several thinkers are included in it and they have changed with the passage of time.

Max Lerner has called it, “Perhaps the most disputed term of our generation.”
Sartori has gone to the extent of saying that Liberalism is so prone to change that it should be left with the self-styled restrictions. Wrong conceptions of Liberalism must be ended to understand the meaning of liberalism.

1. Liberalism is not an antonym of Conservatism:
Some people consider Liberalism to be an antonym of conservatism. Conservatism is a concept opposed to all changes and reformations. But Liberalism has always supported revolutionary changes.

2. Liberalism is not Individualism:
Some critics regard liberalism a synonym of individualism, but it is not completely true. Individualism, undoubtedly is a foundation, of Liberalism, but both aren’t the same. Sabine has differentiated these concepts by saying that there was no particular difference between these ideologies by the end of the third phase of 19th century as both of them opposed State’s interference in an individual’s life. But later on the situation changed and Liberalism assumed positive form by favouring social interest in place of individual interest.

3. Liberalism and Democracy are not one:
Liberalism and Democracy are closely related to each other, but they aren’t one. Liberalism emphasises freedom of an individual whereas Democracy stresses equality.

True Meaning of Liberalism:
The word ‘Liberalism’ originated from Latin word ‘Liberalis’ which means Free Man. This principle basically believes in the freedom of an individual. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, “freedom is the very basis of Liberalism.” In the words of Mac-Govern, “Liberalism as a political creed is a compound of two separate elements. One of these is democracy, the other is individualism.” Liberalism is deadly opposed to all the forms of Dictatorship. Sartori has defined Liberalism in simple words-“Very simple, Liberalism is the theory and practice of an individual liberty, judicial, defence and the constitutional State.”

Hallowell has summed up the meaning of Liberalism in the beliefs given below:

• Supremacy of individual’s personality and spiritual equality of all individuals.
• Freedom of individual’s will.
• Welfare of an individual.
• Existence of rights connected with life, freedom and property.
• Creation of State to safeguard natural rights.
• An individual can revolt against State in case of violation of conditions stated in the agreement.
• Law should be above the administrative order.
• An individual should be independent in political, social, economic and religious spheres.
• Existence of supreme reality based on reason and when an individual can possess it through contemplation.

Main Principles of Liberalism
Liberalism is an amalgam of several ideologies, yet it has a few fundamental principles mentioned below :

1. Faith in Human Reason:
The basic principle of Liberalism is a faith in human reason. The Liberals; like John Locke and Thomas Paine, in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries emphasised the fact that man shouldn’t accept any tradition which is useless if tested by reason. Liberalism attaches more importance to reason than feelings.

2. Opposition of History and Tradition:
Superstitions, traditions and blind faith were prevalent in middle ages and Liberals opposed it. Liberalism led to the revolutions in England, America and France.

3. Supporter of Human Freedom:
Liberalism supports man’s freedom and believes that freedom is his birth-right. According to Laski, “Liberalism is directly related to freedom for it came as a foe of privileges by virtue of birth or creed.”

4. The Purpose of State is to develop the personality of the Individual:
According to Liberals, development of individual’s personality embodies the development of State.

5. Man is the End, State is the Means:
The liberals consider man to be the end and State as a means. The object of State is to fulfil man’s aims.

6. State is Artificial: The liberals believe that State is an artificial institution and not a divine and natural one.

7. Belief in the Concept of Natural Rights of Man:
Liberalism believes in the concept of natural rights of man which he possesses since birth. According to Locke, the main natural rights are right to life, liberty and property.

8. Faith in Secularism:
The Liberals stressed man’s religious freedom and suggested that religious institutions should be kept apart from State. Thus the liberals have faith in secularism.

9. Support of Democracy:
Liberalism is an inseparable part of Democracy and Democracy is the very basis of Liberalism. Liberalism believes in people’s sovereignty.

10. Constitutional Government: Liberalism originated as a reaction of absolute rule and it supports Constitutional Government.

11. Belief in Pluralistic Society:
According to Liberals, man forms several associations to satisfy his needs and State establishes a co-relation among different associations. Laski and Maclver affirmed their faith in Pluralistic society.

12. Faith in Internationalism and World Peace:
Liberalism believes in the principle of Live and Let Live. It has faith in the ideals of world peace and brotherhood of man.

Question 2.
Give the verbal meaning of the word Liberalism and explain four features of contemporary Liberalism.
Answer:
Liberalism is an outstanding ideology of the modern world. The European countries have been greatly affected by this ideology. But it is extremely difficult to define Liberalism excactly, as it is not a certain and systematic concept. The ideals and thoughts of several thinkers are included in it and they have changed with the passage of time.

Max Lerner has called it, “Perhaps the most disputed term of our generation.”
Sartori has gone to the extent of saying that Liberalism is so prone to change that it should be left with the self-styled restrictions. Wrong conceptions of Liberalism must be ended to understand the meaning of liberalism.

1. Liberalism is not an antonym of Conservatism:
Some people consider Liberalism to be an antonym of conservatism. Conservatism is a concept opposed to all changes and reformations. But Liberalism has always supported revolutionary changes.

2. Liberalism is not Individualism:
Some critics regard liberalism a synonym of individualism, but it is not completely true. Individualism, undoubtedly is a foundation, of Liberalism, but both aren’t the same. Sabine has differentiated these concepts by saying that there was no particular difference between these ideologies by the end of the third phase of 19th century as both of them opposed State’s interference in an individual’s life. But later on the situation changed and Liberalism assumed positive form by favouring social interest in place of individual interest.

3. Liberalism and Democracy are not one:
Liberalism and Democracy are closely related to each other, but they aren’t one. Liberalism emphasises freedom of an individual whereas Democracy stresses equality.

True Meaning of Liberalism:
The word ‘Liberalism’ originated from Latin word ‘Liberalis’ which means Free Man. This principle basically believes in the freedom of an individual. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, “freedom is the very basis of Liberalism.” In the words of Mac-Govern, “Liberalism as a political creed is a compound of two separate elements. One of these is democracy, the other is individualism.” Liberalism is deadly opposed to all the forms of Dictatorship. Sartori has defined Liberalism in simple words-“Very simple, Liberalism is the theory and practice of an individual liberty, judicial, defence and the constitutional State.”

Hallowell has summed up the meaning of Liberalism in the beliefs given below:

• Supremacy of individual’s personality and spiritual equality of all individuals.
• Freedom of individual’s will.
• Welfare of an individual.
• Existence of rights connected with life, freedom and property.
• Creation of State to safeguard natural rights.
• An individual can revolt against State in case of violation of conditions stated in the agreement.
• Law should be above the administrative order.
• An individual should be independent in political, social, economic and religious spheres.
• Existence of supreme reality based on reason and when an individual can possess it through contemplation.

Main Principles of Liberalism:
Liberalism is an amalgam of several ideologies, yet it has a few fundamental principles mentioned below :

1. Faith in Human Reason:
The basic principle of Liberalism is a faith in human reason. The Liberals; like John Locke and Thomas Paine, in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries emphasised the fact that man shouldn’t accept any tradition which is useless if tested by reason. Liberalism attaches more importance to reason than feelings.

2. Opposition of History and Tradition:
Superstitions, traditions and blind faith were prevalent in middle ages and Liberals opposed it. Liberalism led to the revolutions in England, America and France.

3. Supporter of Human Freedom:
Liberalism supports man’s freedom and believes that freedom is his birth-right. According to Laski, “Liberalism is directly related to freedom for it came as a foe of privileges by virtue of birth or creed.”

4. The Purpose of State is to develop the personality of the Individual:
According to Liberals, development of individual’s personality embodies the development of State.

5. Man is the End, State is the Means:
The liberals consider man to be the end and State as a means. The object of State is to fulfil man’s aims.

6. State is Artificial: The liberals believe that State is an artificial institution and not a divine and natural one.

7. Belief in the Concept of Natural Rights of Man:
Liberalism believes in the concept of natural rights of man which he possesses since birth. According to Locke, the main natural rights are right to life, liberty and property.

8. Faith in Secularism:
The Liberals stressed man’s religious freedom and suggested that religious institutions should be kept apart from State. Thus the liberals have faith in secularism.

9. Support of Democracy:
Liberalism is an inseparable part of Democracy and Democracy is the very basis of Liberalism. Liberalism believes in people’s sovereignty.

10. Constitutional Government: Liberalism originated as a reaction of absolute rule and it supports Constitutional Government.

11. Belief in Pluralistic Society:
According to Liberals, man forms several associations to satisfy his needs and State establishes a co-relation among different associations. Laski and Maclver affirmed their faith in Pluralistic society.

12. Faith in Internationalism and World Peace:
Liberalism believes in the principle of Live and Let Live. It has faith in the ideals of world peace and brotherhood of man.

Features of Contemporary Liberalism:
Classical liberalism was modified in the end of the 19th century. Following are the main principles of the contemporary hberalism:
1. Opposition to open competition:
The contemporary liberalism is opposed to open competition and free trade as it results in making the rich more rich and the poor more poor.

2. Opposed to the theory of natural rights:
The contemporary liberalism is opposed to the theory of natural rights and it believes that the rights are given and protected by the state.

3. Regulated Economy:
According to contemporary liberalism, state has a right to interfere in the economic activities for the welfare of the people. The economic system should be regulated by the state for the general welfare of the masses.

4. State is a welfare state: The contemporary liberalism considers that state is a welfare state.

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
What is Classical Liberalism?
Answer:
Classical Liberalism is the original form of Liberalism:
Classical liberalism is another name of individualism. Locke has been rightly described as the father of classical liberalism. The political doctrine of classical liberalism was developed by Bentham, James Mill, Rousseau, Herbert Spencer etc. The classical liberals accept the individuals as central to the entire political system and they believe in rationality of the individual. Classical liberalism viewed freedom as absence of restraints. It treated the state as an artificial institution which came into existence with the consent of the individual. To the liberal thinkers the state was a necessary evil and the state which performed the minimum functions was the best.

Question 2.
Explain the meaning of Contemporary Liberalism.
Or
What is Contemporary Liberalism?
Answer:
Classical Liberalism was modified in the later half of the 19th century by J.S. Mill and T. H. Green. During 20th century, scholars like
Prof. Laski, Barker, Cole and Maclver tried further to bring about a few more changes. Contemporary Liberalism believes in humanism and has faith in the values like justice, liberty, equality etc. Contemporary Liberalism opposed the policy of open competition and free trade. Contemporary Liberalism opposes the theory of natural rights and it believes that the rights can be enjoyed only within the state. Modern Liberalism supports positive liberty and it favours that the economy should be regulated by the state. Contemporary Liberalism favours state interference where it is desirable for the common benefit of the society.

Question 3.
Write four principles of Liberalism.
Answer:
Following are the main features of liberalism:
1. Faith in Human Reason:
The basic principle of Liberalism is a faith in human reason. The liberals like John Locke and Thomas Paine, in 17th and 18th centuries emphasised the fact that man should not accept any tradition which is useless if tested by reason. Liberalism attaches more importance to reason than feelings.

2. Supporter of Human Freedom:
Liberalism supports man’s freedom and believes that freedom is his birth right. According to Laski, “Liberalism is directly related to freedom for it came as a foe of privilege by virtue of birth or creed.”

3. The Purpose of State is to develop the personality of the individual. According to Liberals, development of individual’s personality embodies the development of State.

4. Faith in Internationalism and World Peace. Liberalism believes in the principle of Live and Let Live. It has faith in the ideals of world peace and brotherhood of man.

Question 4.
What do you understand by Liberalism?
Or
What do you understand by Liberalism?
Answer:
Liberalism is an outstanding conception of modem age. It is neither an antonym of conservatism, nor is individualism. Liberalism aims at individual freedom and development of individual personality. Liberalism believes in the warmth of individual and security ; upholds freedom of association, toleration, separatism of religion and politics and secular attitude. Besides, it affirms its faith in man’s ability to progress.

Liberalism stands for the theory and practice of individual liberty, constitutionalism and reforms for human uplift. Sartori says, “Very simple, Liberalism is the theory and practice of individual liberty, Judicial defence and constitutional state.”
According to Hallowell, “Liberalism is the embodiment of the demand for freedom in every sphere of life i.e. intellectual, social, religious, political and economic.”

Question 5.
Write four arguments against Liberalism.
Answer:

1. Liberals like Bentham regard man to be selfish, but this conception is wrong. No individual can be wholly selfish or wholly selfless.

2. Many liberals consider state to be a necessary evil, but this is incorrect. State is a natural expression of man’s social consciousness. Modern state is a welfare state.

3. The concept of Liberalism is vague.

4. Not a Clear Concept. The concept of liberalism is vague. It can’t be defined in certain terms and all the Liberals don’t support all the principles. It is a concept of contradictions as it supports progressive view at one time and condemns the same at another time.

Question 6.
Write four differences between Classical Liberalism and Contemporary Liberalism.
Answer:
1. Classical liberalism begins with the individual, whereas modem liberalism begins with group and association. Modern individualism regards the group and not the individual as its unit for political purposes.

2. Classical liberalism asserts that the government can and often does constitute a threat to the freedom of individual. But according to new Liberalism, government interference does not present a threat to the freedom of the individual.

3. Classical liberalism minimises the functions of the state and it favours the non-interference of the state in individual matters. But the modern liberalism does not accept non-interference by the state as the sole objective. Rather it favours state interference where it is desirable for the common benefit of the society.

4. Classical liberalism was philosophy of middle class, while new liberalism is an ideology of Capitalist class.

Question 7.
Explain the etymological meaning of Liberalism.
Or
Explain the literal meaning of Liberalism.
Answer:
Liberalism is an outstanding ideology of the modern world. The word ‘Liberalism’ originated from Latin word ‘Liberalis’ which means free man. The principle of Liberalism basically believes in the freedom of an individual. Liberalism wants to establish such a system where man is free and he can develop his personality without any external hindrance. According to Hallowell, “Liberalism is the embodiment of the demands for freedom in religious, political and economic sphere.”

Question 8.
Write a short note on Empirical Liberalism.
Answer:
Mill and Green emphasised the moral dimension of democracy. But the empirical liberals like Schumpeter and Dahl treat democracy as a mechanism to bring about equilibrium in society. They are not concerned with moral issues. For them democracy is essentially a competition between two or more elite groups for power to govern society. Some American political scientists even regard a low level of citizens’ participation as essential for the maintenance of equilibrium.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the meaning of Classical Liberalism.
Answer:
Classical Liberalism is the original form of Liberalism. The classical liberals accept the individuals as central to the entire political system and they believe in rationality of the individual. Classical liberalism viewed freedom as absence of restraints. It treated the state as an artificial institution which came into existence with the consent of the individual. To the liberal thinkers the state was a necessary evil and the state which performed the minimum functions was the best.

Question 2.
Discuss the meaning of Contemporary Liberalism.
Answer:
Contemporary Liberalism opposed the policy of open competition and free trade. Contemporary Liberalism opposes the theory of natural rights and it believes that the rights can be enjoyed only within the state. Modern Liberalism supports positive liberty and it favours that the economy should be regulated by the state. Contemporary Liberalism favours state interference where it is desirable for the common benefit of the society.

Question 3.
What are two forms of Liberalism?
Answer:
Two forms of Liberalism are-Classical liberalism or Negative liberalism and Positive or Contemporary liberalism.

Question 4.
Write down any two definitions of Liberalism.
Answer:

• According to Encyclopaedia Britanica, Liberalism is the sum and substance of freedom. It regards it as the theory of freedom.
• According to MacGovern, “Liberalism as a political creed is compound of two separate elements. One of these is democracy, the other is individualism.”

Question 5.
Write any two principles of Liberalism.
Answer:
Following are the main features of liberalism:
1. Faith in Human Reason:
The basic principle of Liberalism is a faith in human reason. The liberals like John Locke and Thomas Paine, in 17th and 18th centuries emphasised the fact that man should not accept any tradition
which is useless if tested by reason. Liberalism attaches more importance to reason than feelings.

2. Supporter of Human Freedom:
Liberalism supports man’s freedom and believes that freedom is his birth right. According to Laski, “Liberalism is directly related to freedom for it came as a foe of privilege by virtue of birth or creed.”

Question 6.
Write two basic features of Classical Liberalism.
Answer:
1. Supreme Value of the Individual:
The first basic principle of classical liberalism is that it believes in the inherent and supreme value of the individual. It places the individual in the centre of politics and takes an atomistic view of society. It regards society merely as an aggregate of its individual members.

2. Supporter of Freedom:
The classical liberalists regard freedom to life as supreme, because in its absence all other freedoms will become meaningless.

Question 7.
Write down any two basic principles of Contemporary Liberalism.
Answer:
Classical liberalism was modified in the end of the 19th century. Following are the main principles of the contemporary liberalism:
1. Opposition to open competition:
The contemporary liberalism is opposed to open competition and free trade as it results in making the rich more rich and the poor more poor.

2. Opposed to the theory of natural rights:
The contemporary liberalism is opposed to the theory of natural rights and it believes that the rights are given and protected by the state.

Question 8.
Explain the verbal meaning of Liberalism.
Answer:
Liberalism stands for the theory and practice of individual liberty, constitutionalism and reforms for human uplift. Sartori says, “Very simple, Liberalism is the theory and practice of individual liberty, Judicial defence and constitutional state.”
According to Hallowell, “Liberalism is the embodiment of the demand for freedom in every sphere of life i.e. intellectual, social, religious, political and economic.”

Question 9.
Mention any two arguments against Liberalism.
Answer:

• Liberals like Bentham regard man to be selfish, but this conception is wrong. No individual can be wholly selfish or wholly selfless.
• Many liberals consider state to be a necessary evil, but this is incorrect.
• State is a natural expression of man’s social consciousness. Modern state is a welfare state.

Question 10.
Mention three differences between Liberalism and Contemporary Liberalism.
Answer:
1. Classical liberalism begins with the individual, whereas modern liberalism begins with group and association. Modern individualism regards the group and not the individual as its unit for political purposes.

2. Classical liberalism asserts that the government can and often does constitute a threat to the freedom of individual. But according to new Liberalism, government interference does not present a threat to the freedom of the individual.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand by Liberalism?
Answer:
The origin of the English word ‘Liberalism’ can be traced to ‘Liberalis’ which is a Latin word. Etymologically it means the Free man. It means that an individual should get freedom so that he may develop his personality.

Question 2.
Write down one definition of Liberalism.
Answer:
According to William Mac Govern, “Liberalism is a political creed, is a compound of two separate elements. One of these is democracy, the other is individual.”

Question 3.
Write down any one feature of Liberalism.
Answer:
Liberalism considers an individual as the central-point of social, economic and political system.

Question 4.
Write down any one exponent of Liberalism.
Answer:
T.H. Green

Question 5.
Write two main forms of Liberalism.
Or
Write down two forms of Liberalism.
Answer:

• Classical Liberalism
• Modern Liberalism.

Question 6.
What do you mean by Classical Liberalism?
Answer:
Classical Liberalism wants the least control of state on the individual. It wants that a state should not interfere in the economic sphere.

Question 7.
Write down one characteristic of Classical Liberalism.
Answer:
Supreme importance of the individual.

Question 8.
What do you mean by Contemporary or Modern Liberalism?
Or
What is meant by Contemporary Liberalism?
Answer:
Modern Liberalism accepts state as a moral and social institution. According to Modern Liberalism, the laws of the state are essential to regulate the freedom of the individual.

Question 9.
Write down any two characteristics of Contemporary Liberalism.
Answer:

• Belief in Humanism
• Belief in the dignity and freedom of the individual.

Fill in the Blanks

1. The word ‘Liberalism’ originated from ……………. Word.
Answer:
Latin

2. The basic principle of Liberalism is faith in human ……………. .
Answer:
Reason

3. Liberalism believes in the principle of Live and ……………. .
Answer:
let live

4. According to Classical liberalists, sovereignty rests with the ……………. .
Answer:
people

5. Classical liberalism stands for ……………. rights.
Answer:
natural

6. Liberalism is an inseparable part of ……………. .
Answer:
Democracy.

True or False Statement

1. Individulism is another form of Liberalism.
Answer:
False

2. The liberals consider man to be end and State the means.
Answer:
True.

3. Liberalism supports man’s freedom and believes that freedom is his birth right.
Answer:
True.

4. Locke has been rightly described as the father of Contemporary Liberalism.
Answer:
False

5. The chief advocates of positive or Contemporary liberalism were T.H. Green, Laski etc.
Answer:
True.

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
The origin of the English word ‘Liberalism’ can be traced to:
(a) Liberalis
(b) Labour
(c) Liber
(d) Liberal.
Answer:
(a) Liberalis

Question 2.
Who said, “Liberalism as a political creed is a compound of two separate elements. One of these is democracy, the other is individualism.”?
(a) Laski
(b) Sartori
(c) T.H. Green
(d) Mac Govern.
Answer:
(d) Mac Govern.

