PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial) Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand by the term democracy? Discuss with one illustration each, six of its characteristic features.
Answer:
Modem age is an age of democracy. In majority of the countries of the world, democracy is adopted. The term ‘Democracy’ is derived from the Greek words demos and krates, the former meaning the people and the latter ‘power’. Democracy thus mean ‘power of the people’ or ‘rule of the multitude.’

Democracy means that the Govemmentof the State is to be run by the people. People will have a share in the administration of the State. Aristotle has called this type of Government as polity and in his view this is the best type of Government.

  1. According to Dicey,” Democracy is a Government in which the governing body is comparatively a large fraction of entire nation.”
  2. According to Prof. Seeley “Democracy is a Government in which everyone has a share.”
  3. According to Lord Bryce, The word democracy, ever since the time of Herodotus has been used to denote that form of government in which the ruling power of State is legally vested not in a particular elass but in the members of the community as a whole.”
  4. According to Abraham Lincoln, Democracy is a Government of the people, by the people, and for the people.” Of all the definitions of democracy, the one given by Lincoln is considered to be the best.

In Democracy the sovereignty resides in the people and the people either directly or indirectly govern over themselves. The administration is run to promote public welfare.

Characteristics Of Democracy:
The characteristics or fundamental principles of the democracy are as follows:
1. Sovereignty of People:
Sovereignty resides in the people and the administration is run in accordance with the wishes of the people.

According to Austin Renney, The principle of popular sovereignty requires the basis of governmental decision making power to be vested in all the members of the community and not any particular person or ruling class.”

2. Rule of People: The administration is run by the people either directly or indirectly.

3. Interest of People: The administration is run in the best interests of the people.

4. Right of Participation: Democracy has its fundamental principle that every citizen has the right to take part in day to day affairs of the state.

5. A Majority Rule:
The significant principle of democracy is that it is a majority rule and decisions are taken by majority of votes. The party which gets file majority is allowed to rule. In the parliament all decisions are taken by majority of votes.

6. Universal Franchise: Another principle of democracy is that every citizen is given the right to vote without any discrimination.

7. Right to Criticise the Govermnefat:
One of the important principle of democracy is that the people are given the right to criticise the Government.

8. Share in the Administration: Everybody has a share in the administration.

9. Equality: Everybody enjoys the right of equality and liberty. All the people are equal in the eyes of law.

10. Fraternity: It is another fundamental assumption of democracy. It deals with dignity of the individual.

11. Rule of Law: Nobody is above the laws of the State.

12. Fundamental Rights: In a democracy citizens enjoy Fundamental Rights which are protected by the Judiciary.

13. Justice: Everybody gets impartial justice.

14. Change in Government according to Time:
Democracy provides for a change in Government according to constitutional principles, and it is against any change by violent or revolutionary means.

15. Freedom of Thought, Speech and Expression:
Democracy is characterised by freedom of thought and expression. In democracy, every one is free to think and express his views.

16. Independent and Healthy Public Opinion: The democratic government functions on the principle of independent and healthy public opinion.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Question 2.
Define Democracy? What are its merits and demerits?
Or .
Discuss the merits of a democratic form of government.
Answer:
Definitions of Democracy:

Modem age is an age of democracy. In majority of the countries of the world, democracy is adopted. The term ‘Democracy’ is derived from the Greek words demos and krates, the former meaning the people and the latter ‘power’. Democracy thus mean ‘power of the people’ or ‘rule of the multitude.’

Democracy means that the Govemmentof the State is to be run by the people. People will have a share in the administration of the State. Aristotle has called this type of Government as polity and in his view this is the best type of Government.

  1. According to Dicey,” Democracy is a Government in which the governing body is comparatively a large fraction of entire nation.”
  2. According to Prof. Seeley “Democracy is a Government in which everyone has a share.”
  3. According to Lord Bryce, The word democracy, ever since the time of Herodotus has been used to denote that form of government in which the ruling power of State is legally vested not in a particular elass but in the members of the community as a whole.”
  4. According to Abraham Lincoln, Democracy is a Government of the people, by the people, and for the people.” Of all the definitions of democracy, the one given by Lincoln is considered to be the best.

In Democracy the sovereignty resides in the people and the people either directly or indirectly govern over themselves. The administration is run to promote public welfare.

Characteristics Of Democracy:
The characteristics or fundamental principles of the democracy are as follows:
1. Sovereignty of People:
Sovereignty resides in the people and the administration is run in accordance with the wishes of the people.

According to Austin Renney, The principle of popular sovereignty requires the basis of governmental decision making power to be vested in all the members of the community and not any particular person or ruling class.”

2. Rule of People: The administration is run by the people either directly or indirectly.

3. Interest of People: The administration is run in the best interests of the people.

4. Right of Participation: Democracy has its fundamental principle that every citizen has the right to take part in day to day affairs of the state.

5. A Majority Rule:
The significant principle of democracy is that it is a majority rule and decisions are taken by majority of votes. The party which gets file majority is allowed to rule. In the parliament all decisions are taken by majority of votes.

6. Universal Franchise: Another principle of democracy is that every citizen is given the right to vote without any discrimination.

7. Right to Criticise the Govermnefat:
One of the important principle of democracy is that the people are given the right to criticise the Government.

8. Share in the Administration: Everybody has a share in the administration.

9. Equality: Everybody enjoys the right of equality and liberty. All the people are equal in the eyes of law.

10. Fraternity: It is another fundamental assumption of democracy. It deals with dignity of the individual.

11. Rule of Law: Nobody is above the laws of the State.

12. Fundamental Rights: In a democracy citizens enjoy Fundamental Rights which are protected by the Judiciary.

13. Justice: Everybody gets impartial justice.

14. Change in Government according to Time:
Democracy provides for a change in Government according to constitutional principles, and it is against any change by violent or revolutionary means.

15. Freedom of Thought, Speech and Expression:
Democracy is characterised by freedom of thought and expression. In democracy, every one is free to think and express his views.

16. Independent and Healthy Public Opinion: The democratic government functions on the principle of independent and healthy public opinion.

Merits Of Democracy:
Following are the main merits of democracy:
1. It is a Government of the People:
As compared to the monarchical car aristocratic forms of Government, democracy is indeed the best form of Government. The monarch or the aristocracy may be good and look after the interests of their people well but in so far as both these forms of Government exclude the majority of the people from the administration of their own State and in so far as democracy ensures such people’s participation, democracy must necessarily be termed as superior. Democracy is a Government by the people themselves. In this form of Government every step is taken in the best interests of the people.

2. Equality:
It is the best form of Government because it puts the supreme controlling power in the hands of the whole community. It recognizes the natural rights of man in the street and raises him high on the peak of political glory. Moreover, democracy ensures the equality of political rights. All people possess equal opportunities to participate in the affairs of Government. Everybody has the opportunity to progress in life.

3. Liberty:
The democratic form of Government enables us to reconcile the liberty of the people with the authority of the State. Obedience to law is liberty only when the law is expression of the will-of the people and conforms to their wishes. But this is possible only under a democracy.

In this System of Government people enjoy more liberty as compared to monarchy and aristocracy. People enjoy the freedom of speech and expression, religion and worship and the freedom of movement and correspondence. They are free to assemble together, to form a procession, to hold a public meeting and to criticise the policies and actions of the government. The newspaper enjoys a greater degree of freedom in the expression of public view-point.

4. Freedom of Expression:
Another good point of democracy is that freedom of expression is guaranteed to the citizens.

5. It is based on public opinion:
It is the only form of government which is more . popular in the modem world because it rests on the consent of the people. The people feel that the laws in democratic Governments are self-made and self- enforced. By the force of the public opinion, it possesses a valuable and easier 1 instrument to keep the government on the right path.