Question 3.
Who is the supporter of Liberalism?
(a) Cicero
(b) Locke
(c) Stalin
(d) Lenin.
Answer:
(b) Locke

Question 4.
Who is the supporter of Contemporary Liberalism?
(a) T.H. Green
(b) Adam Smith
(c) Spencer
(d) Bentham.
Answer:
(a) T.H. Green

Question 5.
Which one of the following is the basic principle of Classical Liberalism?
(a) Faith in Natural Rights
(b) Faith in Human Reason
(c) Faith in Human Liberty
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Question 6.
Which of the following is not a feature of Contemporary Liberalism?
(a) Faith in Humanism
(b) Belief in human freedom
(c) Police State
(d) Secularism.
Answer:
(c) Police State

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 6 Public Opinion Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 6 Public Opinion

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is meant by Public Opinion? Discuss its main characteristics.
Or
Explain the meaning of Public Opinion. Examine its importance and role in a democracy.
Answer:
Public opinion is of utmost importance in a democracy. The administration is run in accordance with the public opinion. A government which does not function according to public opinion, cannot stay in office for long. In democracy authority rests with public and the public exercises this authority through its representatives. Normally the representatives perform their duties in accordance with the wishes of the people. The will of the people is generally called the public opinion.

Definition of Public Opinion:
The simple meaning of ‘Public opinion’ is the opinion of the public. Different scholars have defined ‘public opinion’ differently. Public opinion means the opinion of the public over public issues, but what is meant by the opinion of the public ? All the people cannot have a unanimous opinion over an issue. There may be any problem in society, different people will offer different solutions to solve it.

During such a situation should the government act according to the opinion of the majority ? But the opinion of majority is only majority opinion and not the opinion of whole body of the people. The opinion of the majority cannot be called the true public opinion because the majority may have its own view-point and it may not be the view-point of all the people. According to Bryce, “Public opinion is commonly used to be aggregate of views which men hold regarding matters that affect the community.”

According to Loswell, “In order that opinion may be public, a majority is not enough and unanimity is not required but the opinion must be such that while the minority may not share it, they feel bound by conviction, not by fear to accept it and if democracy is complete the submission of the minority must be given ungrudgingly.”

Dr. Beni Prasad says that only that opinion can be called public opinion which aims at the welfare of the people. According to William Albig, “Public opinion is the expression of all those members of a group who are giving attention in any way to a given issue.” We can say that the opinion of the majority to which the minority is not opposed to, or the majority has taken the minority into confidence can be called public opinion.

Main Features of Public Opinion:
1. General Agreement:
Most important feature of public opinion is that there should be general agreement. If all the people don’t agree on a particular issue, the opinion of the majority must be favourable.

2. People’s Interest in Problems: People must have at least some interest in studying the problems of government.

3. Public Welfare: Public opinion aims at common good and not at the welfare of the individual.

4. Public Opinion is Permanent:
A momentous and sentimental opinion reflected by the masses can’t be called public opinion. It is rather a permanent view of the people as it is based on reason and logic.

5. Public opinion is based on sound principles of reason and is not prejudiced opinion.

6. Presence of a leader or leaders of the group, who take upon themselves the task of formulating public opinion.

7. Public opinion is not always related with the activities of the state. Sometimes public opinion is formulated to remove social evils.

8. Democracy promotes public opinion.

9. Morality is always an important factor behind public opinion.

Importance of Public Opinion in a Democratic State:
Democracy is a synonym of popular government or people’s rule. The people through their right to vote can control and influence the government of their country. The people rule through their elected representatives who are subjected to the continuous control and influence of the people through pressure of public opinion. Abraham Lincoln has defined democracy as, “Government of the people, by the people and for the people.”

The justification of government by public opinion lies not in any assumption that the people would always be in the right but in the belief that on the whole it is more likely to be right than the opinion of an individual or a mere group. The government in democracy draws its authority from the public. No government can rule the country if public opinion is against it. In case the public opinion goes against the government, the government is to resign.

Public opinion is a great check on the representatives. No minister or representative of the people can afford to be dictatorial because by doing so the public opinion will go against him. If the public opinion goes against a representative he cannot continue in his office for long. Public opinion does not give the ministers an opportunity to feel intoxicated with the wine of authority. Public opinion makes the ministers realize that they are the servants of the people and not their masters and they should work for public welfare.

Public opinion serves as a lighthouse for the government. All the laws of the State emanate from the popular will. It is the popular view which is finally crystallized into law by the State. Only those laws which are based on public opinion can command willing obedience of citizens. ‘Voice of the people is the voice of God’. A State in which government is responsible and responsive to public opinion will enjoy greater peace and security and will have less chances of revolutions.

Question 2.
Discuss the role of various agencies in formulation and expression of Public Opinion.
Or
What do you understand by the words ‘Public Opinion’? What is the role performed by political parties, educational institutions and Modern Audiovisual (Electrical) media in forming of Public Opinion?
Answer:
Meaning of Public Opinion:
Public opinion is of utmost importance in a democracy. The administration is run in accordance with the public opinion. A government which does not function according to public opinion, cannot stay in office for long. In democracy authority rests with public and the public exercises this authority through its representatives. Normally the representatives perform their duties in accordance with the wishes of the people. The will of the people is generally called the public opinion.

Definition of Public Opinion:
The simple meaning of ‘Public opinion’ is the opinion of the public. Different scholars have defined ‘public opinion’ differently. Public opinion means the opinion of the public over public issues, but what is meant by the opinion of the public ? All the people cannot have a unanimous opinion over an issue. There may be any problem in society, different people will offer different solutions to solve it.

During such a situation should the government act according to the opinion of the majority ? But the opinion of majority is only majority opinion and not the opinion of whole body of the people. The opinion of the majority cannot be called the true public opinion because the majority may have its own view-point and it may not be the view-point of all the people. According to Bryce, “Public opinion is commonly used to be aggregate of views which men hold regarding matters that affect the community.”

According to Loswell, “In order that opinion may be public, a majority is not enough and unanimity is not required but the opinion must be such that while the minority may not share it, they feel bound by conviction, not by fear to accept it and if democracy is complete the submission of the minority must be given ungrudgingly.” Dr. Beni Prasad says that only that opinion can be called public opinion which aims at the welfare of the people.

According to William Albig, “Public opinion is the expression of all those members of a group who are giving attention in any way to a given issue.” We can say that the opinion of the majority to which the minority is not opposed to, or the majority has taken the minority into confidence can be called public opinion.

Main Features of Public Opinion:
1. General Agreement:
Most important feature of public opinion is that there should be general agreement. If all the people don’t agree on a particular issue, the opinion of the majority must be favorable.

2. People’s Interest in Problems: People must have at least some interest in studying the problems of government.

3. Public Welfare: Public opinion aims at common good and not at the welfare of the individual.

4. Public Opinion is Permanent:
A momentous and sentimental opinion reflected by the masses can’t be called public opinion. It is rather a permanent view of the people as it is based on reason and logic.

5. Public opinion is based on sound principles of reason and is not prejudiced opinion.

6. Presence of a leader or leaders of the group, who take upon themselves the task of formulating public opinion.

7. Public opinion is not always related with the activities of the state. Sometimes public opinion is formulated to remove social evils.

8. Democracy promotes public opinion.

9. Morality is always an important factor behind public opinion.

Importance of Public Opinion in a Democratic State:
Democracy is a synonym of popular government or people’s rule. The people through their right to vote can control and influence the government of their country. The people rule through their elected representatives who are subjected to the continuous control and influence of the people through pressure of public opinion. Abraham Lincoln has defined democracy as, “Government of the people, by the people and for the people.”

The justification of government by public opinion lies not in any assumption that the people would always be in the right but in the belief that on the whole it is more likely to be right than the opinion of an individual or a mere group. The government in democracy draws its authority from the public. No government can rule the country if public opinion is against it. In case the public opinion goes against the government, the government is to resign.

Public opinion is a great check on the representatives. No minister or representative of the people can afford to be dictatorial because by doing so the public opinion will go against him. If the public opinion goes against a representative he cannot continue in his office for long. Public opinion does not give the ministers an opportunity to feel intoxicated with the wine of authority. Public opinion makes the ministers realize that they are the servants of the people and not their masters and they should work for public welfare.

Public opinion serves as a lighthouse for the government. All the laws of the State emanate from the popular will. It is the popular view which is finally crystallized into law by the State. Only those laws which are based on public opinion can command willing obedience of citizens. ‘Voice of the people is the voice of God’. A State in which government is responsible and responsive to public opinion will enjoy greater peace and security and will have less chances of revolutions.

The simple meaning of ‘Public Opinion’ is the opinion of the people on public matters. But for public neither majority nor unanimity is essential. The public opinion is the opinion of the majority, accepted by the minority and it is for the good of the whole society. The success of democracy depends on the formation of healthy public opinion. Generally the following agencies contribute to the formulation of enlightened public opinion.

1. Public Meetings and Resolutions:
Public meetings stimulate and create public interest in great political, social and economic questions through speeches delivered by men in the fore-front of public life. These speakers educate the public about important matters at home and abroad and help the growth of public opinion with regard to them. For the purpose of discussing all issues concerning the country, public meetings are becoming more and more common and popular.

Through public meetings direct appeal can be made to the public. The written word cannot achieve what the spoken can because the appeal of the latter goes direct to the heart. The common people come to know both the sides of the picture as presented by the supporters and the opponents of a public matter and form their opinions. Resolutions are passed in the meetings and they are the expressions of public opinion. They can serve a very useful purpose for the expression of public opinion if their criticism is honest and constructive.

2. Press/Media:
The press/media is a very important source of formulating public opinion. It consists of magazines, journals, books and newspapers etc. Public opinion is formed by newspapers by presenting news and views on matters of public importance of national, international character; publishing statements of the representatives of the people and the ministers, reporting the proceedings of legislature, public meetings and conferences. It makes its own comments on important events and brings it to the notice of the public. It criticises the government if its policies and actions are not in the best interests of the people. It offers constructive suggestions to the government on public matters.

With the spread of education, the importance of press is increasing. Vital and valuable improvement and changes in the life of the society and the structure of the government can be affected if the press works on the right and constructive lines. The great influence which the press yields is liable to be misused when it is exercised in advancing the interest of a group of selfish men. It is essential that the press should be free to discuss what is true and fair in the public interest.

3. Political Parties:
To a very great extent the growth of public opinion is helped by political parties. It is party propaganda more or less which brings important public questions within the knowledge of average citizen. Parties help to create public interest without which there can be no public opinion. The political parties aim at capturing the governmental authority through constitutional means. They try to build up as large a following as possible. They carry on their propaganda in order to convey their point of view to the public. They educate the public by issuing election manifestoes, publishing pamphlets and books, making use of the platform. In all democratic countries there exist well organised political parties.

4. Political Literature:
Political parties distribute their literature to the public. The parties explain their view-point regarding current political, social and economic problems in it. They criticise the stand of the government and offer other programmes to the public. Parties start their newspapers and they become the vehicle of their viewpoint. Literature also serves as an important instrument for spreading knowledge and expression of opinion. The views expressed by great writers are read with enthusiasm and they influence public opinion.

5. Educational Institutions:
It is in the schools, colleges and universities that the life of the would-be citizen is moulded. It is here that his mind is trained and he begins to form opinions. The age of the students is quite impressionable and therefore the political education starts at this age. The children of today are the administrators and ministers of tomorrow. Through education, they get knowledge of their country and the world at large. They grow up into enlightened citizens and take active part in public affairs. They start thinking independently and refuse to borrow readymade opinions.

6. Broadcasting:
The Television and radio occupy very important position in modern life. These are important agencies of forming public opinion. They brings news and views to the public. They mould public opinion by broadcasting news and comments. Talks on current problems are arranged. These are powerful agencies of public opinion because they combine entertainment with education. They establish a living contact between the government and the people.

7. Cinema:
The cinema like the radio & T.V. plays an important role in forming public opinion. People can be made to know about the political, economic and social condition of the country through cinema. People can be told about social evils through social pictures. Cinema is a powerful agency for the education of the people. The knowledge which it imparts is more direct and more effective because it is given through amusement. The use of news-reels and documentary films is becoming very popular. They can arouse the interest of the common people in urgent social, economic and political problems.

8. Legislature:
Modern legislatures consist of representatives of the people. These representatives are elected from all parts of the country. They represent different political parties of the country. The main function of the legislature is to make laws and while doing so, they provide several chances for discussion of public problems. The public takes a living interest in the parliamentary debates and speeches. The government supports its measures

whereas the opposition criticises them and suggests desireable remedies. Whenever the government does anything wrong, it comes under severe criticism from the opposition benches. When the budget is discussed, the working of each department of the government is discussed thoroughly. Legislatures can be rightly called the moulders of public opinion.

9. Elections:
General election is an important opportunity for the political parties to win the support of the public. During this period the political parties and other independent candidates start their propaganda with full force. They express their view-point over all the problems of the country. Their main aim is to capture the votes of the people. The elections are contested on definite programmes and as such, they are an important method for the expression of public opinion. They enable the people to express their approval or disapproval of certain programmes or policies preached by the various political parties in the country. They are a very great source of the expression of public opinion in the country.

10. Religious Association:
Social and religious associations are closely connected with each other. Social and religious customs and traditions have also a close association with each other. Religious leaders raise their voice against social evils. Many political parties in India are based on religion. Religious associations express their view-point on social and political problems. These associations very much mould the public opinion.

Question 3.
What are the hindrances in the way of the formulation of a sound Public Opinion? What are the necessary conditions for formulating sound Public Opinion?
Or
Explain the hindrances in the way of the formulation of a sound public opinion.
Answer:
Democratic system is based on public opinion. But the public opinion should be fair, honest and just.
Following are the obstacles in the way of sound public opinion:
1. Illiterate People:
Illiteracy is a big hurdle in the way of the creation of sound and honest public opinion. The uneducated people cannot understand the problems of the country properly and thoroughly. They cannot distinguish between good and bad or right and wrong. Tactful politicians get the votes of uneducated people by making false promises with them. Moreover, the uneducated people are more conservative than the educated people and they do not take much interest in progressive measures and it is harmful to national interests.

2. Indifference of People towards Political Activities:
The Uneducated people do not take interest in political activities and public affairs and hence it becomes difficult to create a sound public opinion. If the people of a country do not take interest in the problems of the State and are indifferent to the solutions of the problems, they cannot help in the creation of sound public opinion. If the people are not politically awakened they cannot become
good citizens. The uneducated people do not have their own opinion and they follow others in all matters.

3. Poverty:
Poverty is a big obstacle in the creation of sound public opinion. Where there is no equal distribution of wealth and some are rich and the others are poor, sound public opinion cannot be created. The rich purchase the votes of the poor and the hence the poor cannot exercise their right to vote according to their will. The poor also do not get enough time to think over the problems of the State. A hungry man is always worried about making his both ends meet and he can spare no time for thinking about national or international problems. A poor man cannot express his opinion independently. Moreover due to lack of education the poor people cannot understand public matters well.

4. Absence of Rights and Liberty:
If the people do not enjoy rights and civil liberties they cannot create a sound public opinion. If the people do not enjoy the right to freedom of speech and expression and the right to criticise the government they cannot create sound public opinion. They can know about the activities of the government only through newspapers. But if the newspapers do not enjoy complete freedom then the people are always misled and sound public opinion cannot be created.

5. Political Parties based on Wrong Principles:
The political parties which are based on religion, caste and language etc., are a big hindrance in the creation of true public opinion. The parties , should be based on political or economic principles and the parties which are based on communal principles, do not help in the creation of sound public opinion. These parties do not keep the national interest in view but have always their own axe to grind.

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
What is meant by Public Opinion?
Answer:
Public Opinion means the opinion of the public over public issues. But what is meant by the opinion of the public? All the people cannot have a unanimous opinion over an issue. The opinion of a majority cannot be called true public opinion because the majority may have its own view-point. We can say that the opinion of the majority to which the minority is not opposed to, or the majority has taken the minority into confidence can be called public opinion. Only that opinion can be called public opinion which is held by the people generally and which aims at the good of all.

Question 2.
Write any four characteristics of public opinion.
Or
Write down any four characteristics of Public Opinion.
Answer:

1. General Agreement: Most important feature of public opinion is that there should be general agreement. If all the people don’t agree on a particular issue, the opinion of the majority must be favourable.
2. Public Welfare: Public opinion aims at common good and not at the welfare of the individual.
3. Public Opinion is Permanent: A momentary and sentimental opinion reflected by the masses can’t be called public opinion. It is rather a permanent view of the people as it is based on reason and logic.
4. Public opinion is not always related with the activities of the state. Sometimes public opinion is formulated to remove social evils.

Question 3.
Mention four important ways in which the Newspapers mobilize public opinion on issues of public importance.
Or
Explain the role of press in the formation of public opinion.
Answer:
The press is a very important source of formulating public opinion. It consists of magazines, journals, books, newspapers etc. With the spread of education the importance of press is increasing.

1. The newspapers keep people informed about day-to-day events. All the national and international news figure in newspapers.
2. The newspapers give critical appraisal of the functions of government. The educated masses form their opinion by reading their editorials.
3. The newspapers criticise the wrong policies of the government so that the public can force the government to change them.
4. It offers constructive suggestions to the government on public matters.

Question 4.
What is the importance of Political Parties to formulate the Public Opinion?
Answer:

• The political parties express their views about different problems facing the country before the people. They present the programmes to solve these problems as well.
• The political parties try to influence public opinion by presenting attractive and constructive programmes.
• The political parties hold public meetings to keep public opinion in their favour.
• The political parties provide political education to the people.

Question 5.
Write any three Agencies for the formulation of Public Opinion.
Or
Write any four means of the formation and expression of Public Opinion.
Answer:
1. Public Meetings:
Public meetings stimulate and create public interest in great political, social and economic questions through speeches delivered by men in the fore-front of public life. These speakers educate the public about important matters at home and abroad and help the growth of public opinion with regard to them.

2. Educational Institutions: It is in the schools, colleges and universities that the life of the would-be citizen is moulded.

3. Role of Newspapers: Newspaper is a very important source of formulating public opinion.

4. Television: Television moulds public opinion by broadcasting news and comments.

Question 6.
Write down four hindrances which come in the way of Healthy Public Opinion.
Or
Explain any three hindrances in the formation of Sound Public Opinion.
Answer:

• Illiteracy is a big hurdle in the way of creation of sound public opinion.
• Poverty is a big obstacle in the creation of sound public opinion. Where there is no equal distribution of wealth and some are rich and the others are poor, sound public opinion cannot be created.
• Indifference of people towards political activities is a big hindrance in the formation of a sound public opinion.
• Political Parties which are based on religion, caste and language etc. are big hindrances in the creation of the true public opinion.

Question 7.
Write four conditions essential for formation of sound Public Opinion.
Or
Write down four conditions essential in the formation of Public Opinion.
Answer:

• The first condition for having an honest and just public opinion is that the people should be educated.
• The individuals should have the freedom to express the opinion in public. True public opinion cannot be good if people are afraid of expressing their views publicly.
• Free and impartial press is essential for the formation of sound public opinion.
• Moral character of the people is also very helpful in the creation of sound public opinion.

Question 8.
What role is played by ‘Educational Institutions’ in the formulation of Public Opinion?
Or
What is the role of Educational Institutions in making Public Opinion?
Answer:
It is in the schools, colleges and universities that the life of the would-be citizens is moulded. It is here that his mind is trained and he begins to form opinions. The age of the students is quite impressionable and therefore the political education starts at this age. The children of today are the administrators and ministers of tomorrow. Through education, they get knowledge of their country and the world at large. They grow up into enlightened citizens and take active part in public affairs. They start thinking independently and refuse to borrow ready-made opinions.

Question 9.
What is the importance of Public Opinion in Democracy?
Or
What is the role of Public Opinion in Democracy?
Answer:

• The government in democracy draws its authority from the public. No government can rule the country if public opinion is against it.
• Public opinion is a great check on the representatives. Public opinion makes the ministers realize that they are the servants of the people and not their masters and they should work for public welfare.
• Legislative debates have given expression to public opinion and acted as deterrent to Government’s unilateral moves.
• Public opinion serves as the lighthouse for the government. All the laws of the State emanate from the popular will.

Question 10.
Discuss the importance of T.V. as an agent for formulation of Public Opinion.
Answer:

• Television is the most effective audio-visual instrument for entertainment as well as education to the people.
• Television has a vast coverage and is easily accessible to the people even in remote areas.
• Television moulds public opinion by broadcasting news and comments. Its mode of communication is very quick and simple.
• Television can arouse the interest of the common people in urgent social, economic and political problems.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
What is the meaning of Public Opinion?
Answer:
We can say that the opinion of the majority to which the minority is not opposed to, or the majority has taken the minority into confidence can be called public opinion. Only that opinion can be called public opinion which is held by the people generally and which aims at the good of all.

Question 2.
Mention any two definitions of Public Opinion.
Answer:

• According to Bryce, “Public opinion is commonly used to the aggregate of views which men hold regarding matters that effect the community.”
• According to Dr. Beni Prasad, “Only that opinion can be called public opinion which aims at the welfare of the people.”

Question 3.
Explain any two characteristics of public opinion.
Answer:

• General Agreement. Most important feature of public opinion is that there should be general agreement. If all the people don’t agree on a particular issue, the opinion of the majority must be favourable.
• Public Welfare. Public opinion aims at common good and not at the welfare of the individual.

Question 4.
Write any two means of the formation and expression of public opinion.
Answer:
1. Public Meetings:
Public meetings stimulate and create public interest in great political, social and economic questions through speeches delivered by men in the fore-front of public life. These speakers educate the public about important matters at home and abroad and help the growth of public opinion with regard to them.

2. Educational Institutions: It is in the schools, colleges and universities that the life of the would-be citizen is moulded.

Question 5.
Explain any two hindrances in the formation of Sound Public Opinion.
Answer:

• Illiteracy is a big hurdle in the way of creation of sound public opinion.
• Poverty is a big obstacle in the creation of sound public opinion. Where there is no equal distribution of wealth and some are rich and the others are poor, sound public opinion cannot be created.

Question 6.
Which are the two essential conditions for healthy public opinion?
Answer:

• The first condition for having an honest and just public opinion is that the people should be educated.
• The individuals should have the freedom to express the opinion in public. True public opinion cannot be good if people are afraid of expressing their views publicly.

Question 7.
What is the importance of Public Opinion in Democracy?
Answer:

• The government in democracy draws its authority from the public. No government can rule the country if public opinion is against it.
• Public opinion is a great check on the representatives. Public opinion makes the ministers realize that they are the servants of the people and not their masters and they should work for public welfare.

Question 8.
Discuss the importance of T.V. as an agent for formulation of Public Opinion.
Answer:

• Television is the most effective audio-visual instrument for entertainment as well as education to the people.
• Television has a vast coverage and is easily accessible to the people even in remote areas.

Question 9.
Describe in brief the role of educational institutions in the formulations of Public Opinion. (P.B. 2018)
Answer:
“The educational system has an important effect on the process of socialization. The values imparted by schools and universities may not be the result of direct political indoctrination, but are nonetheless important.” According to Almond and Verba, the five nation study found without exception that “the educated persons were more aware of the impact of government on their lives, paid more attention to politics, had more information about political processes, and manifested a higher degree of political competence

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Write down the meaning of Public Opinion.
Answer:
By Public Opinion, we mean opinion of the people on public affairs.

Question 2.
Write a one definition of Public Opinion.
Answer:
According to Prof. Bryce, “The term public opinion is commonly used to denote the aggregate of the views men hold regarding matters that affect or interest the community.”

Question 3.
Describe any one essential condition of Public Opinion.
Answer:
There must be talk of public welfare in general public opinion.

Question 4.
Mention importance, of public opinion in democracy.
Answer:
In a democratic system, the government is based on public opinion.

Question 5.
Write two main agencies for formulation and expression of Public Opinion.
Or
Write down any two agencies of the formulation of Public Opinion.
Answer:

• Press,
• Political Parties.

Question 6.
Discuss the role of newspapers in the formulation of Public Opinion.
Answer:
The newspapers acquaint the people with daily news and events. They comment upon the functioning-of the government. They both praise and criticise the work done by the government.

Fill in The Blanks

1. The opinion which is not in the interest of all the people that opinion cannot be accepted as ………………….  .
Answer:
public opinion

2. There is …………………. unanimity among the scholars on the meaning of public opinion.
Answer:
no

3. Public opinion is always in the interest of public ………………….  .
Answer:
welfare

4. Public opinion always conforms to …………………. values prevalent in the society.
Answer:
moral

5. In a democratic system, the government is based on ………………….  .
Answer:
public opinion

6. …………………. is the main hindrance in the formulation of healthy public opinion.
Answer:
Illiteracy

7. The voice of the people is in fact the voice of ………………….  .
Answer:
God

8. Spread of …………………. is the main remedy to remove hindrance in the way of healthy public opinion.
Answer:
education

9. The voice of …………………. is the …………………. of God.
Answer:
people, voice.

True Or False Statement

1. Illiteracy is very helpful in the formulation of healthy public opinion.
Answer:
False

2. Educated people and impartial press are essential conditions for the formulation of public opinion,
Answer:
True.

3. In a democratic system, the government is based on force.
Answer:
False

4. During elections, the political parties propagate their programmes and policies among the people.
Answer:
True.

5. Partisan press is a big hindrance in the formulation of healthy public opinion.
Answer:
True.

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Who said, “The voice of the people is in fact the voice of God.”?
(a) Aristotle
(b) J.S. Mill
(c) Rousseau
(d) M.N. Roy.
Answer:
(c) Rousseau

Question 2.
In which system public opinion is most effective?
(a) Democratic
(b) Dictatorship
(c) Monarchy
(d) Oligarchy.
Answer:
(a) Democratic

Question 3.
Which of the following government is based on public opinion?
(a) Monarchy
(b) Democratic
(c) Tyranny
(d) Aristocratic.
Answer:
(b) Democratic

Question 4.
Which of the following is a main hindrance in the formulation of healthy pubic opinion?
(a) Illiteracy
(b) Freedom of Press
(c) Modernization
(d) Education.
Answer:
(a) Illiteracy

Question 5.
Which of the following is an essential condition for the formulation of healthy public opinion?
(a) Educated people
(b) Abolition of poverty
(c) Impartial press
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 5 Bureaucracy (Civil Services) Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 5 Bureaucracy (Civil Services)

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define Bureaucracy. Write main characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Or
Define Bureaucracy. Describe main characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Or
Explain the main characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Or
Explain any six characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has been derived from French word ‘Bureau’ which means desk or writing table. Hence bureaucracy means ‘Desk Government.’ The meaning of this word has been changing with the passage of time. This word is widely misinterpreted and it is used to mean arbitrariness, wastefulness, officiousness and regimentation. In the words of John A. Weig, “Through distortion and caricature, the term bureaucracy has come to imply bungling, arbitrariness, wastefulness, officiousness and regimentation.”

In spite of the distorted meaning of bureaucracy, it has assumed importance in democracy and in a welfare state. This word is used to the maximum to prove the effect of public services. Generally in all the modern states the functions of the government are carried out by those officials who possess administrative ability and understanding of administrative problems. This body of officials is called bureaucracy. Different definitions of bureaucracy are as follows:

1. According to Willoughby, “It is to describe any personnel system of administration composed of a hierarchy of sections, divisions, bureaus and departments.” In a narrow meaning “A body of public servants organised in a hierarchical system which stands outside the sphere of effective public control.”

2. According to Marshall E. Dimock, “Bureaucracy means specialisation of hierarchies and long lines of communication.”

3. According to Max Weber, “A system of administration characterized by expertness, impartiality and the absence of humanity.”

4. According to Joshi, “Bureaucracy is a system of government where power is concentrated into the hands of civil servants.”

5. According to Gladden, “The term Bureaucracy means a regulated administrative system organised as a series of interrelated offices.”

6. According to Paul Appleby, “It is a professional class of technically skilled persons who are organised in an hierarchical way and serve the state in an impartial manner.”

Characteristics of Bureaucracy:
Important characteristics of bureaucracy are as follows:
1. Logical division of functions:
The whole administration is divided on the basis of its duties. The administration is logically divided in hierarchies and system is established.

2. Technical Specialisation:
Technical specialisation is an important feature of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy originated only because of technical specialization. An employee is trained in a particular art and gains proficiency by doing the same work repeatedly and so he becomes a specialist in his field.

3. Hierarchical Principle: All the employees are bound by ‘unity of command’ and bureaucracy is divided in hierarchies.

4. The Legal Framework:
The employees in bureaucracy work in a legal framework and so they become strict and harsh. The administrative laws, rules and decisions are in written form.

5. Political Neutrality:
In bureaucracy, an employee’s personal and political views hold no value. A bureaucrat has to remain neutral from political view point. They are neither the members of any political party nor they are connected with any of them. The Government may be of any political party, but the bureaucrats have to serve the administration according to their ability.

6. Merit System: Bureaucracy is based on merit system. The employees are selected on the basis of their ability.

7. Permanent Post: The posts of Civil Services are permanent. The employees remain in service till the age of retirement.

Question 2.
Write an essay on the recruitment of Civil Servants.
Answer:
The success and efficiency of administration depends on Civil Servants. An able administration can’t be imagined without proficient employees. But it is very difficult to have honest, capable and hardworking employees. That is why proper recruitment has become a problem in almost all the countries. Recruitment doesn’t merely mean the filling up of vacant posts, but it is a process through which able individuals are attracted towards the vacant posts. Broadly speaking, the recruitment of Civil Servants can be divided into two parts Negative and Positive.

The aim of negative recruitment is to keep clever and incapable persons away from government posts. The recruiting authority formulates such laws that only able individuals get the chance to become its candidates. The aim of positive recruitment is to attract suitable and capable persons for various Government posts.

Every Government tries its best to appoint proficient persons against administrative posts. But several questions regarding recruitment arise such as who should be authorised for recruitment ? Whether the employees should be recruited from outside or inside the office ? What should be the qualifications to fill different posts ? How should the ability of the candidates be determined ?

The administrative officials are selected on merit basis in most of the countries and their selection is completed through four methods mentioned below:
1. Individual decision of the appointing official:
This process leaves the responsibility to determine the ability of candidates on appointing authority. The candidate appears before the appointing official who gathers every information about the candidate through questions and mutual conversation. Thus a suitable candidate is recruited.

2. Testimonials of ability and character:
The ability of the candidates is sufficiently judged from their testimonials. These testimonials are related to Lheir education, character, sports, cultural activities etc.

3. Record of previous experience:
The candidates’ records of previous experience reflect their ability for the appointment against administrative posts.

4. Examinations:
The most popular method to judge the ability of candidates is examination system. There are two types of Examinations to select candidates Competitive Examination and Examination without competition. Competitive Examination has double purpose firstly, it finds out a candidate with minimum required qualification for the post and secondly to ascertain his mental condition from the angle of ability. Non-competitive examination ascertains candidate’s minimum qualification fixed for the post. It is quite obvious that competitive examination should be adopted to select best candidates.

The administrative officials in England are appointed through competitive examination. Interview is essential after the written test. Union Public Service Commission and State Service Commissions have been set up in India to recruit government officials.

Question 3.
Describe main differences between Political Executive and Permanent Executive.
Or
Write down the meaning of Political Executive and Permanent Executive and explain in detail the differences between the two.
Answer:
Executive has two parts-Political Executive and Permanent Executive. Political Executive includes President, Ministers, Parliamentary Secretary and they are elected through a definite process and for a definite period. Permanent Executive consists of civil servants, administrative officials and employees and they are retired at a fixed age. Following are the differences between Political Executive and Permanent Executive:

1. Difference between the appointments of the two:
The appointment or selection of Political Executive is in the hands of electorates. In Parliamentary form of government, the party with majority votes in the lower house of Parliament is called upon to elect its leader. The leader of the party is installed as a Prime Minister who forms his Cabinet. England and India have this system.

Permanent Executive is called Administrative Service or Civil Service. Competitive Examinations are held to test the ability of candidates. They have to get through written tests and interview. Thereafter a list of successful candidates is prepared to impart training.
Distinction between the two on Political Basis. Political Executive is completely mixed with political parties as it is elected on political basis. Political executive views all the problems from political angle.

On the contrary, civil servant doesn’t take part in politics. Government officials remain indifferent to party politics. They can neither become the members of political parties nor can they contest Parliamentary and Assembly elections.

Question 4.
Explain the verbal meaning of word ‘Bureaucracy’. Explain its role/functions from four aspects in democracy.
Or
What is the role of bureaucracy in Modern Welfare State?
Answer:
Bureaucracy has been derived from French word ‘Bureau’ which means desk or writing table. Hence bureaucracy means ‘Desk Government.’ The meaning of this word has been changing with the passage of time. This word is widely misinterpreted and it is used to mean arbitrariness, wastefulness, officiousness and regimentation. In the words of John A. Weig, “Through distortion and caricature, the term bureaucracy has come to imply bungling, arbitrariness, wastefulness, officiousness and regimentation.”

In spite of the distorted meaning of bureaucracy, it has assumed importance in democracy and in a welfare state. This word is used to the maximum to prove the effect of public services. Generally in all the modern states the functions of the government are carried out by those officials who possess administrative ability and understanding of administrative problems. This body of officials is called bureaucracy. Different definitions of bureaucracy are as follows:

1. According to Willoughby, “It is to describe any personnel system of administration composed of a hierarchy of sections, divisions, bureaus and departments.” In a narrow meaning “A body of public servants organised in a hierarchical system which stands outside the sphere of effective public control.”

2. According to Marshall E. Dimock, “Bureaucracy means specialisation of hierarchies and long lines of communication.”

3. According to Max Weber, “A system of administration characterized by expertness, impartiality and the absence of humanity.”

4. According to Joshi, “Bureaucracy is a system of government where power is concentrated into the hands of civil servants.”

5. According to Gladden, “The term Bureaucracy means a regulated administrative system organised as a series of interrelated offices.”

6. According to Paul Appleby, “It is a professional class of technically skilled persons who are organised in an hierarchical way and serve the state in an impartial manner.”

Characteristics of Bureaucracy:
Important characteristics of bureaucracy are as follows:
1. Logical division of functions:
The whole administration is divided on the basis of its duties. The administration is logically divided in hierarchies and system is established.

2. Technical Specialisation:
Technical specialisation is an important feature of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy originated only because of technical specialization. An employee is trained in a particular art and gains proficiency by doing the same work repeatedly and so he becomes a specialist in his field.

3. Hierarchical Principle: All the employees are bound by ‘unity of command’ and bureaucracy is divided in hierarchies.

4. The Legal Framework:
The employees in bureaucracy work in a legal framework and so they become strict and harsh. The administrative laws, rules and decisions are in written form.

5. Political Neutrality:
In bureaucracy, an employee’s personal and political views hold no value. A bureaucrat has to remain neutral from political view point. They are neither the members of any political party nor they are connected with any of them. The Government may be of any political party, but the bureaucrats have to serve the administration according to their ability.

6. Merit System: Bureaucracy is based on merit system. The employees are selected on the basis of their ability.

7. Permanent Post: The posts of Civil Services are permanent. The employees remain in service till the age of retirement.

Role/Functions of Bureaucracy:
The influence of bureaucracy on administration has increased a lot. It is difficult to run administration without bureaucracy. Bureaucracy has become vital because modern State is a welfare state and its functions are so vast that they can’t be handled by Ministers alone. The Ministers need civil servants to perform these functions. The role of Bureaucracy can be studied under following heads:

1. Administrative Functions or Role:
Administrative function is the key function of bureaucracy. A minister formulates a policy but the responsibility of implementing the same falls on bureaucracy. Even a good policy can prove worthless in case it is not implemented effectively.

2. To Influence the Policy:
Though policies are framed by political executive, yet bureaucracy contributes a lot to policy-formation on the basis of their ability. The Civil Servants provide statistics to Ministers at the time of framing a policy.

3. Advisory Functions or Role:
Bureaucracy plays a vital role in advising Political Executive. Since the Ministers possess no technical knowledge of their departments, they depend on the Civil Servants to run administration.

4. Legislative Functions or Role:
Bureaucracy plays an important role in making legislation. In countries like India and England having Parliamentary form of Governments, most of the bills are presented by Ministers in Parliament. The outlines of these bills are prepared by Permanent employees. The Civil Servants propose various laws to solve social, economic and political problems.

5. Financial Functions or Role:
Bureaucracy plays a significant role even in financial sphere. Parliament passes a budget every year and the budget is presented by Finance Minister in a Parliamentary system. Though Cabinet forms a policy related to budget, yet its outlines are prepared by bureaucracy. The collection of taxes, expenditure according to budget and other functions related to it are performed by bureaucracy.

6. Co-ordination:
Efficiency of an administration depends upon co-ordination among different departments. This desired co-ordination is established by Civil Servants.

7. Judicial Functions or Role:
Some important judicial functions are performed by Administrative Tribunals. It is so because of the increased number of Administrative Laws and Administrative Adjudication. Thus an administrator not only runs administration, but performs judicial functions also.

8. Public Relation Functions:
Bureaucracy establishes relations with public in various ways to make their policies successful with their co-operation.

9. Stability in Foreign Relations:
The role of bureaucracy in foreign relations is of great importance as it brings stability in foreign relations and policies. Thus bureaucracy has become all the more influential in modern Welfare State. A state has to perform many functions for Public Welfare and the success of these depends upon the efficiency of bureaucracy.

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of word Bureaucracy.
Or
Explain the etymological meaning of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has been derived from the French word ‘Bureau’ which means desk or writing table. Hence bureaucracy means ‘Desk Government’. This word is used in these days to prove the effect of public services. The functions of the government are carried out by those officials who possess administrative ability and understanding of administrative problems. This body of officials is called bureaucracy.

• According to Marshall E. Dimock, “Bureaucracy means specialisation of hierarchies and long lines of communication.”
• According to Max Weber, “A system of administration characterized by expertness, impartiality and the absence of inhumanity.”
• According to Joshi, “Bureaucracy is a system of government where power is concentrated into the hands of civil servants.”

Question 2.
Write four major characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has the following characteristics:

• Fixed tenure: The posts of civil servants are permanent. The employees remain in office till the age of retirement. The change in government does not affect the tenure of civil servants.
• Political Neutrality: In bureaucracy, an employee’s personal and political view holds no value. The bureaucrats have to remain neutral from political viewpoint.
• Merit System: Bureaucracy is based on merit system. The employees are selected on the basis of their ability.
• Permanent Posts: The posts of civil services are permanent.

Question 3.
Mention four defects of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
The three main defects of bureaucracy are:

1. Red Tapism:
Bureaucracy indulges in red tapism. It causes delay in decision making by adopting a rigid attitude toward the application of all rules and regulations according to which the decisions have to be taken.

2. Unresponsive to People’s Demands: Bureaucracy ignores the needs and demands of the people.

3. Conservatism:
Bureaucracy has been a source of conservatism. Bureaucracy believes in traditional ways of administration and it mostly favours status quo in administration. Bureaucracy opposes progressive policies.

4. Bureaucracy is considered as an elite class in the society.

Question 4.
What do you understand by Recruitment?
Answer:
For a layman recruitment is something like picking up persons for filling up jobs lying vacant in some office. Technically speaking, recruitment is not only making appointments but selecting proper and suitable candidates for particular jobs. According to L.D. White, “Recruitment means specific steps taken to attract suitable candidates to apply for examination.”

Question 5.
Write down the three methods of Recruitment.
Answer:
There are two methods of recruitment:
1. Recruitment from within:
Recruitment from within means that recruitment to high post should be made from within the department or from those employees who are already in service. In this method employees get higher post by promotion.

2. Recruitment from without:
Recruitment from without means that recruitment should be made openly. In this method recruitment is done on the basis of merit and any person who is eligible for the post can apply for recruitment. This method is also known as direct method of recruitment.

3. Mixed Method:
These two methods are not mutually exclusive and all governments use both these methods. However, direct recruitment should be the rule at lower level and recruitment to class 1 should be made through competitive examination.

Question 6.
Write four differences between Political Executive and Permanent Executive.
Or
Distinguish between Political and Permanent Executive.
Answer:
Following are the main differences between Political Executive and Permanent Executive:
1. Difference between the appointments of the two:
In the democratic countries the political executive is elected directly or indirectly on the basis of adult franchise. On the other hand, permanent executive or civil servants are appointed on the basis of merit. Competitive examinations are held to test the ability of candidates.