The mass of people is given an opportunity to take part in government. At the time of elections, national policies are freely discussed and debated. The representatives of the people frame the laws in accordance with the wishes of the people. If the representatives violate public opinion, the people may not vote for them in the next election.

6. Stable and Responsible Government:
A democratic Government is always stable and responsible. It avoids revolutions because the people themselves are the makers and the breakers of laws and governments. Moreover, it possesses the easier means through their elected legislature to change and mould the laws to meet their immediate needs.

The government in a democratic State runs the administration in accordance with the wishes of the people. If they feel that a particular Government does not cany out their wishes, they can replace it by another through peaceful and constitutional meAnswer: The Government for all its actions and policies is responsible to the people. If the people indicate a lack of confidence over the government, the government will have to resign.

7. A Liberal Government:
One of the strong point of democracy is that it is a liberal Government because reforms can be brought about in it. It makes as possible to introduce various social, political and economic reforms as to the needs of time.

8. A Useful form of Government:
Democratic form of government is the most useful form of government because in this type of government, rulers are the elected representatives of the public.

9. Best Government during Emergency: The protagonists of democracy holds that in the time of Emergency, democratic government is the best government.

10. No Possibility of Revolutions:
The democratic Government rests on the hopes and wishes of the people. It changes with the change in the attitude of the people. The elected representatives of the people runs the administration of the State. The party which is favoured by the voters at the polls forms the Government and it carries out the wishes of the people. People can change the Government whenever they so desire. Therefore, the democratic government changes with the change in times. Thus there is less chance of revolution in a democracy.

11. Political Education:
Democratic Government gives political education to the people. In a democracy the institutions of local self-government are established in large number. The election to the local self-government institutions and to the legislature are held very frequently. During the elections the political parties explain their view-point to the public regarding the problems facing the country.

In the legislature the executive is responsible to it for all its actions and policies. The executive is to answer the questions and supplementary questions is put to it by the members of the legislature. The proceedings of the legislature are read by the people in the newspapers. Moreover, every voter casts his vote after a thorough consideration and after weighing the programme of each political party. People have got the right to criticise the Government. The entire procedure gives the people political education.

12. Willing Obedience of Laws:
There is very little possibility on the part of the people for breaking or violating the laws of the State. The people very willingly obey the laws of the State. In Monarchical and Aristocratic type of Government laws are not framed on the will of the people. Their force is needed for rendering obedience to laws. But in a democracy, the people themselves make laws and they cannot afford to break the law themselves. They are morally bound to obey the laws of the State. Moreover, all the laws in a democracy are framed in the best interests of the people.

13. The Lesson of Citizenship: Another important aspect of democracy is that it teaches us the lesson of citizenship. It creates social and economic consciousness in citizens.

14. Development of Human Personality: Another important merit of democracy . is that individuals develop a sense of freedom in themselves because they become i well aware of their rights, duties and interests. Therefore the proper development of one’s personality is possible only in the democratic form of government.

15. It upholds Human Dignity. Democracy has the strong point because it upholds human dignity. The individual enjoy all rights and liberties in democracy which 1 uphold his dignity.

16. National Unity and Patriotism:
The democratic form of government increases the spirit qf national unity and patriotism in the people. It induces in the common man a great love for his country. The people feel that they are part and parcel of the government. They feel that if the government is weak, they will remain weak and the country will remain weak.

According to J.S. Mill, “Democracy strengthens the love of country because citizens feel that the government is their own creation and the magistrates are their servants rather than their masters. It promotes A patriotism by making the citizens feel that they .are an integral part of the government and the welfare of the State is their welfare”.

17. Character Building:
Democracy is a live, active school for character building. As Bryce said, the manhood of the individual is dignified by his political enfranchisement and he usually raised to higher level by the sense of duty which it throws Upon him. As the people participate in -the operation of the government, it imparts to them a sense of dignity and responsibility and stimulates their whole mental make-up.