2. Distinction between the two on Political Basis:
Political Executive is completely mixed with political parties as it is elected on political basis. Political executive views all the problems from political angle.
On the contrary, civil servants don’t take part in politics. Government officials remain indifferent to party politics. They can neither become the members of political parties nor can they contest Parliamentary and Assembly elections.

3. Difference on the basis of Term:
Political executive undergoes a change according to the change in politics. On the other hand, civil servants remain in office till a definite age. Administrative services are not affected by change in political executive. Civil servants retire at a fixed age.

4. Political executive owes responsibility to parliament and people for all its actions whereas it is not so in the case of permanent executive.

Question 7.
Write down four merits of good Bureaucracy.
Answer:
A good bureaucracy has the following qualities:
1. Ability: The civil servants should be able and experienced.

2. Public Interest:
The civil servants should take care of public interest. They should always attach more importance to national interest than personal interest.

3. Impartial:
The most important trait of a good civil service is that it should be impartial. It should not be connected with a particular party. It should remain aloof from all political activities.

4. Bureaucrats should be honest and selfless.

Question 8.
Bureaucracy is known as ‘the backbone of Administration’. Why?
Or
What is the importance of Bureaucracy in Democracy?
Answer:
The importance of civil services is increasing day by day in modern democratic states. Bureaucracy or civil servants are the eyes, ears, hands and brains of public administration. It has rightly been remarked as the backbone of the administration. We can prove this with the help of following logics:

• The civil servants provide continuity to public administration.
• The role of civil servants in foreign relations is of great importance as it brings stability in foreign relations and policies.
• The civil servants act as a link between the government and the people.
• The civil servants provide expert knowledge to ministers.

Question 9.
What is the meaning of permanent executive?
Answer:
Executive has two parts political executive and permanent executive. The part of the executive which holds office on the basis of its education or qualifications is called the permanent executive. Permanent executive consists of civil servants, administrative officials and employees and they are selected on the basis of merit system. The civil servants retire at a fixed age and they work under the supervision and direction of political executive.

Question 10.
Mention any four functions of Political Executive.
Or
Explain the role of Political Executive in a democratic state.
Answer:
Following are the main functions of political executive in a democratic state:
1. Administrative Function:
The main function of the political executive is , maintenance of law and order. The political executive enforces the laws enacted by the legislature and maintains peace in the state. The executive is to see that all the laws are properly obeyed and respected and those who break the laws are punished.

2. Formulation of Policies:
Formulation of policies is an important function of the political executive. Executive decides the internal and external policies of the nation and runs the administration on the basis of that policy.

3. Powers of Appointment and Removal:
Political executive makes many appointments. In India, Judges of the Supreme Court, High Courts, Ambassadors, Advocate General, Members of the Union Public Service Commission, Members of the Finance Commission etc. are appointed by the President. Political executive also enjoys the power to remove top officials of the administration.

4. Functions Regarding Foreign Relations:
Political executive determines the foreign policy of the country. Political executive also decides the relations with other countries. For this purpose political executive makes various international agreements and treaties.

Question 11.
Write four functions of good Bureaucracy.
Or
Write any four functions of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Without bureaucracy it is not possible to run the administration. The main functions of bureaucracy are as given below:
1. Administrative Function or Role:
Administrative function is the key function of bureaucracy. A minister formulates a policy but the responsibility of implementing the same falls on bureaucracy. Even a good policy can prove worthless in case it is not implemented effectively.

2. To Influence the Policy:
Though policies are framed by political executive, yet bureaucracy contributes a lot to policy formation on the basis of their ability. The civil servants provide statistics to Ministers at the time of framing policy.

3. Advisory Functions or Role:
Bureaucracy plays a vital role in advising political executive. Since the Ministers possess no technical knowledge of their departments, they depend upon the civil servants to run the administration.

4. The civil servents propose various laws to solve social, economic and political problems.

Question 12.
Explain the spoil system as a method of recruitment of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
The spoil system as a method of recruitment has been in practice for a long time in U.S.A. and some other countries some time ago. By this system recruitment of civil servants goes on political basis. After general elections, the government which comes into existence starts recruiting those persons who helped at the time of elections. The supporters of defeated party immediately resign from their posts. The newly formed government appoints her supporters on those posts. In this method the tenure of the civil servants goes with the term of the government. This method of recruitment is very defective because the base of recruitment is political and not the ability.

Question 13.
What do you mean by Political Executive? Enumerate its four functions.
Or
What do you mean by Political Executive?
Answer:
Political executive includes President, Ministers and Parliamentary Secretaries. They are elected through a definite process and for a definite period. Political executive is elected purely on political basis. Political executive is responsible for all its actions to the Parliament and the people.

Functions of Political Executive.
Following are the main functions of political executive in a democratic state:
1. Administrative Function:
The main function of the political executive is , maintenance of law and order. The political executive enforces the laws enacted by the legislature and maintains peace in the state. The executive is to see that all the laws are properly obeyed and respected and those who break the laws are punished.

2. Formulation of Policies:
Formulation of policies is an important function of the political executive. Executive decides the internal and external policies of the nation and runs the administration on the basis of that policy.

3. Powers of Appointment and Removal:
Political executive makes many appointments. In India, Judges of the Supreme Court, High Courts, Ambassadors, Advocate General, Members of the Union Public Service Commission, Members of the Finance Commission etc. are appointed by the President. Political executive also enjoys the power to remove top officials of the administration.

4. Functions Regarding Foreign Relations:
Political executive determines the foreign policy of the country. Political executive also decides the relations with other countries. For this purpose political executive makes various international agreements and treaties.

Question 14.
What is the meaning of Hierarchical organisation of Bureaucracy?
Answer:
Hierarchy means the control of higher authority over his subordinates. When many people work in an organisation it is necessary it stipulates who will issue instructions and to whom. As a result of this process, the organisation is divided into many levels. Every level is responsible to its higher level and acts upon the instruction of its higher level. According to White, “To fix the relation between the highest to lowest employee; is essential in an organisation. According to Pfiffner, “By Hierarchy principle we mean the connection of Authority and Power with their immediate superiors and juniors in such a way that the Head is small and base is expanded.”

Question 15.
Write down four characteristics of Political Executive.
Answer:
Following are the main characteristics of Political Executive:

1. Appointment by the Electorate:
The appointment or selection of political executive is in the hands of electorate. In parliamentary form of government, the party with majority votes in the lower house of Parliament is called upon to elect its leader. The leader of the party is installed as the Prime Minister who forms his Cabinet.

2. Appointment on Political Basis:
Political executive is completely mixed with political parties as it is elected on political basis. Political executive views all the problems from political angle.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the meaning of word Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has been derived from the French word ‘Bureau’ which means desk or writing table. Hence bureaucracy means ‘Desk Government’. The functions of the government are carried out by those officials who possess administrative ability and understanding of administrative problems. This body of officials is called bureaucracy.

Question 2.
Mention any two definitions of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
1. According to Marshall E. Dimock, “Bureaucracy means specialisation of hierarchies and long lines of communication.”
2. According to Max Weber, “A system of administration characterized by expertness, impartiality and the absence of inhumanity.”

Question 3.
Mention any two major characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has the following characteristics:
1. Fixed tenure:
The posts of civil servants are permanent. The employees remain in office till the age of retirement. The change in government does not affect the tenure of civil servants.

2. Political Neutrality:
In bureaucracy, an employee’s personal and political view holds no value. The bureaucrats have to remain neutral from political viewpoint.

Question 4.
Mention two defects of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Following are the three main defects of bureaucracy:
1. Red Tapism. Bureaucracy indulges in red tapism:
It causes delay in decision making by adopting a rigid attitude toward the application of all rules and regulations according to which the decisions have to be taken.

2. Unresponsive to People’s Demands: Bureaucracy ignores the needs and demands of the people.

Question 5.
What do you understand by Recruitment?
Answer:
For a layman recruitment is something like picking up persons for filling up jobs lying vacant in some office. Technically speaking, recruitment is not only making appointments but selecting proper and suitable candidates for particular jobs.

Question 6.
Distinguish between Political and Permanent Executive.
Answer:
1. Difference between the appointments of the two. In the democratic countries the political executive is elected directly or indirectly on the basis of adult franchise. On the other hand, permanent executive or civil servants are appointed on the basis of merit.

2. Distinction between the two on Political Basis. Political Executive is completely mixed with political parties as it is elected on political basis.On the contrary, civil servants don’t take part in politics.

Question 7.
Mention any two merits of good Bureaucracy.
Answer:
A good bureaucracy has the following qualities:

• Ability: The civil servants should be able and experienced.
• Public Interest: The civil servants should take care of public interest. They should always attach more importance to national interest than personal interest.

Question 8.
What is the importance of Bureaucracy in Democracy?
Answer:

• The civil servants provide continuity to public administration.
• The role of civil servants in foreign relations is of great importance as it brings stability in foreign relations and policies.

Question 9.
What is the meaning of permanent executive?
Answer:
Executive has two parts-political executive and permanent executive. The part of the executive which holds office on the basis of its education or qualifications is called the permanent executive. Permanent executive consists of civil servants, administrative officials and employees and they are selected on the basis of merit system.

Question 10.
Write down any two functions of Political Executive.
Answer:
1. Administrative Function:
The main function of the political executive is maintenance of law and order. The political executive enforces the laws enacted by the legislature and maintains peace in the state. The executive is to see that all the laws are properly obeyed and respected and those who break the laws are punished.

2. Formulation of Policies:
Formulation of policies is an important function of the political executive. Executive decides the internal and external policies of the nation and runs the administration on the basis of that policy.

Question 11.
Write any two functions of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
1. Administrative Function or Role:
Administrative function is the key function of bureaucracy. A minister formulates a policy but the responsibility of implementing the same falls on bureaucracy. Even a good policy can prove worthless in case it is not implemented effectively.

2. To Influence the Policy:
Though policies are framed by political executive, yet bureaucracy contributes a lot to policy formation on the basis of their ability.

Question 12.
What do you mean by Political Executive?
Answer:
Political executive includes President, Ministers and Parliamentary Secretaries. They are elected through a definite process and for a definite period. Political executive is elected purely on political basis. Political executive is responsible for all its actions to the Parliament and the people.

Question 13.
Write down two merits of Direct recruitment of Bureaucracy.
Answer:

• Democratic: It upholds the democratic principle.
• Wider field: It provides wider field of recruitment.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
From which language the word “Bureaucracy” has been derived?
Answer:
Latin Language.

Question 2.
Explain the meaning of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy is that form of administration wherein the tasks of administration are performed by those civil and administrative officials who sit in chair and work on the table.

Question 3.
Who developed the Concept of Bureaucracy?
Answer:
Max Weber developed the concept of bureaucracy.

Question 4.
Write any one definition of bureaucracy.
Answer:
According to Paul H. Appleby, “Bureaucracy is a professional class of technically skilled persons who are organised in an hierarchical way and serve the state in an impartial manner.”

Question 5.
Mention any one characteristic of bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy is organised on hierarchical basis.

Question 6.
Mention any one function of bureaucracy.
Answer:
To cooperate with the ministers.

Question 7.
Explain the meaning of Political Executive.
Answer:
Political Executive is directly or indirectly elected by the people. No specific educational or technical qualification is fixed for the Political Executive.

Question 8.
“Civil Service is a professional body of officials permanent, hard and skilled.” Who said it?
Answer:
Finer.

Question 9.
Which mode of recruitment is regarded as ‘Spoil System’ for Bureaucracy?
Answer:
Recruitment based on Politics is regarded as ‘Spoil System’ for Bureaucracy.

Question 10.
Write the meaning of Permanent Executive.
Answer:
Permanent Executive is another name for administrative services or administrative officials.

Question 11.
Mention any one difference between Political Executive and Permanent Executive.
Answer:
The base of Political Executive is political whereas political impartiality is the main characteristic of Permanent Executive.

Question 12.
Write any one attribute of good bureaucracy.
Answer:
It should be appointed on the basis of merit.

Question 13.
Write any one merit of direct recruitment of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
It is based on Democratic method.

Fill in The Blanks

1. The word ‘Bureaucracy’ has been derived from ………………………. language.
Answer:
Latin

2. ………………………. developed the concept of bureaucracy.
Answer:
Max Weber

3. In ………………………. the principle of merit was adopted in England.
Answer:
1857

4. In India in ………………………. merit was made the basis of recruitment.
Answer:
1853

5. Bureaucracy is organised on ………………………. basis.
Answer:
hierarchical.

True Or False Statement

1. Bureaucracy has been derived from Greek language.
Answer:
False

2. David Easton developed the concept of bureaucracy.
Answer:
False

3. Bureaucracy is organised on hierachical basis.
Answer:
True.

4. Permanent executive is another name for administrative services.
Answer:
True.

5. In India in 1909 merit was made the basis of recruitment.
Answer:
False

6. Political executive is directly or indirectly elected by the people.
Answer:
True.

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
The word ‘Bureaucracy’ is derived from which language?
(a) English
(b) Latin
(c) French
(d) Greek.
Answer:
(c) French

Question 2.
In French language, what is the meaning of word ‘Bureau’?
(a) Government
(b) Political Parties
(c) State
(d) Desk.
Answer:
(d) Desk.

Question 3.
To whom Bureaucracy gives advice?
(a) Parliament
(b) Political Parties
(c) Ministers
(d) Judiciary.
Answer:
(c) Ministers

Question 4.
Who acts as a link between Public and Government?
(a) Parliament
(5) Religious leaders
(c) Judiciary
(d) Government Officials.
Answer:
(d) Government Officials.

Question 5.
In which of the following countries is committed Bureaucracy?
(a) England
(b) Switzerland
(c) China
(d) U.S.A.
Answer:
(c) China

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 4 Political Ideas of Mahatma Gandhi Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 4 Political Ideas of Mahatma Gandhi

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Describe Political Ideas of Gandhiji in detail.
Or
Explain briefly the Political Ideology of Mahatma Gandhi.
Answer:
Gandhiji’s great contribution lies in the fact that he enunciated his whole political philosophy in the religious background. His philosophy has a sound religious background. Roman Rolland writes, “To understand Gandhiji’s activities it should be realised that his doctrine is like a huge edifice composed of two different floors. Below is the solid ground work of the basic foundation of religion. On this vast and unshakable foundation is based his political and social campaign.”

Gandhism is not a set of doctrine or dogma rules or regulations, injunctions or inhibitions, but it is a way of life. It indicates a new attitude or restates an old one towards life’s issues and offers ancient solution for modern problems. There is no ism in Gandhi. Ism means a distinctive doctrine. Gandhiji never claimed finality for his opinions. He was always experimenting with truth. In 1936 Gandhiji observed.

“There is no such thing as Gandhism and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the central truth to our daily life and problems. The opinions I have found and conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow I have nothing to teach the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as the hills. All I have done is to try experiments in both on as vast a scale as I could do. In doing so I have sometimes erred and learnt by my error well all my philosophy, if it may be called by that pretentious name, is contained in what I have said. You will not call it Gandhism, there is no, ‘ism’ about it.”

Following are the main political ideas of Gandhiji:
1. Spiritualisation of Politics:
Gandhiji’s political ideas were influenced by religion. Gandhiji had full faith in religion. He was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. Gandhiji was fully convinced that no civilization can endure for a long time unless it has adopted the higher values of life which are essentially spiritual in character. Gandhiji was a devotee of God. He said that all the religions are equal. The religion of each nation is as good as the religion of any other nation. He used to say, ‘God is Truth and Truth is God.’ Therefore to realize God we must realize truth and stick to truth under all circumstances.

The search of truth is the search of God. Regarding religion Gandhiji said, “It is permanent element in human nature which counts no cost too great in order to find full expression and which leaves the soul restless until it has found itself, knows its Maker, and appreciates the true correspondence between maker and itself.”

2. Faith in Truth:
Gandhiji was a great devotee of truth. He used to say, “God is Truth and Truth is God.” Therefore, to realize God we must realize truth and stick to truth under all circumstances. The search of truth is the search of God. The search of truth is a part of the very nature of man.

3. Faith in Ahimsa or Non-violence:
Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence. Gandhiji defines non-violence as avoiding injury to anything on earth in thought, word or deed. To him Ahimsa was the highest religion. Gandhiji called Ahimsa as a spiritual or divine power. “Cowardice and Ahimsa do not go together any more than water and fire. Cowardice is worse than violence A coward is less than man. He does not deserve to be a member of society of men and women. Non-violence is no negative force. It is a force which is more positive than electricity and more powerful than ether The highest violence can be met by the highest non-violence.”

However, Gandhiji recognised that absolute Ahimsa being a perfect stage is the attribute of God alone. Non-violence is an effort to abandon the violence that is inevitable in life. The religion of Ahimsa consists in allowing others the maximum of inconvenience to us, even at the risk of life.

4. Gandhian Technique:
Gandhiji favoured the use of non-violent methods for changing the present social structure. He was of the opinion that noble aims can be attained by noble meAnswer: He said that first of all the individual should try to discover truth and he should discover it by making use of non¬violent meAnswer: It is not enough that the ends we follow should be moral and good, it is equally important that the means we use for their achievement should also be good and moral.

According to Gandhiji, there is no wall of separation between means and ends. Good means are indispensable for the realization of a noble end. To quote Gandhiji “As the means so the end.” So Gandhiji believed that “If one takes care of the means the end will take care of itself.” Hence his repeated insistence that our means must be as pure as our end. Mahatma Gandhi attached great importance to the purity of meAnswer: He said that good means must be adopted for good ends because in the long run even the means will have their effect on the end. Bad means will poison the good end. He advocated the method of Satyagraha for facing all the evils.

5. Satyagraha:
The idea and practice of Satyagraha constitutes the heart and the soul of Gandhism and is Gandhiji’s unique and distinctive contribution. According to him even a mighty empire could be shaken through Satyagraha and non-violence. Gandhiji defines Satyagraha as the soul force. Literally Satyagraha means holding on to truth or insistence on truth. It is the vindication of truth, not by the infliction of suffering on the opponent but by self-suffering.

Satyagraha is not passive resistance but it is a moral weapon based on superiority of our soul-force over physical force. Satyagraha can be defined as action based on truth, love and non-violence. It completely eschews untruth and violence in every form. It means the exercise of the purest soul force against all injustice, oppression and exploitation. Suffering and truth are attributes of soul-force. In wider sense Satyagraha includes all constructive, reforming activities and all acts of service. It is a weapon of the strongest and the bravest. Non-co-operation, Hartals and strikes, Picketing, Social boycott, Hunger strike, Civil disobedience, Hijrat etc. are forms of Satyagraha.

6. State is Means and Individual is an End:
Gandhism regards state as a means and individual as an end. State originated for the sake of man and state is an instrument for the welfare of individual. Gandhiji wanted the state to be a ‘Service State’. Whenever the state abuses its authority the people should non-violently resist its authority.

7. Stateless Society:
Gandhiji said that his main aim was to establish an ideal society or Ram Rajya. Gandhiji said that the state represents force and violence and therefore, he wanted to establish such a society where the need of the state is not felt. In an ideal society the people would not require large armies and police forces to keep law and order but the people of their own accord would respect the laws of the society and work for the general welfare.

8. Panchayati Raj:
Gandhiji believed in the decentralization of authority and he advocated the establishment of Panchayati Raj. He held that the village Panchayats should be powerful and an effective unit of democracy. Village Panchayat should have an adequate power to control and serve the villages. He wanted the village Panchayats to be free from official interference and control. The Panchayats should also be free from the influence of the party system.

9. Democratic System:
Gandhism supported the democratic system of government and called it an ideal type of government. He had a deep faith in democracy. He wanted to establish social and economic equality in society. Gandhiji wanted the government to be elected by the people but at the same time he wanted that only those persons should have the right to vote who earn their bread by their own labour. He was of the opinion that fundamental rights should be granted to all.

10. Sphere of State activity:
Gandhiji considered the State as a necessary immoral institution. He said that the State should perform minimum functions. The state should enjoy only limited power. A powerful state is a horrible state. He regarded self-government as maximum vote freedom from government control. Like Thoreau, Gandhiji too held that, “that government is best which governs the least.’ The State should not interfere in the activities of the individual. He said that the existing system of law and justice is defective. Justice should be administered through the Panchayat.

In an ideal society there is no need of police, military and judiciary. Gandhiji said, “I look upon an increase in the power of the State with the greatest fear, because although while apparently doing good by minimising exploitation it does the greatest harm to mankind by destroying individual liberty which lies at the root of all progress.”

11. Secular State:
In the ideal society nobody will be discriminated against on the basis of caste, creed, colour, religion and blood. He favoured the idea of a Secular State. He was of the opinion that even if all the people in the State have the same religion the State should not interfere in the religion of the people. He was of the opinion that religion is a personal affair of the individual and the State should practise neutrality in this respect. No religion should be given special privileges by the State.

12. Economic Views:
Gandhiji preached that the rich should only use so much of their riches as is necessary for carrying on their day-to-day life and treat the rest of their wealth as a trust of the people held by them and use the same for general welfare. He was of the opinion that the employer and the employee were the partners in an enterprise for the common good. He was against hostile attitude on the part of either. Gandhiji said that Trusteeship is a non-violent method of solving the problems of richness in society. According to this principle the rich should not consider themselves the owners of wealth but as the trustees of society. For the wealth in their hands, they should justify the ‘trust’ given to them by the society. They should spend it in the way in which the interests of the society are best promoted.

13. More importance to duties:
Gandhism attached more importance to duties than to rights. According to Gandhiji the right to perform one’s duties was the only right that was worth living for and dying for. To quote Gandhiji, ‘The true source of right is duty.”

14. Gandhism opposed the principle of majority:
Gandhiji believed in democracy but he opposed the principle of majority. According to Gandhiji majority should run the government with the cooperation of the minorities. Majority should respect the views of minorities.

15. No Conflict between Nationalism and Internationalism:
In Gandhism there is no conflict between nationalism and internationalism. According to Gandhiji, “It is impossible for one to be an internationalist without being a nationalist.” Gandhiji did not believe in the isolation of one country from the rest of the world. He never ignored the higher interests of humanity but at the same time he felt that his first duty was to serve the people of India. If there is any conflict between nationalism and internationalism it is because of the fact that we are selfish and regard the interest of our own nation as supreme. Nationalism in Gandhian concept does not mean just a sentiment of hatred for others. It means love for the people of one’s own country and love for the people of other countries also.

16. Rights and Duties:
Gandhiji wholly agrees with the significance of rights both in the life of a man and in the life of a nation but he believes that the rights and duties are inseparable and must go hand in hand. But Gandhism attached more importance to duties than to rights. Gandhiji held that the right to perform one’s duty was the only right that was worth living for and dying for. Rights accrue only to those persons who were willing to serve the state to which they belong. In Gandhiji’s own words, “The true source of right is duty. If we discharge our duties, rights will not be far to seek.

If leaving duties unperformed, we run after rights, they will escape us like a will-o-the wisp. The more we pursue them, farther they will fly.” Conclusion. The ideas of Gandhiji exercised great influence not only in India but in other countries also, but his ideas also came under criticism. Many of his ideas are not practical. His ideal state is indeed pleasant and attractive but it is not possible to put it into practice.

Question 2.
Describe the methods of Satyagraha of Mahatma Gandhi Ji.
Or
Write down Gandhiji’s views about Satyagraha.
Answer:
The concept of Satyagraha is heart and soul of Gandhism. For Gandhiji Satyagraha is an attempt to introduce religion into politics. Truth for Gandhi is God. Thus, a satyagrahi is a man of God. To put it more correctly, Satyagraha is bringing “God into Politics.”

Meaning Of Satyagraha:
Literally ‘Satyagraha’ means ‘holding on to truth’ or ‘insistence on truth’ or ‘firmness on truth’. It is ‘agraha’ or moral presssure for the sake of truth. It is a technique of resisting all that is evil, unjust, impure or untrue by love, self-suffering, self-purification and appealing to the divine spirit in the soul of the oppponent. Gandhi calls it as a love force’ or soul force.’

Satyagraha is a way of life and a satyagrahi is to live a life of truth. Truth and Ahimsa are the two guiding-principles of a Satyagrahi. In this sense Jesus Christ, Satyawadi Harish Chandra, Prahlada and Socrates can be called true satyagrahis.

1. Satyagraha as a Political Method:
Gandhi used Satyagraha as a political method to fight against British imperialism. It is a method of resisting evil through soul-force or non-violence. It is a way of fighting by the means of non-violence. Gandhi calls satyagraha as an all-sided sword; for “it can be used anyhow, it blesses him who uses it and him against whom it is used.”

2. Satyagraha means an appeal to morality and reason:
Primarily, Satyagraha is a case of appealing to the reason and conscience of the opponent by inviting suffering on oneself. The objective is to change the heart of the opponent and make him one’s willing friend. It is based on the idea that moral appeal to the heart and conscience is more effective than an appeal based on the threat of bodily pain or violence.

3. Satyagraha is different from Passive Resistance:
According to Gandhi, Satyagraha is different from Passive Resistance as a positive and negative thing. Passive Resistance is a negative thing, it is a weapon of the weak and does not exclude the use of force or violence, whereas Satyagraha is a positive thing, it is a weapon of the strong and excludes the use of violence in any shape of form. Satyagraha emphasises inner purity and it can be practised at all levels domestic, social and political, while passive resistance is mainly applied at the political level.

4. Satyagraha is different from strike:
Sometimes Satyagraha is explained in terms of strike. But the reality is that Gandhi was never in favour of strikes. Strike and Satyagraha are not identical.
Strike is narrow in its objective and based on the selfish motives of an individual or a group of persons. But Satyagraha is a moral weapon, it aims at changing the heart of the opponent. Besides, strike consists of coercion, force, sabotage and stresses. But satyagraha on the other hand has it two assumptions truth and non-violence. Strike is based on opportunism and it has material gains in view but Satyagraha expels both.

Some Essential Conditions of Satyagraha
Gandhiji laid the following conditions for Satyagraha :
1. There can be no satyagraha for an ‘unjust cause’. By its defintion satyagraha is a commitment to ‘upholding of truth’.
2. Satyagraha excludes the use of violence in any shape or form, whether in thought, speech or deed. A satyagrahi must be non-violent in relation to others.
3. A satyagrahi must have the capacity or willingness to suffer. One who does not have the capacity of suffering, should not attempt satyagraha.
4. No satyagraha should be launched without disciplined satyagrahis.
5. A satyagrahi must have courage and patience, initiative and resourcefulness, a spirit of research and readiness to take risks.
6. Satyagraha cannot be launched for personal gains but for social good. The aim of a satyagrahi should be the service of mankind.
7. A satyagrahi must have an unshakable faith in God.
8. A satyagrahi should treat his opponent as a member of his family.
9. A satyagrahi should be ready to make honourable agreement or compromise with the opponent.

Different Forms or Methods of Satyagraha:
According to Gandhiji, satyagraha can take different forms like non-co-operation, fasting, civil disobedience, hijrat, picketing strike etc. They may also be called as various techniques or methods of satyagraha.

1. Non-Co-operation:
Non-co-operation means withdrawing co-operation to the government. When the government becomes corrupt and it fails to perform its duties towards the people, then, according to Gandhi, people should withdraw their support from the government. The students should boycott the schools and colleges ; lawyers should boycott the courts, people should refuse to accept titles, to serve army and the police and to pay taxes. But, non-co-operation must exclude the use of violence of any type. It must be based on love and not on hatred. It should not lead to anarchy, disorder, violence and ill-will.

2. Civil Disobedience:
Civil Disobedience is an extreme type of non-cooperation. It means mass resistance on non-violent basis when all negotiations and constitutional methods have failed. It is called civil disobedience because it is non-violent resistance by the people who are ordinarily law-abiding citizens of the state. On the part of the people, civil- disobedience demands—a disciplined group action, unlimited capacity for suffering and strict obedience to leaders.

3. Fasting:
Fasting is the last weapon for a satyagrahi. It should be undertaken as the last resort. It should be in the nature of prayer for purity and strength and power from God. It is a method to be used to awaken the sleeping conscience of the wrong doer.

4. Strike:
Strike or hartal is another method of Satyagraha. The workers should organise themselves in every industry to fight against injustice of any type. But according to Gandhi there are three essentials of strike. Firstly, strike should not be frequent, otherwise it would cease to be effective. Secondly, strike should be voluntry. Workers should not be forced to participate in it. Thirdly, it should be peaceful and non-violent.

5. Hijrat:
Hijrat implies voluntary exile from the permanent place of residence. It means that a person who does not have power to become a Satyagrahi, should leave the place.

6. Picketing:
It is a method of moral persuasion. By way of picketing in front of the house or shops, the owners can be persuaded to change their views.

Conclusion:
By developing the concept of satyagraha in various forms, Gandhi has shown the ways to overcome violence by non-violence. It is a substitute for brute force with moral force. Here, Gandhian approach is mainly psychological. According to him, the most effective way of winning an enemy is to allow the opponent’s anger spend itself, bum itself out. By resisting him one only feeds his anger, whereas by suffering silently we compel him to review his actions.

Question 3.
Explain the main features of Gandhiji’s Ideal State.
Or
Write down the features of Mahatma Gandhiji’s Ideal State.
Or
Write down the characteristics of the Ideal State of GandhiJi.
Ans:
As a philosophical anarchist Gandhi rejects the state as such. He regards the existing state as an evil on ethical, moral and economic grounds. In his words, “State represents violence in a concentrated and organised form. The individual has a soul but the state is a soul-less machine….”
Like Marx, Gandhi imagines an Ideal Society without state and class struggle. He imagines a society in which there is no place for state, police, army, machines, violence and power. According to Gandhi, “the existing State damages the moral
values of individual action It uses force, works for the rich and influential only.” So, for Gandhi’s modern state is an evil. He wants to replace it with an ideal state or Ram Rajya.

Ideal State:
The ‘Ideal State’ of Gandhi is the state of ‘enlightened anarchy’ where social life becomes so perfect as to be self-regulated. In such a state everyone is his own ruler. He rules himself in such a manner that he is never a hindrance to his neighbour.” In Gandhian ideal state, therefore, “there is no political power, there is no state”. It is a “state of statelessness.”

In short, Gandhian Ideal State or Ideal Society will have the following features.
1. Village as a Unit of Ideal State:
The ideal state will, according to Gandhi, be a federation of more or less self-sufficing and self-governing village communities. It will be an ideal society based on the principles of non-violence and peaceful co-existence. The individuals, continuously aware of Spiritual Eeality will live a life of simplicity and renunciation. In this ideal society there will be no need for police or military force. Every village will be governed by Panchayat having full powers.

2. Organisation on the Principle of Decentralisation:
Instead of centralisation there will be decentralisation. This decentralisation will be of two types, (i) Economic and (ii) Political. From political decentralisation, Gandhi means that the state authority shall be reduced to the minimum, and maximum authority shall be given to the village communities. In the economic sphere, the decentralisation would imply the abolition of large scale industry and establishment of cottage and small scale industry.

3. Minimum Functions of the Government:
Gandhi does not favour more functions of the government. According to him, that government is best which governs the least. Individual should look after his own welfare. Speaking of his ideal society, he said in 1931: “Ideal Society is the state of enlightened anarchy. In such a state everyone is his own ruler ” There is no political power because there is no state. But the ideal is never fully realised in life. Hence, the classical statement of Thoreaun that “that Government is best which governs the least,” is correct regarding functions of government.

4. A Non-violent State:
Gandhian ideal state will be a non-violent state. The word non-violent state was used by Gandhi himself in ‘Harijan’ where he wrote in 1940, ‘The ideal non-violent state will be an ordered anarchy.” It will be a purest form of democracy based on non-violence. It will be a federation of satyagrahi village communities.

5. Role of Non-possession, Bread-labour and Swadeshi:
Gandhi lays stress on non-possession, bread-labour and swadeshi. The first two imply voluntary poverty, village industries and common people owning the means of production and having the capacity to resist injustice. Swadeshi means self-dependency and the use of local-made goods.

6. Role of Machines, Doctors, Courts etc:
Gandhi is not against machinery as such but he is against centralised mass production and profit motive. Centralised production leads to concentration of power and exploitation. Hence, according to Gandhi, in ideal state there will be no place for heavy transport, courts, lawyers, the modern system of medicines and big cities. Village Panchayats will administer justice. There will be no mass production of drugs. Gandhi advocated Indian yogic exercises for mental, moral and physical health.

7. Relations between Individual and Society:
To Gandhi society is just like a family and the relations between individual and society is one of close interdependence. Hence, in Gandhian ideal state there will be total harmony between individual and the state. Both will work for each other. However, Gandhi gives more importance to individual. In his philosophy individual comes first.

8. Role of Dharma:
In Gandhian ideal state ‘Dharma’ will play a very important role. But, ‘Dharma’ according to Gandhi, is identified with ‘righteousness’ or justice. The function of Dharma will be to hold together harmoniously the social order and to act as a guide to individual conscience.

9. Spiritualised Democracy:
Gandhian ideal state will be a spiritualised democratic state. The principle of equality will be applied in every sphere of society. The law of‘Varna’ and the ideals of bread-labour and non-possession will bring about complete social and economic equality. There will be no exploitation of one class by the other. Everybody will be his own master. Corruption and hypocricy will be minimised. The qualification for voters would be neither property nor position but manual work.

10. Role of Secularism:
Gandhian ideal state will be a secular state. There will be no religion known to be a ‘state-religion’. Everyone living in the state shall be allowed to adopt, practise and propagate religion of his / her choice.

11. Sticking to the ancestral profession:
In ideal state each one shall stick to the profession of his ancestors unless there were very strong reasons for a change. In this way the experience and knowledge shall pass from one generation to the other.

12. Unnecessary wealth not allowed:
In his ideal state, Gandhi felt that everyone will keep only what was required by him for his day to day life. No one would be allowed to keep unnecessary wealth or surplus goods. The rich would be persuaded to have only what was their minimum basic necessity and distribute rest of the wealth among the poor and the needy.

13. Emphasis on Duties:
In ideal state greater importance will be given to the duties. Everybody will do his ‘Karma’ or duty sincerely. The spirit of social service will govern people’s actions. The performance of duties will lead to automatic availability of rights for all.

Conclusion:
Thus we find that Gandhian non-violent ideal state would rest on principle of decentralisation, socialism, trusteeship, varna-system, bread labour and individual freedom with social restraints. It will be an ideal state where police will consist of non-violent soldiers and where prisons will be centres of reformation. It will be a federation of self-governing satyagrahi village communities.

No doubt, Gandhi himself knew that this ‘ideal state’ will always remain an ideal unrealised and unrealisable. He said, ‘But the ideal is never fully realised in life.” The ideal of‘Ram Rajya’ or non-violent state is unrealisable because of human imperfection. But it still shows the direction of our destination and the efforts to this direction must not cease.
Dr. Majumdar writes, “The supreme achievement of Mahatma Gandhi in the field of political thought has been the substitution of the ideal of legal state by that of moral state. He has placed before the world the idea of replacing force and violence by the technique of persuasion through truth and non-violence.”

Question 4.
Write a note on Gandhiji’s views about Ahimsa.
Or
Write down Gandhiji’s views about Non-Violence.
Answer:
Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence. Gandhiji defines non-violence as avoiding injury to anything on earth in thought, word or deed. To him Ahimsa was the highest religion. Gandhiji called Ahimsa as a spiritual or divine power. “Cowardice and Ahimsa do not go together any more than water and fire.

Cowardice is worse than violence A coward is less than man. He does not deserve to be a member of society of men and women. Non-violence is no negative force. It is a force which is more positive than electricity and more powerful than ether The highest violence can be met by the highest non-violence.” However, Gandhiji recognised that absolute Ahimsa being a perfect stage is the attribute of God alone. Non-violence is an effort to abandon the violence that is inevitable in life. The religion of Ahimsa consists in allowing others the maximum of inconvenience to us, even at the risk of life.

Requisites for Ahimsa. According to Gandhiji following are the main requisites of Ahimsa :
1. Truth:
Truth is the fundamental basis of Non-violence. According to Gandhiji not only God is truth but truth is also God. Non-violence is the natural consequence of truth. Gandhiji says that he had a great regard for truth from his childhood. He thinks that wherever there is violence, untruth will creep in. Gandhiji says that truth and Non-violence are like the two sides of an unstamped coin.

2. Love:
Love is the basic requisite for Ahimsa Gandhiji says , “It is no Non-violence if we merely love those that love us. It is Non-violence only when we love those that hate us.”

3. Inner Purity: Inner purity is very essential for a true Satyagrahi. A Satyagrahi must have self-discipline, selfless civility etc.

4. Fearlessness:
Fearlessness is equally important as inner-purity, love and truth. The Satyagrahi must, therefore, be open and fearless, prepared cheerfully to suffer the consequences of his resistance and disobedience to what he considers as unjust and unlawful authority.

5. Fast:
Fast is an internal part of Non-violence. According to Gandhiji, fast should be in the nature of prayer or purity and strength and power from God.

6. Non-Possession: Gandhiji lays stress on non-possession.

7. Perseverance: Perseverance is another essential requisite of Ahimsa.

Relevance of Non-violence:
It is said that Gandhiji’s idea that injustice can be removed through truth, Non-violence and purity of means is too idealistic to be put into practice. But those who make this criticism forget that by these means Gandhiji achieved a great measure of success in the movements he led in South Africa and in India. Gandhiji did not believe that the practice of Non-violence in the political field was beyond the capacity of man. He says.

“The first condition of Non-violence is justice all round in every department of life. Perhaps, it is too much to expect of human nature Non-violence has no cause for fear. The votary of Ahimsa has only one fear, that is of God.” If violence, war and crooked diplomacy are to be avoided, Gandhiji’s way seems to be the only way. If nations do not adopt Gandhiji’s method of Non-violence to remove injustice or resolve international disputes, there is no escape from hate, violence and war.

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Who was Mahatma Gandhi?
Answer:
Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi was born at Porbandar (Gujarat) on October 2, 1869. He went to England for higher studies in his 18th year. In 1891 Gandhiji returned to India as a full-fledged barrister. He entered politics just by chance and continued to dominate India National Movement from 1919 to 1947 and this period is called ‘Gandhi Era. He was a philosopher, a reformer and a great teacher. He is remembered as the Father of the Nation.

Question 2.
Explain in detail about Mahatma Gandhi’s views on Non-violence.
Or
Write down Gandhi’s views on Non-violence.
Answer:
Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence. Gandhiji defines non-violence as avoiding injury to anything on earth in thought, word or deed. To him, Ahimsa was the highest religion. Gandhiji called Ahimsa a spiritual or divine power. “Cowardice and Ahimsa do not go together any more than water and fire.” However, Gandhiji recognised that absolute Ahimsa being a perfect stage is the attribute of God alone. Non-violence is an’effort to abandon the violence that is inevitable in life. The religion of Ahimsa consists in allowing others the maximum of inconvenience to us, even at the risk of life.

According to Gandhiji, “Truth, love, fasting, inner purity, true devotion, selflessness etc. are the bases of non-violence. Gandhiji regards non-violence as an instrument or means to discover the truth.” In the words of Gandhiji, “Truth is my religion, and non-violence is its instrument.”

Question 3.
By which of the great persons Gandhiji was influenced?
Answer:
Gandhiji was influenced by the following great persons :

• John Ruskin: John Ruskin’s ‘Unto the Last’ had a great influence on Gandhiji. Gandhiji learnt three lessons from this book.
• Tolstoy: Tolstoy’s famous book ‘Kingdom of God is Within you’ left an enormous influence on Gandhiji. This book made him believer of Ahimsa.
• Gopal Krishan Gokhale: Mahatma Gandhi considered Gopal Krishan Gokhale as his ‘political guru’ and his liberal views had considerable influence on him.
• Henry David Thoreau also influenced Gandhiji.

Question 4.
Write down the names of Religious books which influenced Gandhiji’s life.
Answer:
Gandhiji was influenced by the following religious books :
1. Bhagwad Gita:
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by Bhagwad Gita. He learnt from the Gita that a man should do his duty regardless of the results or rewards.

2. Bible:
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by the Bible. The whole life he remembered these statements-‘Overcome evil by good’, ‘Love your enemy’, etc.

3. Influence of Koran: Gandhiji was also influenced by The Koran.

Question 5.
Express your views about Gandhiji’s outlook on religion and politics.
Or
Describe the basic views of Gandhiji on the relationship of politics and religion.
Answer:
Gandhiji’s political ideas were greatly influenced by religion. He was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. They subserve religion. Politics bereft of religion is a death trap because it kills the soul. Gandhiji was fully convinced that no civilization can endure for a long time unless it has adopted the higher values of life which are essentially spiritual in character. Gandhiji was a devotee of God. He had an unswerving and undying faith in God. Gandhiji said that all the religions are equal.