18. It is based upon three Important Pillars:One of the important point on the credit side is that it is based upon three pillars of equality, liberty and fraternity.

19. Reforms:
Democratic government is the best type of government for introducing reforms in the society. This type of government introduces various reforms in the economic, social and political fields of the life of the citizens of the State.

Demerits Of Democracy:
Democracy is not without its defects and weakness. The critics of democracy put forward the following arguments against it:
1. Government of the Ignorant and Incompetent:
It is said that a democratic government is a government by the incompetent and the ignorant. Democracy is based on the theory that an ordinary man possesses sufficient intelligence to decide public affairs. But the common man is neither politically intelligent nor sufficiently educated.

He does not possess the capacity to understand the problems of a modem community. The masses are normally passive and incapable of common aim. Sir Henry Maine described the democratic government as the government by ignorant and unintellectual which is detrimental to modem civilization. Most of the people in the government are ignorant and incompetent and hence such a government cannot promote public interests in a better way.

2. It gives more importance to Quantity rather than to Quality:
This type of government attaches more importance to quantity than to quality. The working of administration requires special knowledge and ability which the ordinary persons can never possess. It is based on the assumption that all men are equal, that one man is as good as another. So the common man feels that there is no necessity for employing experts or men possessing special qualifications. But it requires great skill to run an administration.

And if amateurs or ordinary men are placed incharge of government, its efficiency is bound to suffer. The equality of man is a myth for all .men are not bom equal. All men, therefore, are not capable of taking part in government of the country. In democracy, on the election day a wise man and a fool are on the same level. Democracy merely counts votes and does not weigh or consider them. It puts all emphasis on quantity and not on quality.

3. Administration is an Art:
Administration is an art and everybody cannot be the master of this art. It is the business of experts to make a law and everybody cannot learn the art of the law making. It is after a long experience that a man becomes perfect in this art. But it is not essential that either the elected persons or the electors should be educated in a democratic form of government. It seems very strange that to get an ordinary clerkship one should be educated to a certain degree but to become a minister one may be even uneducated. How can an uneducated minister run the department of education?

4. It is a Government of the Rich:
The democratic government is criticised on the point that in theory it is a government by the common man but actually it is a , government by the rich. In a democracy elections are held to elect representatives but money is the most potent factor to win an election. The candidates spend lakhs of rupees to win an election. The poor man cannot afford to spend this much amount on elections and hence his right to contest elections becomes meaningless.

5. It is more Expensive:
Democratic government is wasteful and expensive. Party members spend huge amounts of money in order to get themselves elected to the legislature. In the government itself the need to consult various individuals and institutions means further expenditure. Most of it is necessary and therefore wasteful. Lacs of rupees which are spent on elections can be used for public welfare works. Heavy expenditure defeats the very purpose of democracy. Much money is spent on the payment of the salary of the representative and other officials.

6. Bad effects of Political Parties:
The existence of political parties is quite essential in a democracy because in democracy the government is run by one or the other party. But the parties have a bad effect on the daily life of the people. They badly influence the moral and political life of the people.

Each party makes use of all the undesirable and other means in order to get its candidates elected. The parties befool or exploit the people in the name of religion, caste and language etc. In order to get their votes, they make false promises with the people. The parties relegate the interests of the people and the nation to the background and try to promote the party interests. The parties are a danger to the unity of the nation.

7. Most of the people do not take interest in the election:
It has been observed that most of the people do not take interest in elections. Some people make politics as their profession and do nothing except befooling people. During elections the candidates discuss the problems of the State with the people and take their votes.

According to Gamer such like people always have some influence over the public. Those who are shrewd, tactful and active, manage to win the election. In legislature only a few representatives participate in the debates and discussion, and others are simply silent listeners. In this way even in democracy only a few persons govern the country.