Question 6.
Mention four principles of Gandhism.
Answer:
1. Gandhism is based on Religion:
Gandhiji was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. Religion teaches a lesson of truth, non-violence and love.

2. Faith in Truth: Gandhiji used to say, ‘God is Truth and Truth is God.’ The search of truth is the search of God.

3. State is means and individual is an end.

4. Non-violence and Satyagraha:
Non-violence and satyagraha are the main principles of Gandhiji. Gandhiji called Ahimsa a spiritual or divine power. Satyagraha is the heart and soul of Gandhism. Satyagraha means holding on to truth or insistence on truth.

Question 7.
What does Gandhiji mean by ‘Satyagraha’? Write the names of methods for Satyagraha.
Answer:
Satyagraha:
The idea and practice of Satyagraha constitutes the heart and the soul of Gandhism and is Gandhiji’s unique and distinctive contribution. Gandhiji defines Satyagraha as the soul force. Literally Satyagraha means holding on to truth or insistence on truth. It is the vindication of truth, not by the infliction of suffering on the opponent but by self-suffering. Satyagraha is not passive resistance but it is a moral weapon based on superiority of our soul force over physical force. It is a weapon of the strongest and the bravest. Non-cooperation, hartals and strikes, picketing, social boycott, hunger strike, civil disobedience, hijrat etc. are forms of Satyagraha.

Methods for Satyagraha:
According to Gandhiji, the different forms of Satyagraha are non-co-operation, strike, boycott, picketing, civil disobedience, hijrat or migration and fasting.
1. Non-co-operation:
Gandhiji pointed out that oppression and exploitation become feasible only by the co-operation of the oppressed or the people. If the people refuse to co-operate with the government or unjust system, the latter could not function and was bound to come to an end. With complete and non-violent non-co-operation every power could be bent. Non-co-operation takes three different forms, namely, stoppage of work, boycott and picketing.

2. Strike:
This is another form of Satyagraha. To Gandhiji, strike was voluntary, purificatory suffering undertaken to convert the erring opponent. He did not believe in the theory of class-war.

3. Civil Disobedience:
This was to be resorted to when agreements, negotiations, petitions and even non-co-operation prove ineffective. Civil disobedience is thus the logical conclusion, the last stage, the most drastic form of non-co-operation.

4. Fasting: Fasting is also an important method of Satyagraha.

Question 8.
Write down the methods of Satyagraha given by Gandhiji.
Answer:
According to Gandhiji, the different forms of Satyagraha are non-co-operation, strike, boycott, picketing, civil disobedience, hijrat or migration and fasting.
1. Non-co-operation:
Gandhiji pointed out that oppression and exploitation become feasible only by the co-operation of the oppressed or the people. If the people refuse to co-operate with the government or unjust system, the latter could not function and was bound to come to an end. With complete and non-violent non-co-operation every power could be bent. Non-co-operation takes three different forms, namely, stoppage of work, boycott and picketing.

2. Strike:
This is another form of Satyagraha. To Gandhiji, strike was voluntary, purificatory suffering undertaken to convert the erring opponent. He did not believe in the theory of class-war.

3. Civil Disobedience:
This was to be resorted to when agreements, negotiations, petitions and even non-co-operation prove ineffective. Civil disobedience is thus the logical conclusion, the last stage, the most drastic form of non-co-operation.

4. Fasting: Fasting is also an important method of Satyagraha.

Question 9.
Explain Gandhiji’s views about state.
Answer:
Gandhiji was opposed to the state on ethical, historical and economic grounds. The compulsive nature of the state authority takes away the moral value of the individual. He said that the state commands and whatever is commanded can have no moral value. Individual action can be moral only if it is voluntary. According to Gandhiji,

“The state represents violence in concentrated and organised form. The individual has a soul but the state is a soulless machine. It can never be weaned from violence to which it owes its very existence.” Gandhiji was thus opposed to the activities of the state. He wanted a stateless democratic state where social life was self-regulated.

Question 10.
Describe Gandhiji’s Trusteeship System. (P.B. Sample Paper. 2019)
Answer:
Gandhiji advocates a new principle which is technically known as his concept of trusteeship. It means that he wants that the moneyed people should regard their properties, may be land or industry, as a trust to be used for the welfare of the people. He wanted that the propertied men should regard themselves as trustees of the people. He wanted to introduce this principle of trusteeship on the basis of persuasion of the party concerned and not through coercion. He once said, “I would not dispose moneyed people by force but would invite their co-operation in the process of conversion to state ownership.”

Question 11.
What does ‘Hizrat’ mean according to Gandhiji?
Or
According to Gandhiji, what does ‘Hijrat’ mean?
Answer:
Hijrat is one form of Satyagraha. The word ‘Hijrat’ was first used when Prophet Mohammad, the founder of Islam, migrated from Mecca to Medina. Hijrat means voluntary exile from the permanent place of residence. Gandhiji favoured Hijrat when people can’t live in their homes or homelands without loss of self¬respect and when they can’t resist oppression non-violently. He recommended this method to the peasants of Bardoli in 1928 and in 1939, to the people of Junagarh, Vithalgarh and Limbidi.

Question 12.
Describe the concept of ‘Ideal State’ of Mahatma Gandhi.
Answer:
Gandhiji considered the present state as a necessary immoral institution. Gandhiji was not in favour of present state and in place of it he wanted to establish an ideal state. Following are the main characteristics of the Ideal State of Gandhiji:
1. Democratic System:
Gandhiji supported democratic form of government and called it an ideal type of government for his ideal state.

2. Secular State:
In ideal state nobody will be discriminated against on the bases of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood. He favoured the idea of secular state.

3. Panchayati Raj:
Gandhiji believed in decentralization of authority and he advocated the establishment of Panchayati Raj. Gandhiji was in favour of giving maximum powers to the Panchayats.

4. Gandhian ideal state will be a spiritualised democratic state.

Question 13.
Why is Gandhiji called the Father of the Nation?
Answer:
Gandhiji was a man of high spirits. He was famous not only in India but also all over the world. He played a very important role in National Movement. He uprooted the British rule from India without any bloodshed. India got freedom under his leadership. Gandhiji dedicated his life for Indian people. Even after the independence of India he accepted no post. Gandhiji presented the example of sacrifice and dedication never seen in the history of the world. He has rightly been called the Father of the Nation.

Question 14.
Write Gandhiji’s view about Democracy.
Answer:
Gandhism supported the democratic system of government and called it an ideal type of government. He had a deep faith in democracy. He wanted to establish social and economic equality in society. Gandhiji wanted the government to be elected by the people but at the same time he wanted that only those persons should have the right to vote who earn their bread by their own labour. He was of the opinion that fundamental rights should be granted to all.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
What do you know about Mahatma Gandhi?
Answer:
Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi was born at Porbandar (Gujarat) on October 2,1869. He entered politics just by chance and continued to dominate Indian National Movement from 1919 to 1947 and this period is called ‘Gandhi Era.

Question 2.
Write down Gandhiji’s view about non-violence.
Answer:
Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence. Gandhiji defines non-violence as avoiding injury to anything on earth in thought, word or deed. To him, Ahimsa was the highest religion. Gandhiji called Ahimsa a spiritual or divine power. “Cowardice and Ahimsa do not go together any more than water and fire.”

Question 3.
By which of the great persons Gandhiji was influenced?
Answer:
Gandhiji was influenced by following great persons:
1. John Ruskin:
John Ruskin’s ‘Unto the Last’ had a great influence on Gandhiji. Gandhiji learnt three lessons from this book.

2. Gopal Krishan Gokhale:
Mahatma Gandhi considered Gopal Krishan Gokhale as his ‘political guru’ and his liberal views had considerable influence on him.

Question 4.
Write down the names of any two religious books which influenced Gandhiji’s life.
Answer:
Gandhiji was influenced by following religious books:
1. Bhagwad Gita:
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by Bhagwad Gita. He learnt from the Gita that a man should do his duty regardless of the results or rewards.

2. Bible:
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by the Bible. The whole life he remembered these statements-‘Overcome evil by good’, ‘Love your enemy’, etc.

Question 5.
Write about factors that influenced the life of Gandhiji.
Answer:
1. The Gita had a great influence on the life of Gandhiji. Gandhi was predominantly a man of action. The Gita made him one. He was a Karma Yogi.

2. Jainism had perceptibly coloured Gandhiji’s thoughts and shaped his actions.

3. Buddhist influence was also great.

Question 6.
Describe the basic views of Gandhiji on the relationship of politics and religion.
Answer:
Gandhiji’s political ideas were greatly influenced by religion. He was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. They subserve religion. Politics bereft of religion is a death trap because it kills the soul. Gandhiji was fully convinced that no civilization can endure for a long time unless it has adopted the higher values of life which are essentially spiritual in character.

Question 7.
Write down any two principles of Gandhism.
Answer:

• Gandhism is based on Religion: Gandhiji was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. Religion teaches a lesson of truth, non-violence and love.
• Faith in Truth: Gandhiji used to say, ‘God is truth and truth is God.’ The search of truth is the search of God.

Question 8.
Describe Gandhiji’s concepts of Satyagraha.
Answer:
Gandhiji defines Satyagraha as the soul force. Literally Satyagraha means holding on to truth or insistence on truth. It is the vindication of truth, not by the infliction of suffering on the opponent but by self-suffering. Satyagraha is not passive resistance but it is a moral weapon based on superiority of our soul force over physical force. It is a weapon of the strongest and the bravest.

Question 9.
Explain briefly any two techniques of Satyagraha enunciated by Gandhi.
Answer:
1. Non-co-operation:
Gandhiji pointed out that oppression and exploitation become non-feasible only by the non-co-operation of the oppressed people.

2. Strike:
This is another form of Satyagraha. To Gandhiji, strike was voluntary, purificatory suffering undertaken to convert the erring opponent. He did not believe in the theory of class-war.

Question 10.
Write Gandhiji’s views about ends and meAnswer:
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi believed and advocated that our means must be consistent with our ends. It is not enough that the ends we follow should be moral and good. It is equally important that the means we use for their achievement should also be good and moral. According to Gandhiji, there is no wall of separation between means and ends. We should not only take care of ends but also take care of the meAnswer:

Question 11.
Discuss Gandhiji’s views about state.
Answer:
Gandhiji was opposed to the state on ethical, historical and economic grounds. The compulsive nature of the state authority takes away the moral value of the individual. He said that the state commands and whatever is commanded can have no moral value. Individual action can be moral only if it is voluntary. Gandhiji was thus opposed to the activities of the state. He wanted a stateless democratic state where social life was self-regulated.

Question 12.
What is Trusteeship system?
Answer:
Gandhiji advocates a new principle which is technically known as his concept of trusteeship. It means that he wants that the moneyed people should regard their properties, may be land or industry, as a trust to be used for the welfare of the people.

Question 13.
What do you mean by Hijrat?
Answer:
Hijrat means voluntary exile from the permanent place of residence. Gandhiji favoured Hijrat when people can’t live in their homes or homelands without loss of self-respect and when they can’t resist oppression non-violently.

Question 14.
Mention the two features of Gandhiji’s Ideal State.
Answer:

• Democratic System: Gandhiji supported democratic form of government and called it an ideal type of government for his ideal state.
• Secular State: In ideal state nobody will be discriminated against on the basis of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood. He favoured the idea of secular state.

Question 15.
Why is Gandhiji called the Father of the Nation?
Answer:
Gandhiji played a very important role in National Movement. He uprooted the British rule from India without any bloodshed. India got freedom under his leadership. Gandhiji dedicated his life for Indian people. Even after the independence of India he accepted no post. He has rightly been called the Father of the Nation.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Mention full name of Gandhiji.
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi’s full name is Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhi.

Question 2.
When was Mahatma Gandhi born?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi was born on 2nd October 1869.

Question 3.
Where was Gandhiji born?
Answer:
Gandhiji was bom at Porbunder in Kathiawar.

Question 4.
By whom was Gandhiji influenced?
Answer:
Gandhiji was deeply influenced by the Gita, Buddhism, Jainism and the Bible. Among the scholars, he was influenced by John Ruskin,
Henry David Thoreau and Tolstoy.

Question 5.
Write down the nature of present state according to Gandhiji.
Answer:
Gandhiji considered the present state to be based on force and violence. He supported that it should be ended.

Question 6.
Write down one feature of Gandhiji’s ideal state.
Answer:
The ideal society or the stateless democracy will be a federation of self- governed and satyagrahi villages.

Question 7.
Who gave the title ‘Mahatma’ to Gandhiji?
Answer:
Rabindranath Tagore had first of all called Gandhiji as Mahatma. After this, Gandhiji was called as Mahatma Gandhi.

Question 8.
What did Gandhiji mean by Civil Disobedience?
Answer:
Civil disobedience means the breach of immoral statutory enactment. It included even non-payment of taxes.

Question 9.
What did Gandhiji mean by Hijrat?
Answer:
Hijrat implies voluntary exile from the permanent place of residence. It means that a person who does not have power to become a Satyagrahi, should leave the place.

Question 10.
Write two Religious Books which influenced the life of Mahatma Gandhiji.
Answer:
1. Bhagwad Gita
2. Bible

Question 11.
Who called Mahatma Gandhiji as ‘Father of Nation’?
Answer:
Subhash Chander Bose.

Question 12.
Write two methods of Satyagraha of Mahatma Gandhiji.
Answer:
1. Non-Cooperation
2. Civil Disobedience.

Fill in The Blanks

1. …………… was Gandhi’s political teacher.
Answer:
Sh. Gopal Krishan Gokhle

2. Gandhiji regards state as a means and individual as an …………… .
Answer:
end

3. Gandhiji believed in the decentralization of …………… .
Answer:
authority

4. Gandhiji considered the state as an organisation of …………… and …………… .
Answer:
violence, force

5. According to Gandhiji, “It is impossible for one to be internationalist without being a …………… .
Answer:
nationalist.

True Or False Statement

1. Gandhism is based on religion.
Answer:
True

2. Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence.
Answer:
True

3. Gandhiji gives no importance to duties.
Answer:
False.

4. Gandhiji defined Satyagraha as the soul force.
Answer:
True

5. Gandhiji said the state should perform maximum function.
Answer:
False.

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Which of the following influenced the life of Gandhiji?
(a) Bhagwad Gita
(b) John Ruskin
(c) Jainism
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Question 2.
Which of the following is basic principle of Gandhism?
(a) Faith in Non-violence
(b) Satyagraha
(c) Faith in Truth
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Question 3.
Which of the following is not a technique of Satyagraha?
(a) Strike
(b) Non-Cooperation
(c) Violence and War
(d) Civil disobedience.
Answer:
(c) Violence and War

Question 4.
Who said, “We should not only take care of ends but also take care of the means.”?
(a) Gandhiji
(b) Machiavelli
(c) Hobbes
(d) Karl Marx.
Answer:
(a) Gandhiji

Question 5.
Which of the following was a great worshipper of non-violence?
(a) Machiavelli
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Gandhiji
(d) Lenin.
Answer:
(c) Gandhiji

Question 6.
‘My Experiments with Truth’ is written by:
(a) Aristotle
(b) Gandhiji
(c) J.S. Mill
(d) Lenin.
Answer:
(b) Gandhiji

Question 7.
Who said, “God is Truth and Truth is God.”?
(a) Karl Marx
(b) Gandhiji
(c) Machiavelli
(d) Dr. Ambedkar.
Answer:
(b) Gandhiji

Question 8.
According to whom means and ends are inseparable and should be equally true?
(a) Machiavelli
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Gandhiji
(d) Lenin.
Answer:
(c) Gandhiji

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 1 Political System Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 1 Political System

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define Political System. Write main characteristics of Political System.
Or
Describe the words Political and System separately and also write any three features of Political System.
Or
Define Political System and explain its four characteristics.
Answer:
Introduction:
Among the new concepts and trends of political analysis, the concept of political system occupies a pre-eminent place. It has revolutionised modern political science. The behavioural revolution in political science begins and ends with an over-emphasis on the concept of political system. It was Talcott Parsons, a sociologist who by writing his book ‘Social System’ popularised this concept in sociology. In political science this concept is associated with the names of David Easton, Gabriel Almond and several others of their camp. The concept has been borrowed from natural science in social sciences. Before understanding the concept of political system, it is essential to know the meaning of ‘Political’ and ‘System’.

What is Political:
The word ‘Political’ reflects power or authority. All these interactions involved in the struggle for power are ‘Political’. Any association becomes Political when its rule or decisions are obeyed by its members with the use or threat of physical force. According to Max Weber, “An association should be called political if and in so far as the enforcement of its order is carried out continually within a given territorial area by the application or threat of physical force.” Political includes all these which include power, influence, control or authority to a significant extent.

Meaning of the term ‘System’:
According to Oxford Dictionary, “A system is a complete whole, a set of connected things or parts, organised body of material or immaterial things.”
The word ‘system’ has been used and defined differently by different writers belonging to different disciplines. Ludivin van Bertallanfy describes system as a “set of elements standing in interaction.” Collin Cherry says that a system “is a whole which is compounded of many parts-an ensemble of attitudes.”
According to Gabriel A. Almond a system means a “particular set of properties in interaction A system has three characteristics:
1. comprehensiveness,
2. interdependence and
3. existence of boundaries.”

According to A. Hall and A. Fagen, “System is a set of objects together with relations between the objects and between their attitudes.”

Definitions of a Political System:
There are several definitions of the term ‘Political System.’ Max Weber says that a political system is a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. Kaplan and Lasswell consider the shaping and sharing of power as the main concern of political system with the help of threatened or actual use of severe deprivation for non-confirmity. Robert A. Dahl defines political system as “any persistent pattern of human relationships that involves to a significant extent power, rule or authority.”

Gabriel A. Almond expands “political system” to mean “that system of interaction to be found in all independent societies which performs the functions of interaction and adaptation (both internally and vis-a-vis other societies) by means of employment or threat of employment of more or less.” More briefly speaking, the political system is, “the legitimate order maintaining or transforming system within society”.

The use of the phrase “more or less’ by Almond, enables us to include totalitarian systems in which the legitimacy may be in doubt, revolutionary system in which the basics of legitimacy may be in process of change ; and non-western systems in which there may be more than one legitimate system. Physical compulsion distinguishes one political system from another. All inputs into the political system are in some way related to claim for the employment of legitimate compulsion. All the ‘outputs’ are related to the exercise of such legitimate compulsion.

Thus three things emerge out of Almond’s definition of political system:

• That a political system is a concrete whole influencing and in turn influenced by the environments,
• interactions take place not between individuals but between roles adopted by them, and
• the political system is an open system engaged in continuous communication with entities and systems beyond its own boundaries.

Thus all three characteristics of a system are found in Almond’s definition of political system:

• political system is comprehensive in the sense that it includes all the interactions-inputs as well as outputs;
• it is interdependent in the sense that various sub-sets of political systems are so closely associated with each other that a change in one sub-set produces a change in all the sub-sets; and
• there is a boundary or demarcation between one political system and another.

A political system not only includes formal governmental structures; like Executive, Legislative, Judiciary and other administrative agencies, but it includes traditional and informal structures; like kinship, caste, group, anomic groups e.g., demonstrations, violent incidents and murders, etc. So the scope of Political System is very large.

Question 2.
Describe the main characteristics of Political System.
Or
Write down the main components of Political System.
Answer:
According to Almond, a political system has three main properties of comprehensiveness, interdependence and boundaries and it has essential characteristics-Universality-of Political System, Universality of political structure, Universality of political functions, multifunctionality of political structure and culturally mixed character of the political system.

1. Comprehensiveness:
According to Almond, political system includes all the interactions-inputs as well as outputs,-that affect the use of political coercion. In other words, according to Almond, political system is not only concerned with the mere structures based on constitutional and legal foundations as parliaments, courts and bureaucracies or with informal organisations like political parties and pressure groups and means of communications, but it is concerned with all the structures in their political aspects, including undifferentiated structures like kinship and lineage, status and caste groups, religious and cultural bodies, as well as anomic phenomenon like violent riots and street demonstrations.

2. Interdependence:
According to Almond, political system also includes the political aspects of various sub-systems. Interdependence of various sub-systems is one of the most important elements of the political system. For example, the changes in the means of communications have transformed the electoral process, the characteristics of political parties, the legislature and the executive.

3. Existence of Boundaries:
It implies that there are points where the political system ends and other systems begin. The boudaries between society and polity differ from one political system to another. But the boundaries of a political system change from time to time. Besides the three properties of political system, Almond has also mentioned five characteristics of the political system:

(i) Universality of Political Systems:
According to Almond, all political systems whether primitive or modern or whether developing and developed, have political structures, i.e., they have a legitimate pattern of interaction by means of which internal and external order is maintained.

(ii) Universality of Political Structure:
According to Almond, all political systems have same structures that perform same functions though with varying degree of frequency. The articulative, aggregative and communicative functions may be performed diffusely within the society or intermittently through the kinship or lineage structure. An adequate analysis of a political system must locate and characterise all of these functions and not simply those performed by the specialised political structure.

(iii) Universality of Political Functions:
According to Almond, the approach of the student of comparative Politics should not be ‘structure-bound,’ rather it should be ‘function-bound’. According to Almond, every political system must perform the following functions:

(a) Input Functions.
Input category includes:

• Political Socialisation and- Recruitment,
• Interest articulation,
• Interest aggregation, and
• Political communication.

(b) Output Functions.Output category includes:

• Rule-making.
• Rule-application and
• Rule-adjudication.

4. Multifunctionality of Political Structure:
According to Almond, all political structure irrespective of the degree of specialisation in point of time or space, is multifunctional. Multi-functionality of Political Structure means that a political structure performs not one type of functions but many types of functions. For example, courts not only adjudicate, they also legislate. Similarly Legislatures not only legislate but they also perform administrative functions.

5. Culturally Mixed Character of Political Systems:
According to Almond, all political systems are mixed in the cultural sense. No political system is quite modern or western in the same sense as no individual is fully mature or emancipated from the ties and diffuse dependence.

Characteristics of Political System in Dahl’s View
Robert Dahl has mentioned in his book ‘Modern Political Analysis’ eight characteristics of Political system. But before discussing the characteristics Robert Dahl has said, “Remember these similarities are not a part of the definition of a political system. They are regularities-empirical regularities one might say- that one can expect to find in any large political system.”

1. Uneven Control of Political Resources:
According to a report of Dahl, “Control over political resources is distributed unevenly”. A political resource is a means by which one person can influence the behaviour of other persons. Political resources include money, information, food, the threat of force, job, friendship, social standing, the right to make laws, votes, and a great variety of other things. According to Dahl, there are four reasons why control over political resources is unevenly distributed in virtually all societies.

(i) Some specialization, of functions exists in every society:
Because of this specialization, everyone cannot have an equal control over resources. A foreign minister or a secretary of state knows better about the foreign affairs than ordinary citizens, because he (foreign minister) specializes in that sphere.

(ii) Because of inherited difference, people do not have control over resources.

(iii) Citizens differ in their objectives. Some have no interest in politics, others have too much of interest. Not everyone is equally motivated to go into politics, to become a leader, or to acquire the resources that help the leader gain influence over others.

(iv) Finally, some differences in incentives and goals are usually encouraged in societies in order to equip individuals for different specialities. If everyone wanted to be a full-time warrior, who would bear and rear the children? But differences in motivations are likely to lead to differences in resources-for example to greater military powers for warriors than others.

2. The Quest of Political Influence:
In almost every political system there are some members who seek to gain influence over the policies, rules and decisions enforced by the government-i.e. political influence. People seek political influence not necessarily for its own sake, but because control over the government helps them to achieve one or more of their goals. Control over the government is such an obvious and familiar way of furthering one’s goals or values that it is hard to imagine a political system in which no one sought power.

3. Unequal Distribution of Political Influence:
There is an unequal distribution of Political Influence among the adult members of a society. These with more political resources have large capacity to influence than others. The unequal distribution of Political influence is not modern in its origin ; it has always existed in our societies. Uneven control of political resources and the difference in purpose for which these resources are utilised, are a few factors responsible for this unequal distribution of Political Influence. Aristotle distinguished between master and slave, husband and wife.

Rousseau accepted property as the basis of inequality. Marx and Engels also accept almost similar basis. David Truman inl951 said, “Writers of the most diverse Political views and using the most widely variant methods of observation have called attention to the existence in almost all groups of an active minority identified by such condemnatory terms as ‘oligarchy’ and ‘old guard’ or such approving ones as public spirited citizens and civic leaders.” Thus these, with a larger amount of political influence, are known to be the leaders in a Political System.

4. Resolution of Conflicting aims:
The members of a Political System generally have conflicting aims. These aims are, of course, considered by the Govt, yet it does not mean that Government always interferes in these conflicting aims and activities of individual members. State interferes only when the use of power becomes imminent. A Government, for example, interferes in a dispute between the workers and owners of a mill or any other concern, when it endangers the National economy.

5. The Acquisition of Legitimacy:
While solving the conflicts in a Political System, rulers always take care of this thing that the means used for settlement should be based on moral principles and not on fear, violence or any other immoral consideration. Leaders in a Political System always try to establish legitimacy of their actions. This is particularly so in a democratic system.

6. Development of an Ideology:
The rulers in a political system essentially develop an ideology to prove the legitimacy of their acts. This ideology can be socialistic, democratic or any other, but it is not essential that every individual member of the system knows or understands that ideology.

7. Influence of other Political Systems:
Every Political System is influenced by other Political Systems. No Political system in modem age can develop in complete isolation. Each State has to regulate its system on the basis of international law, international treaties, agreements and international institutions.

8. The Inevitability of Change:
All political systems undergo change. From time immemorial political observers have pointed out the mutability of political systems. In the entire history of political institutions, no political system has been immutable. But it is important to note that characteristics of political systems, given by Dahl, are not the theoretical basis of political system. In other words from theory point of view it is not essential that characteristics must be available in every political system. But as far as the political form of political system is concerned almost all these characteristics are available in a political system.

Question 3.
Describe the meaning of ‘Political System’ and also explain its ‘input functions’.
Or
Write input and output functions of Political System.
Answer:
According to Shaw and Pierce, “The study of Politics needs some analytical tool which can help to describe and explain ‘Political’ activity. The term ‘system’ is a useful one for organizing one’s knowledge about many social objects. Employing the concept of system with its accompanying properties, is one way in which the characteristics and boundaries of the ‘Politician’ can be abstracted for study.” In this way after including the concept of ‘System’ in politics by modem political scholars, concept of political system has become a central point of study in political science.

The term ‘Political System’ reflects a new way of looking at political phenomena which was covered in old texts under such terms as ‘government’, ‘nation’ or ‘state’. Political system, however, denotes not only change of nomenclature but something much more. It includes not only new names for old things, but also some new terms to refer to activities and processes which were not formerly recognised as being parts or aspects of politics. The order of terms-state, government, nation-are limited by legal and institutional meanings. They referred to only the formal government institutions such as legislature, executive and judiciary.

But Political System includes not only governmental institutions such as legislature, court and administrative agencies, but all structures in their political aspects. Among these are traditional structures such as kinship ties and caste groupings, anomic phenomena such as assassinations, riots and demonstrations; as well as formal organisations like parties, interest groups and media of communication.”

Functions of Political Systems:
According to Almond, Political Systems perform two types of functions-Input functions and Output functions. Below, we discuss these briefly:
Input Functions:
Input functions are performed by non-governmental sub-systems society, and general environment. Almond has suggested four input functions of a Political System.
1. Political Socialization and Recruitment
2. Interest Articulation
3. Interest Aggregation
4. Political Communication.

1. Political Socialization and Recruitment:
In one’s childhood, one has no interest in politics. A child is generally ignorant about politics, but gradually when he grows up, he starts understanding the political conceptions and then finally he starts playing a role also in the political system. This is the process of socialization.

According to Almond and Powell, ‘Political Socialization is the process through which political cultures are maintained or changed.” So the process of political socialization can be utilised for both bringing a change as well as for maintaining status-quo. It is a continuous process. Political Parties and Pressure Groups, which are the main agencies of political socialization, are involved in making the people conscious about their values and in attracting their attention towards their values. The process of socialization has its special importance in a democratic system.

The process of socialization, in a system, is supplemented by Recruitment. Roles and actors in a system keep on changing. Rulers, officials, leaders all change in a system. New ones replace the older ones. Defining Recruitment, Almond and Powell write, “We use the term Political to refer to the functions by means of which the roles of political systems are filled. ” There can be both generalized or specialized recruitment.

2. Interest Articulation:
In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a system. According to Almond and Powell, “The process by which individuals and groups make demands upon the political decision makers, we call, interest articulation. ” Different individuals and groups present their demands or articulate their interests before those who have the right to make decisions.

It is an important process in the political system, because unless the groups or individuals present their demands before the rulers, no policy can be formulated and their demands cannot be met. If the groups or individuals in a system are not allowed to present their demands or interests, it may lead to violent activities. Interests, in a political system, can be articulated by way of petitions, suggestions, addresses, statements, demonstrations or even violent means. Students and labour groups adopt the techinque of strikes etc. The democratic system provides proper means for interest articulation to the people.

3. Interest Aggregation:
In no political system different laws of the interests of different groups can be created. A common policy is formulated for the interests of almost all the groups. The process of combining the interests of various groups is known as Interest Aggregation. According to Almond and Powell. “The functions of converting demands into general policy alternatives is called interest aggregation. ” There are two ways to perform this function.

First by co-ordinating the interests of various nature and second by the recruitment of those who have faith in one national policy. An individual wants a particular thing to be done on the basis of his interests. Interest groups aggregate the interests of various sub-groups and make a demand. Political Parties on the basis of various demands made by different groups, prepare a policy. This is a continuous process in a political system.

4. Political Communication:
Political Communication is the most important function of a Political System. It is through this process that other functions are performed. Everybody, whether a citizen or an official, has to depend upon information, because all activities in a system are to be regulated on the basis of information. That is why in a democratic system there is too much of emphasis on the freedom of press, speech and expression, whereas it is crushed or controlled in a totalitarian system. Means of communication have a definite impact on a Political System. Without communication, Interest articulation is not possible.

The freedom and autonomy of the communication system has been recognized in modern developed societies. On the basis of the structure of the communication system, we can compare the political systems with each other. According to Almond and Powell, “The analysis and comparison of the performance of political communication is one of the most interesting and useful means of examining different political systems. ” In a comparative study we look at communication from four angles, namely,

• Homogeneity
• Mobility
• Volume
• Direction.

Output Functions:
The output functions of a Political System are similar to those of the administrative activities of a State. Almond himself has accepted that they are similar to the traditional government functions. But still they should be described not as government functions, but as output functions of a political system. Almond has suggested three main output functions:
1. Rule Making,
2. Rule Application,
3. Rule Adjudication.
Let us know about these briefly.

1. Rule Making:
There must be certain rules in the society to regulate the relationships between the individuals. In a political system the rule-making function is performed by the Legislature and its allied agencies. The use of the term ‘rule-making’ in place of ‘law-making’ has been justified by Almond on the ground that the term ‘law-making’ reflects a particular structure and a definite process, whereas rule-making is a much more diffused process in which all political systems are involved. Almond and Powell believe that constitutionalism demands that, “rules must be made in certain ways and by specific institutions and with certain kinds of limitations.”

2. Rule Application:
The function of the political system is not only to make rules, but also to apply them. If rules are not properly implemented the whole purpose of rule-making is lost and the desired results then cannot be expected. In a political system ‘Rule application’ is the responsibility of bureaucracy. Even the judicial decisions are implemented by the civil servants. Sometime this function is performed by the rule-making department also.

But in a developed political system the two functions are performed by separate departments. According to Almond, “The presence of differentiated and well developed structures for rule application greatly expand the capability of a political system to manipulate its environment. ”

3. Rule Adjudication:
Whenever a rule is created, the fear of its violation is always present. Now, he who violates these rules, must be punished. That is why almost every rule contains in itself the punishment for those, who violate it. But before such a punishment is given to any individual it must be established that he had actually violated the rule of the land. This is the function of courts or the judiciary or in modem terminology, the Rule Adjudication department.

This department peforms another function and that is the interpretation of laws. In an ideal political system this department is kept independent of all controls so that judges work impartially, independently and fearlessly. An analysis of all these functions of a political system presents models, Almond and Coleman have described five such models:

• The Model democracy-Japan, India and Israel.
• The Tutelary democracy-Ghana, Nigeria. In their model Legislature and Judiciary are comparatively weaker than Executive.
• The Modernizing Oligarchy-Myanmar (Burma), Turkey and Sudan. In such a model the democratic constitution remains suspended. Authority is vested in either Bureaucracy or in Armed Forces.
• The Totalitarian Oligarchy-Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. This is called Guardian-Bureaucracy.
• The Traditional Oligarchy-Kuwait, Saudi Arab. Recruitment in this model is on the basis of kinship.

Question 4.
Explain David Easton’s Concept of Political System.
Or
Discuss the functions of Political System with reference to the views of David Easton.
Answer:
General System’s theory is concerned with all types of systems whereas the System’s theory covers only the political system. Oran Young is of the opinion that System Theory is a product of General System Theory. But Spiro believes that System Theory was present before the General Systems Theory came into existence.

System Analysis:
David Easton was the first Political Scientist to adopt the system analysis in Politics, in 1965, in his books, ‘A Framework of Political Analysis’ and ‘A System Analysis of Political Life.’ He gave a new interpretation, which is of great importance for us today.

Meaning of Political System according to Easton:
Political system differs from General Systems. It is ominpresent and is found everywhere, may be that it exists in different forms.

Defining Political System, Easton has said that “Political System is that system of interaction in any society through which binding and authoritative allocations of value are made and implemented.” He has further said that, “the idea of Political System proves to be an appropriate and indeed unavoidable starting point in research. Although, there is often uncertainty about the unity of Political Science as a discipline, most students of Political Science do feel quite instinctively that research into political aspects of life does differ from enquire into any other, sufficiently, so to constitute a separate intellect enterprise.”

Easton’s analysis of Political System is without any boundaries. For him, the scope of Political System is very large. It includes all types of formal and informal actions and interactions, structures and values. Political System is a sub-system of social system and it can, therefore be analysed. It is affected by all other systems and sub-systems. It adopts inputs and produces output.

Inputs and Outputs in a Political System:

Easton has described two types of inputs in a political system:
1. Demand and 2. Support.

Demand:
Easton has explained demand by saying “A demand is an expression of opinion that an authoritative allocation with regard to a particular subject-matter should or should not be made by those responsible for doing so.”
Demand can be of many types, for example, demand for fixed working hours, demand for public security, demand for franchise, demand for information or for sending messages etc. Support can also be of many types, for example, materialistic support like, paying taxes, joining armed forces, financial help during emergency. Similarly, another support can be to obey the laws and help in their execution. Yet, another support can be to use right to vote and to participate in the political activities.

Input Support:
According to Easton, no demand can be satisfied without support, but the related problems are-how much support, and from where and which members of political system? One will get support if others are satisfied by his actions or activities or interests. Every political system will have to get the support of environments, if it is to survive. The support can be in the form of actions which are supportive or it can be to a specific political object.

lt can also be an over all support to the political community, to a particular structure or political authorities, holding power at a given time. He was also of the view that the support could be for all things or for any one of them. But at the same time, it cannot be taken for granted that support once obtained will continue for ever. The support can also increase or decline, according to certain developments. But such a situation will arise only when a political system has failed to deliver the goods.
Easton believed that input in a Political System is like the raw material which when supplemented by support takes the form of outputs.

Outputs of Political System:
Demands and supports are inputs of a political system, but along with inputs, there are also some outputs. A political system might be having excellent public support, it might also have lofty ideals to achieve and the society on the whole might even extend co-operation to it, but it will survive only when it gives its output, namely how far the system has proved to society useful or what has it given to the society. According to Easton, “Outputs not only help to influence events in the broader sense of which the system is a part, but also in doing so they help to determine each succeeding round of inputs that finds its way into the political system.” Outputs are of three types according to Easton, viz.

1. Tax or personal service,
2. Regulated behaviour and
3. Distribution of general services or opportunities

Easton also tried to establish a relationship between the Political System and the Environment. Environment creates demands and the conversion process converts them into decisions or policies. Support originates out of the satisfaction about the decisions taken or policies made. This process continues in a political system till the system bears the strains and stresses in forms of demands. When this situation reaches a critical stage and the strains and stresses become unbearable for a political system, the system collapses.

Following are the main premises of input-output process, as described by David Easton:
1. System,
2. Environment,
3. Response and
4. Feedback.
1. System: System has, already, been defined in the beginning of this part of the chapter.

2. Environment:
Political System is a set of interactions. It converts inputs into outputs. Just as every conversion has the impact of a particular type of
environment, similarly, the conversion of inputs into outputs depends upon political environment. According to Eatson, Political Environment is of two types,
(i) Extra Societal
(ii) Intra Societal.
The Extra Societal environment means international environment which includes groups, cultural and economic systems. The Intra Societal environment includes structural, social and other circumstances which are influential in the society.

3. Response:
Political System allocates values in the society. Environment influences the Political System in this regard and puts all types of strains and stresses on the Political System. The success or failure of a Political System depends upon the reaction of the system about their strains and stresses. These stresses constitute the inputs and only few of these are converted into outputs. How far an environment system faces these inputs, is the response of the Political System. For this purpose, Political System articulates four types of rules:

1. Communicative Rules, which regulate the conversion process.
2. Cultural Rules, through which political system determines cultural values.
3. Communicatory Instruments, through which the political system increases the possibility of its control over output.

They include Press, Radio and T.V. etc.
4. Reductionist Reactions or Aggregation, through which the possibility of demands is reduced as is done by unification etc.

Apart from Demands, the other input in the environment is the political support. Support can be of three types:

• Overt or Covert
• Positive or Negative
• General and Widespread or Particular or special.

Levels of Support:
There are three levels of support; namely:

• Political community
• Regime
• Authorities.
  

Support, according to Easton, can be towards three types of special things:
1. Towards political community which is based on labour division,

2. Towards the basic values of Political System and

3. Towards Political Authorities.

4. Feedback:
Feedback means to take back to the system in shape of inputs, the impact and result of the outputs. This brings continuity in the System. According to Easton, the Feedback is the process of combining the results of outputs with inputs and establishing a cyclic relationship between inputs and outputs. Feedback can be of two types:

• The Negative Feedback: This is related to the information relating to the system and defective rule making.
• Objective Alerting Feedback is related to the purpose and direction of political system.

Flow Model:
Easton found certain defects in the Equilibrium analysis of Almond and presented his input and output analysis as Flow Model. He tried to prove that the Political Analysis depends upon the capacity of the system.

Question 5.
Write main differences between state and political system.
Answer:
Modern political concepts vastly differ from traditional Political concepts. The writers of traditional Political Science considered State, its main subject whereas the modern writers regard Political System in place of State, its primary subject.

State, in ancient time, was regarded the main subject of Political Science. So Prof. Garner opined, “Political System begins and ends with the State.” Like Garner, writers like Bluntschli, Gettell, Garies, Gilchrist, Lord Acton etc. considered State the central point of Political Science. But the modern writers don’t agree with this traditional viewpoint. For them, Political System instead of State, is the main subject of Political Science.

They are of the view that to confine the scope of Political Science to State only, is to destroy its practical utility. These main writers are Almond and Powell, Charles Merriam, Harold Lasswell, David Easton, Stephen, L. Wasby. According to Almond and Powell, a vast structure is needed to make Political Science more effective and system analysis can provide this structure. State and Political System differ from each other, but it is essential to explain the meaning of ‘State’ and ‘Political System’ before pointing out main distinction between the two.

Meaning of State:
In the words of Prof. Gilchrist, “The State exists where a number of people brought on a definite territory are unified under a Government which in internal matter is the organ for expressing their sovereignty and in external matter is independent of other Governments.” This definition clearly points out that population, definite territory, Government and Sovereignty are the four main elements without which a State cannot be established. If any of these four elements is missing, State can’t be founded.

Meaning of Political System:
According to Almond and Powell, “When we speak of Political System, we include all the interactions which affect the use of threat or use of Legitimate Physical force. The Political System includes not only Governmental institutions such as legislatures, courts and administrative agencies, but all structures in their political aspects. Among these are traditional structures such as kinship ties and caste grouping; and anomic phenomena such as assassinations, riots and demonstrations; as well as formal organisations like parties, interest groups and media of communications.

In this way, Political System includes all the formal and informal institutions, groups and organisations which affect political life in one way or the other, besides Governmental organisations. The Political System is not only concerned with the formulation of laws and their implementation but also to get them obeyed forcibly.

Differences between State and Political System:
Following are the main differences between State and Political System

1. State has four essential elements whereas Political System has many:
The main difference between the State and Political System is that the State has four essential elements whereas Political System has many. Population, definite territory, Government and sovereignty are the four essential elements of the State. The existence of State can’t be even imagined in the absence of a single element.