8. Dictatorship of the Majority:
The majority party may not work in the interest of all the people. It can equally be selfish and not take into account the wishes and the interests of the majority. The majority party may thus develop despotic tendencies which are harmful to the developments of human personality. It may not secure equal opportunities and freedom to all and rule in its selfish interest.

The very essence of democracy, providing opportunities for every man to be himself in his best, is thus not realised. The majority party may become a dictator and it may curtail the liberty of the individuals. The majority party sometimes does not tolerate the view-points of the opposition.

9. No Possibility of Progress of Civilisation and Culture:
The progress of art, literature, science, civilization and culture is not possible in a democracy. In a democracy all the individuals are considered equal. A scientist or a renowned man of letters is in no way considered better than an ordinary man. In a monarchical type of government art and literature are patronised by the members of the royal family. In Aristocracy, even effort is made for the promotion of culture and civilization. According to Trietzschke, in a democracy literature, science and art do not make progress.

10. Hostile to Liberty:
According to critics democracy is hostile to the spirit of liberty. The ordinary man neither desires freedom for himself nor tolerates it for others. To place supreme power in the hands of the common people is to place it in the hands of those who have no understanding of the spiritual value of liberty and lack the necessary character for vindicating liberty.

11. Unstable and Weak Government:
Stability and continuity of policies in the administration are not ensured in a democratic form of government. Since one party tries to displace the other which is in power by securing more votes at the election by any methods, there will frequently be changes in government. No party, therefore, is secure in its position.

Further when the opposition party comes to power by obtaining large number of votes: it would try to undo the policies of its predecessor in the government. Every representative, to maintain his popularity will try to place something on the statute book. Hasty all ill-digested legislation is passed. Democratic government, therefore, is neither constant, steady nor stable.

12. Biological Arguments:
Democracy has come to be criticised on biological grounds. According to Faguet, democracy is a biological misfit or biological monstrosity.

13. Psychological Arguments:
The Psychologists have also criticised democracy. They have shown that the individual is not guided by reason or conscious thinking but by-irrational and unconscious motivations.

14. Democracy is Ethically Wrong:
Democracy is ethically wrong because it emphasises on numbers while only a few have the requisite judgement, understanding and moral strength to abide by the right ideals and standards.

15. Evil of Party System:
The working of democracy has brought in its wake all the evils of party politics. The rigidity of the party system is responsible for the destruction of the liberty and the individuality of the people.

16. From Administrative Point pf View:
From the view point of administration democracy has proved to be the most inefficient Government. Red-tapism, favouritism, political influence, nepotism and corruption are the order of the day in democracy.

Conclusion:
Democracy has merits and demerits, but not withstanding its demerits, it is considered the best form of government now-a-days. It is the only form of government where people enjoy liberty, equality and have the right to criticise the wrong actions of the government. People can develop their personality to the full only in such a form of government. According to J.S. Mitt, “Giving full weight to all that appeared to me well against the arguments of democracy, I unhesitatingly give my decision in its favour.”

C.D. Bums observes, “No one denies that existing representative assemblies are defective, but even if an automobile does not work well, it is foolish to go back into farm cart, however romantic.” Democracy is a human institution and its failings are the failings of human beings. Moreover, democracy has never claimed pn its own behalf that it is a panacea for all ills.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Question 3.
Distinguish between the Direct and Indirect Democracy and explain the institutions of Direct Democracy.
Answer:
Democracy is a government of the people, for the people and by the people. Power is not vested in a single individual but it is shared by all. Everybody has a share in this form of government. The democratic government stands for the welfare of all. The laws are framed keeping in view the opinion of the public. It is the age of democracy. In 1 the past democracy was prevalent in India, Greek City States and Rome. Democracy is of two types:

1. Direct Democracy:
Direct democracy is the real or true democracy. In such a system of government the people directly participate in the government of the
country. The entire population forms an assembly for the purpose of making laws. People discuss the problems of the State and control the State machinery. The system prevailed in the past in India, Rome and Greek city States. The population of States used to be very less in those days and very few people enjoyed the rights of citizenship. It was possible for the people to assemble at a particular place for t the purpose of law-making.

2. Indirect or Representative Democracy:
But now a days the system of direct democracy cannot be practised easily. We have big nation states these days. The I population of the States runs into crores. Every citizen is granted equal rights. It is impossible for all the people of the State to assemble at one place in order to make laws. People participate in law-making indirectly. People elect some representatives and these representatives act according to the wishes of the people.

Their main aim is to promote the welfare of the people. They frame laws for the s State and run the administration for the best interests of the people. The entire country is divided into equal electoral constituencies and from each constituency one representative is elected. The representatives are elected for a fixed period and after the expiry of their term fresh elections are held. Ibis system prevails in almost all the countries of the world today.

Institutions Of Direct Democracy:
It is not possible to practise direct democracy completely in the present age. But some devices have been used in certain countries in order to remove the defects of indirect i democracy. Switzerland is famous for the use of these democratic devices. Switzerland
has been called the home of direct democracy. These devices empower the citizen to get certain laws passed by the Legislature and to reject certain laws already passed by the legislature.

Panchayati Raj is a type of chrect democracy. In certain Cantons of Switzerland all the people assemble at one place in order to frame laws. They also appoint government officials. But it is difficult to practise this method in the whole of the country. Modem , devices of direct democracy are practised in some countries. These devices are Initiative,
Referendum, Recall and Plebiscite. They are briefly described as ahead:

1. Initiative. The device gives the power to the voters to get the laws passed in accordance with their wishes. If a specified number of voters demands the making of a particular law, the legislature cannot reject of its own. If the legislature makes a law according to the demand of the people, it is good and if the legislature does not agree with the view-point of the voters, then view-point of the entire electorate is sought.

If the majority voters favours the law, then it is to be passed by the legislature. In Switzerland, one lakh voters have the right to demand and making of a law. They can demand the complete or partial amendment of the Constitution. If the legislature does not accept their demand, then the matter is referred to the entire populace. If the majority of the voters favours the issue the legislature is bound to make that law and make amendment in the Constitution.

2. Referendum:
The method of referendum gives the final authority to the people to accept or reject the laws passed by the legislature. If the legislature passes a law which is not in accordance with the wishes of the people, the people can stop the execution of such a law. The system prevailing in Switzerland is that the opinion of the people is sought before the execution of laws. Referendum is of two types in Switzerland
(1) Compulsory Referendum and
(2) Optional Referendum.

Important laws are referred to the people before they are executed and people cast their votes in favour or against the law. If the majority of the cantons and the majority of the voters favour the law, it is enforced, otherwise it is rejected. In the case of optional referendum it entirely depends upon the will of the legislature whether to refer it to the voters or not. This practice is followed in the case of ordinary laws. If 50,000 voters demand that the law should be referred to the voters for their opinion then it is to be referred to them for their verdict. Such a law can be enforced only if the majority favours it.

3. Recall:
This method gives the power to the voters to recall their representatives even before the expiry of his term. They can elect a new representative. This method is applied against those representatives of the people who do not work in the best interests of the public. In most of the countries the representatives of the people are elected for a fixed term and after their election, file voters have no control over them.

The representatives may do whatever they like and the public cannot exercise any control over them. But through the method of recall, a fixed number of voters can manage to recall their representatives. This way the voters control file activities of their representatives. They cannot go against the wishes of the electorate. This system prevails in some States of U.S.A. and Switzerland.