But Political System has numerous elements instead of certain elements, such as, exploration of Political effects, attainment of legitimacy, influence of other subjects and Political Systems and the study of reactions. It is difficult to determine the elements of Political System since it is not a combination of particular elements but of the mutual interactions of different roles.

2. State deals with legal and institutional structure but Political System deals with the processes:
State is concerned with legal and institutional structure whereas the Political system deals with processes. Many writers presented models related to these processes which deal with Political System.

3. Scope of Political System is wider than that of State:
The scope of Political System is wider than that of State. State is mainly concerned with formal institutions whereas Political System includes processes, whether formal or informal. The boundaries of Political System are the widest ones as they are practical and based on scientific policies. According to Almond and Powell, “The Political System includes not only governmental institutions, such as legislature, courts and. administrative agencies, but all structures in these Political aspects.” The concept of Political System is wider than the concept of State.

4. Sovereignty is the main feature of State while legitimate physical coercive force is the main feature of Political System:
Internal and external sovereignty is the most important feature of State. State is omnipotent and all the citizens and institutions have to obey its orders. But the concept of sovereignty holds no importance in Political System. Modern political writers don’t believe that any Political System is free from internal and external influences. They accept the view that Political System is certainly affected by intra-societal and extra-societal environment.

Along with it, the importance of external sovereignty has lessened in the modern international age. The Political System of every country is affected by the Political Systems of other countries. Modern Political Scientists use the expression ‘Legitimate physical coercive force’ in place of Internal sovereignty. In fact, according to their view point, Political System has power to legitimate coercive force.

5. State is a traditional concept while Political System is a modern one:
State is a traditional concept and generally the concepts like State, nation, Government, Constitution, laws, sovereignty have been used in traditional Politics. But the use of the word ‘State’ and other concepts connected with it have lessened nowadays. If a writer, in modern age, uses the word ‘State’ in place of Political System, he is called traditional.

6. Political System implies the existence of interdependent parts, while the concept of State is devoid of such character:
According to Almond and Powell, “A system implies the interdependence of parts and a boundary between it and environment. By interdependence, we mean that when the characteristics of one part in a system change, all other parts and the system as a whole are affected.”

The Governmental institutions i.e. legislature, judiciary and executive , political parties, welfare groups etc. are considered parts of a Political System. When any part of it undergoes a significant change, the whole system is affected. No such characteristic is present in the concept of State.

7. Boundaries of State fixed whereas it is not possible to restrict the boundaries of the Political System:
The State has fixed boundaries. So it is possible to estimate the beginning and end of the boundaries. But Political Systems can’t be restricted in boundaries. The boundaries of Political System are the boundaries of its processes. These boundaries are liable to change.

8. States are the same everywhere, but Political Systems are different. States are the same at every place:
Whether the States are big or small, their four elements-Population, definite territory, Government and sovereignty are essential. The four elements are found in the States of India, England, Japan, China, Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma) and Russia. But the forms of Political System are different in various States.

9. State is Permanent while political system is dynamic:
State is permanent whereas the Political System is dynamic. State comes to an end when it is deprived of sovereignty. But the state is re-established by regaining sovereignty. Political System is dynamic and it goes on changing according to time and circumstances.

10. The concept of Political System involves the process of conversion of inputs into outputs while the concept of State deals with some specific functions:
The process of conversion of inputs into outputs is the important characteristic of Political System. David Easton is of the view that Political System is another name of the process of conversion of outputs into inputs which is related to political decisions. This process always continues in a political system. To fulfill the aim, Political System has to perform rule-making functions, rule-application functions and rule- adjudication functions. But the State has to perform particular functions. Political writers have divided the functions of the State into two categories:
(i) Compulsory functions and
(ii) Optional functions.
Some aspects of cultural, religious, moral and social life are considered beyond the jurisdiction of State. But no aspect of life, if its any part is related to politics, can be segregated from Political System.

11. Concept of Political System is more analytical than State:
State is a descriptive view-it can be explained but not analysed. But contrary to it Political system is an analytical concept. The existence of State is only in the minds of individuals and can’t be found in real life.

12. Political System is a better means of bringing integration and adaptation than the State:
Another difference between the State and political system is that Political System is a better means of bringing integration and adaptation to the state. According to Almond and Powell, “The Political System is that System of interactions to be found in all dependent societies while performing the functions of integration and adaptations.”

13. Political Socialisation and Political Culture have special importance in Political System, not for the State.

Conclusion:
In the end, we can say that State is a traditional concept whereas Political System is a modern concept. The scope of Political System is wider than that of State.

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Write down the meaning of Political System. Or Which system is called Political System?
Answer:
The term political system consists of 1. Political 2. System. The word ‘Political’ reflects power or authority. The word ‘System’ is used for a set of clear interactions which have definite boundaries. According to Oxford Dictionary, ‘A system is a complete whole, a set of connected things or parts, organised body of material or immaterial things.’ Political System includes not only formal governmental structure but it also includes traditional and informal structures like kinship, caste, group, etc. Political System is related to the proper use of power. A political system is actually that which includes all legal, formal, informal, social and political elements in a society.

Question 2.
Define Political System.
Answer:

• According to Max Weber, “A political system is a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.”
• Robert A. Dahl defines political system as, “Any persistent pattern of human relationship that involves to a significant extent power, rule or authority.”
• According to Almond and Powell, “When we speak of political system, we include all interactions which affect the use of threat of legitimate coercion.”

Question 3.
Describe the functions of Political System.
Answer:
According to Almond, Political System performs two types of functions-Input functions and Output functions.
1. Input functions:
Input functions are performed by non-governmental sub-systems, society and general environment. Almond suggested four input functions of a Political System:

• Political Socialization and Recruitment.
• Interest Articulation.
• Interest Aggregation.
• Political Communication.

2. Output functions. Almond has suggested three main output functions:

• Rule Making.
• Rule Application.
• Rule Adjudication.

Question 4.
Write any four differences between State and Political System Or Distinguish between State and Political System.
Answer:
Following are the main differences between State and Political System:
1. State has four essential elements whereas Political System has many. Population, definite Territory, Government and Sovereignty are the four essential elements of the state. But Political System has numerous elements.

2. Sovereignty is the main feature of State while legitimate physical coercive force is the main feature of Political System.

3. State is permanent while Political System is dynamic.

4. States are the same everywhere, but Political Systems are different. States are the same at every place whether the States are big or small. Their four elements Population, definite territory, Government and sovereignty are essentials. But the forms of Political System are different in various States.

Question 5.
What are boundaries of a Political System?
Answer:
Each political system has boundaries which separate it from economic, social and cultural systems. Almond defines boundaries as ‘points where one political system ends and the other political system begins’. The boundaries between society and polity differ from one political system to another. The boundaries of the political system are not territorial boundaries ; these boundaries relate to human relationships and their activities. But the boundaries of a political system change from time to time.

Question 6.
Describe input functions of Political System. Or Write down the input functions of Political System.
Answer:
Almond has suggested four input functions of a Political System:
1. Political Socialization and Recruitment:
According to Almond and Powell, “Political socialization is the process through which political cultures are maintained or changed.” So the process of political socialization can be utilised for both bringing a change as well as for maintaining status-quo. The process of socialization in a system is supplemented by Recruitment.

2. Interest Articulation: In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a System.

3. Interest Aggregation:
In no political system different laws for the interests of different groups can be created. A common policy is formulated for the interests of almost all the groups.

4. Political Communication: Political communication is the most important function of a Political System.

Question 7.
Write three output functions of Political System.
Answer:
Almond has suggested three main output functions:
1. Rule Making:
There must be certain rules in the society to regulate the relationships between the individuals. In a political system the rule making function is performed by the legislature and its allied agencies.

2. Rule Application: The function of the political system is not only making rules, but also to apply them.

3. Rule Adjudication:
Whenever a rule is created, the fear of its violation is always present. Now, he who violates these rules, must be punished. This is the function of courts or the judiciary or in modern terminology, the Rule Adjudication department.

Question 8.
What is the meaning of the word ‘Political’?
Answer:
The word ‘Political’ reflects power or authority. All the interactions involved in the struggle for power are ‘Political’. Any association becomes ‘Political’ when its rules or decisions are obeyed by its members with the use of threat or physical force. According to Max Weber, “An association should be called political if and in so far as the enforcement of its order is carried out continually within a given territorial area by the application of threat or physical force.” Political includes power, influence, control or authority to a significant extent.

Question 9.
What do you mean by the term System?
Answer:
According to Oxford Dictionary, “A system is a complete whole, a set of connected things or parts, organised body of material or immaterial things.” The word system has been used and defined differently by different writers belonging to different disciplines. Ludwin Van Bertall Anfy describes system as a “Set of elements standing in interaction.”

Collin Cherry says that a system, “is a whole which is compound of many parts-an ensemble of attitudes.” According to Gabriel A. Almond ,“A system implies the interdependence of parts and a boundary between it and environment.” By environment, we mean that when the characteristics of one part in a system change, all other parts and the system as a whole are affected. The main characteristics of a system are:

1. Comprehensiveness
2. Interdependence
3. Existence of boundaries
4. Existence of sub-system
5. Wholeness etc.

Question 10.
What is Interest Aggregation? Who performs this function?
Answer:
In no political system different laws for the interests of different groups can be created. A common policy is formulated for the interests of almost all the groups. The process of combining the interests of various groups is known as Interest Aggregation. According to Almond and Powell, “The functions of converting demands into general policy alternative is called interest aggregation.”

There are two ways to perform this function First by coordinating the interests of various natures and second by the recruitment of those who have faith in the one national policy. An individual wants a particular thing to be done on the basis of his interests. Interest groups aggregate the interests of various groups to make a demand.

Question 11.
What is Feedback-Loop Mechanism? Or Describe the Process of ‘Feedback-Loop’ of David Easton. Or What do you mean by Feedback Loop mechanism?
Answer:
The concept of Feedback-Loop Mechanism in Political System is given by David Easton. He says that political system is a process to convert inputs into outputs and there is a close relationship between inputs and outputs. The decisions which are made by political system in a form of outputs once again take form of raw material for inputs. This process of providing raw material to a system again and again continues. David Easton called this process Feedback-Loop Mechanism.

Question 12.
Write four main characteristics of Political System.
Answer:
The main characteristics of political system are as follows:
1. Comprehensiveness:
The political system does not include only the governmental structures, but also those formal and informal organizations which take part in one way or other in political process and influence the political authority.

2. Interdependence:
According to Almond, political system also includes the political aspects of various sub-systems. Any change in any sub-system is bound to affect functioning of other sub-systems.

3. Existence of Boundaries:
It implies that there are points where political system ends and other system begins. Each political system has boundaries which separate it from economic, social and cultural system.

4. Universality of Political System
According to Almond, all political systems whether primitive or modern or whether developing or developed, have political structure.

Question 13.
What is Interest Articulation? Or Explain the Interest Articulation function of Political System.
Answer:
In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a system. According to Almond and Powell, “The process by which individuals and groups make demands upon the political decision makers, we call, interest articulation.” Different individuals and groups present their demands or articulate their interests before those who have the right to make decisions. It is an importai?t process in the political system, because unless the groups or individuals do not present their demands before the rulers, no policy can be formulated and their demands cannot be met.

If the groups or individuals in a system are not allowed to present their demands or interests, it may lead to violent activities. Interests, in a political system, can be articulated by way of petitions, suggestions, addresses, statements, demonstrations or even violent means. Students and labour groups adopt the technique of strikes etc. The democratic system provides proper means for interest articulation to the people.

Question 14.
What do you mean by universality of Political Structures?
Answer:
According to Almond, all political systems have same structures that perform same functions though with varying degree of frequency. The articulative, aggregative and communicative functions may be performed diffusely within the society or intermittently through the kinship or lineage structure. An adequate analysis of a political system must locate and characterise all of these functions and not simply those performed by the specialised political structure.

Question 15.
Describe the multifunctionality of Political Structure.
Answer:
According to Almond, all political structures irrespective of the degree of specialization in point of time or space, are multifunctional. Multifunctionality of political structure means that a political structure performs not one type of functions but many types of functions. For example, courts not only adjudicate, they also legislate. Similarly, Legislatures not only legislate but they also perform administrative functions.

Question 16.
What do you mean by Inputs?
Answer:
According to David Easton, input in a political system is like the raw material which when supplemented by support takes the form of outputs. Easton has described two types of inputs in a political system: Demand and Support.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of Political System.
Answer:
The term political system consists of 1. Political 2. System.
The word ‘Political’ reflects power or authority. The word ‘System’ is used for a set of clear interactions which have definite boundaries. Political System is related to the proper use of power. A political system is actually that which includes all legal, formal, informal, social and political elements in a society.

Question 2.
Give two definitions of a Political System.
Answer:

• According to Max Weber, “A political system is a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.”
• Robert A. Dahl defines political system as, “Any persistent pattern of human relationship that involves to a significant extent power, role or authority.”

Question 3.
Mention the functions of Political System.
Answer:
According to Almond, Political System performs two types of functions-Input functions and Output functions.
1. Input functions:
Input functions are performed by non-governmental sub-systems, society and general environment. Almond suggested four input functions of a Political System.

2. Output functions:
Almond has suggested three main output functions:

• Rule Making
• Rule Application
• Rule Adjudication.

Question 4.
Write down two differences between State and Political System.
Answer:
Following are the main differences between State and Political System:

• State has four essential elements whereas Political System has many. Population, definite Territory, Government and Sovereignty are the four essential elements of the state. But Political System has numerous elements.
• Sovereignty is the main feature of State while legitimate physical coercive force is the main feature of Political System.

Question 5.
Write down any two general characteristics of a political system as given by Prof. Robert A Dahl.
Answer:

• Uneven Control of Political Resources. According to Robert A. Dahl, “Control over political resources is distributed unevenly.”
• The Quest for Political Influence. In almost every political system there are some members who seek to gain influence over the policies, rules and decisions enforced by the government i.e. political influence.

Question 6.
Write two input functions of a Political System.
Answer:
Almond has suggested four input functions of a Political System:
1. Political Socialization and Recruitment:
According to Almond and Powell, “Political socialization is the process through which political cultures are maintained or changed.” So the process of political socialization can be utilized for both bringing a change as well as for maintaining status-quo. The process of socialization in a system is supplemented by Recruitment.

2. Interest Articulation. In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a System.

Question 7.
Write down any two output functions of a Political System.
Answer:
Almond has suggested three main output functions:
1. Rule Making:
There must be certain rules in the society to regulate the relationships between the individuals. In a political system the rule making function is performed by the legislature and its allied agencies.

2. Rule Application: The function of the political system is not only making rules, but also to apply them.

Question 8.
What do you mean by Interest Aggregation?
Answer:
The process of combining the interests of various groups is known as Interest Aggregation. According to Almond and Powell, “The functions of converting demands into general policy alternative is called interest aggregation.”

Question 9.
Explain the Feedback-Loop System.
Answer:
The concept of Feedback-Loop Mechanism in Political System is given by David Easton. He says that political system is a process to convert inputs into outputs and there is a close relationship between inputs and outputs. The decisions which are made by political system in a form of outputs once again take form of raw material for inputs. This process of providing raw material to a system again and again continues. David Easton called this process Feedback-Loop Mechanism.

Question 10.
Write two main characteristics of Political System.
Answer:
1. Comprehensiveness:
The political system does not include only the governmental structures, but also those formal and informal organizations which take part in one way or other in political process and influence the political authority.

2. Interdependence:
According to Almond, political system also includes the political aspects of various sub-systems. Any change in any sub-system is bound to affect functioning of other sub-systems.

Question 11.
Explain Interest Articulation.
Answer:
In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a system. According to Almond and Powell, “The process by which individuals and groups make demands upon the political decision makers, we call, interest articulation.”

Question 12.
Who wrote the book “The Political System’ and when?
Answer:
The book ‘The Political System’ was written by David Easton in 1953.

Question 13.
What do you mean by Political Communication?
Answer:
Political Communication is the most important function of a Political System. It is through this process that other functions are performed. Everybody, whether a citizen or an official, has to depend upon information, because all activities in a system are to be regulated on the basis of information. That is why in a democratic system there is too much of emphasis on the freedom of press, speech and expression, whereas it is crushed or controlled in a totalitarian system.

Question 14.
Who is the author of The Process of Government’?
Answer:
Arthur Bentley is the author of ‘The Process of Government’.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of the word ‘Political’ in Political System.
Or
What is meaning of word ‘Politics’ in the Political System?
Answer:
A community or an association is called political if its orders are enforced by the administrative staff through coercion or physical force.

Question 2.
Give the meaning of system.
Answer:
The word ‘System’ is used to indicate a group of interactions.

Question 3.
Write the meaning of Political System.
Answer:
A political system means that persistent pattern of relationships whose conduct involves authority or power.

Question 4.
Write any one definition of Political System.
Answer:
David Easton has said, “Political system is a set of interactions abstracted from the totality of social behaviour, through which authoritative values are allocated for a society.”

Question 5.
Write one feature of Political System.
Answer:
Political system is found in every society.

Question 6.
Write down one output function of the Political System.
Answer:
Rule making is an important output function of a Political System.

Question 7.
Write any one input function performed by a Political System.
Answer:
Political Socialisation and Recruitment.

Question 8.
Mention any one difference between State and Political System.
Answer:
A political system has interdependence of parts but a state does not have any such feature.

Question 9.
What do you mean by Feedback Loop Mechanism? Explain.
Answer:
Feedback means to reprocess the results of the outputs as inputs in the system.

Question 10.
Write the definition of Political System given by Almond and Powell.
Answer:
Almond and Powell has stated, “When we speak of political system, we include all interactions which affect the use or threat of legitimate coercion.”

Question 11.
Who is the writer of famous book ‘The Political System’?
Answer:
David Easton.

Question 12.
Which political thinker used the term “The Political System’ first time?
Answer:
David Easton.

Question 13.
Write any one difference between State and Political System.
Answer:
There are four elements of State, but elements of political system are not fixed.

Question 14.
What is Interest Articulation?
Answer:
In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a system. According to Almond and Powell, “The process by which individuals and groups make demands upon the political decision makers, we call interest articulation. ”

Question 15.
What is Interest Aggregation?
Answer:
The process of combining the interests of various groups is known as Interest Aggregation.

Question 16.
What do you mean by ‘Rule Making Function’?
Answer:
There must be certain rules in the society to regulate the relationships between the individuals. In a political system the rule-making function is performed by the Legislature and its allied agencies.

Question 17.
What is ‘Rule Adjudication Function’?
Answer:
Almost every rule contains in itself the punishment for those, who violate it. But before such a punishment is given to any individual it must be established that he had actually violated the rule of the land. This is the function of courts or the judiciary or in modern terminology, the Rule Adjudication department.

Question 18.
What is ‘Rule Application Function’?
Answer:
In a political system ‘Rule application’ is the responsibility of bureaucracy. Even the judicial decisions are implemented by the civil servants. Sometime this function is performed by the rule-making department also. But in a developed political system the two functions are performed by separate departments.

Question 19.
Write two input demands.
Answer:
1. Demand for the allocation of goods and services.
2. Demand for regulation of behavior.

Fill In The Blanks

1. The concept of Feedback Loop Mechanism is given by ………………… .
Answer:
David Easton

2. ‘The Political System’ of David Easton was published in ………………… .
Answer:
1953

3. Political System is found in every ………………… .
Answer:
society

4. Rule making is an important ……………… function of a Political System.
Answer:
output

5. Political Socialisation and Recruitment is an ……………… function performed by Political System.
Answer:
input.

True Or False Statement

1. Almond Powell is the writer of famous book ‘The Political System’.
Answer:
False

2. David Easton is the writer of famous book The Political System’.
Answer:
True

3. The concept of Political System originated in the 20th century.
Answer:
True

4. There are four elements of Political System.
Answer:
False

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Who is the writer of famous hook The Political System’?
(a) David Easton
(b) Almond
(c) Max Weber
(d) Lasswell.
Answer:
(a) David Easton

Question 2.
The concept of Political System originated in the:
(a) 19th Century
(b) 18th Century
(c) 20th Century
(d) 17th Century.
Answer:
(c) 20th Century

Question 3.
Who gave the concept of Feedback Loop Mechanism?
(a) Almond
(b) David Easton
(c) Lasswell
(d) Max Weber.
Answer:
(b) David Easton

Question 4.
Which of the following is not a feature of Political System?
(a) Political System is found in developed countries.
(b) Political System is found in every society.
(c) Political System has interdependence of parts.
(d) Universality of Political System.
Answer:
(a) Political System is found in developed countries.