4. Plebiscite:
The method of Plebiscite is used in case of political questions and public opinion of laws is called referendum. Pakistan demands that there should be plebiscite on the Kashmir issue, whether the people of Kashmir want to remain in India or want to go to Pakistan. In 1935, it was through the method of Plebiscite that Saar was integrated into Germany.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Question 4.
Discuss the conditons that are essential for a successful democracy.
Or
What are the conditions necessary for the successful functioning of democracy? In your opinion how far do they exist in India?
Answer:
Believing the cause of democracy to be just as against all other forms of government, it is necessary to lay down some definite conditions which are essential for . the successful working of democracy. The success of democracy depends upon the active participation and co-operation of the people in the administration of the State. People will co-operate with the government only when they realize their responsibilities and try to discharge them properly. In order that democracy may work successfully in any State, there are certain conditions which must be satisfied.

1. Faith in Fundamental Democratic Principles:
For the success of democracy, it is necessary that there should be inculcation of faith in certain fundamental democratic principles.

2. Enlightened Citizenship:
Enlightened citizenship is the first condition for the success of democracy. If the people of a country lack the quality of deep thinking, they will never be politically conscious. They will not be performing their duties properly and there the democracy will never be a success.

Every individual in a democracy must, be prepared to perform his duties in a sincere manner. The conferment of the right to vote on a citizen implies that he has the duty to vote and must perform it intelligently. Likewise he must perform his other duties. It is not only the government officials who should be honest, impartial, just and efficient but the citizens should also realize their full responsibility towards the State. The citizens should remain alert and protect their rights. If their rights are violated, they should raise their voice against it.

3. Education:
‘The citizens should participate in governmental work in an intelligent way. This is possible only when the bulk of population is educated. By education we do not mean only book learning, butan intelligence “elevated by honour, purified by sympathy and stimulated by a sense of duty to the community.” Education makes people responsible and responsive. It helps men to choose the right and reject the wrong, be it an argument, a policy or a person.

Democracy means government by discussion and debate, but there cannot be any fruitful debate or ‘ discussion amongst people who are illiterate., and ignorant. Education sharpens the human intellect and enables men to think and decide on the right lines. It is only the educated electorate that will elect the right type of persons to government, ‘persons’ who will adopt the right type of policies to promote the maximum of public good.

4. Local Self-Government:
It is quite essential for the success of democracy that the administration should be a decentralized one. Bryce observes that without the
existence of local self-government institutions, people cannot develop the spirit of independence. Panchayats, municipal committees, Zila Parishads etc. give training of governing over themselves. Slowly and gradually every individual acquires the quality ofgoveming his country.

This way the people develop political consciousness and start taking interest in their own problems. If the membership of a local self¬government institution is made compulsory for becoming a member of the legislature, then only able and capable persons would be elected to the legislature.

5. Protection of Fundamental Rights:
In a democratic State people are granted various fundamental rights, with the help of which they can participate in the administration of the State and this would help in the development of their personality. These rights should be protected by the Constitution so that no administrator violates them. Fundamental rights help in the development of individual personality.

6. Economic Equality and Security:
Economic equality and security is also an essential condition for the success of democracy. It is remarked that extremeness of wealth and poverty militate against the spirit of democracy. Moreover, citizens cannot enjoy political equality in the absence of economic equality.

If there is too much gulf between the rich and the poor, democracy becomes a misnomer only. For example, in U. S. A. and India democracy exists only for the rich people because it is they who control the government on account of their immense wealth. Thus an equal distribution of wealth which checks the capitalist to exploit the labour class, is an essential condition for the success of democracy.

7. Freedom of Press:
Democracy cannot flourish best without the freedom of press. This is essential both to keep the government always on its right path by pointing out defects and to form the public opinion for the welfare of the whole society. A free and an independent pressexposes the arbitrary activities of government when it behaves undemocratically.

On the other hand, it enables the government to shape its policy in accordance with the public opinion. One of the shortcomings of present democracy and the cause of its decline is the absence of an independent and free press. The government should not impose restrictions on newspapers. The newspapers help in conveying to the government the views of the people.

8. Toleration:
Spirit of toleration in the people is most essential for the success of democracy. The working of modem party system is such that it requires a great spirit of toleration for the differences of opinion. Though this toleration can never be absolute, but still the active wdrkers and leaders of political parties must patiently tolerate the attacks of their rival parties.

All citizens should be open and broadminded and must be ready for conviction. Thus the citizens must possess a spirit of national character and national habits which .provide equal opportunities to all for successful working of democratic system of government.

9. Well-organized Political Parties:
Political parties occupy an important place in a democracy. These political parties should be well organized and should be based on political or economic grounds. If the political parties are based on religion or language or caste, they create disunity in the people. The people must posses a strong sense of solidarity and univy in order to make democracy a successful form of government.

A society tom by religious and caste differences will not be able to show that unity, harmony and like mindedness which compel people to sacrifice their selfish interests for the sake of national interests. Well-organized political parties extend political education to the people. They make a constructive criticism of the policies of the government. They express their views on general problems of the State and this way help in making democracy a success.

10. Sound Public Opinion:
For the successful working of democracy, it is necessary that there should be a sound public opinion, a sensitive social conscience and an effective general will.

11. Peace and Order:
It is essential for the success of democracy that there should be perfect peace and order in the State. Democracy can never be a success in the presence of disputes, disorder and revolts. This type of administration cannot be successful if there are wars and disorder.

12. Independence of Judiciary:
An independent Judiciary plays an important role in making democracy successful. An independent judiciary protects the individual liberty in a better way and people can make use of their rights quite finely.

13. Written Constitution:
A written Constitution makes democracy more successful because its violation can be declared all at once as unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the country. But if the Constitution is unwritten, the government can change the provisions according to its own selfish interest after ignoring the wishes of the people.

14. No Centralisation of Power: For the success of democracy there should be no Centralisation of powers.
15. Free and Fair Elections: Free and fair elections are the important conditions for the successful working of- democracy.

Are these conditions available in India?
Is there a suitable atmosphere in India for the success of Democracy? This question is t confronting people here. Though Democracy was established in India from 1947, yet many people opine that it is not proper for India. Those who doubt the success of Democracy in India believe that the country doesn’t possess adequate atmosphere for the same. India, lacks following conditions:

1. Lack of Enlightened Citizenship: The citizens of India don’t take interest in administration and moreover they don’t abide by their rights and duties honestly.

2. Illiterate Citizens: Most of the citizens in India are illiterate and rough. So they under the influence of clever leaders, wrongly cast their votes and elect misfit representative.

3. Lack of High Moral Standard: The citizens of India don’t possess high moral standard. Every work can be done by bribe and recommendation.

4. Economic Inequality: The wealth of the country is centred in few people’s hands. As a result thousands of people are unemployed and can’t get two square meals a day. The poor man sells his vote.

5. Social Inequality: Untouchability is all powerful in India even today.

6. Multi-Party System: Many parties are present in India and every day a new . party comes into existence. Many parties are organised on religious basis and some parties believe in using violent means.

All these factors show that future of Democracy in India is not bright. Therefore, some people are of the view that Democracy in India should be abolished and Dictatorship should be established in its place.

No doubt all those conditions are not present in India which are essential for the successful working of democracy. But our government right from the very beginning started making efforts for creating an atmosphere which is essential for the success of democracy. The government made efforts to spread education and in this field tremendous progress has been made so far.

Efforts are being made to establish a socialist society so that economic and social equality may come to stay on in the country. People are now conscious of their rights and duties. They are developing national character now. We can say that at present proper atmosphere for the proper functioning of democracy does not exist in the country but all out efforts are being made to create a proper atmosphere.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Question 5.
What is dictatorship? What are its features?
Answer:
Though modern age is considered to be an age of democracy, but the fact remains that it is becoming an age of dictatorship. It is quite true that democracy is indispensable for bright future, but dictatorship is found in many countries of the world. Latin America, Africa and several countries in Asia have dictatorial rule. Dictatorial government is most primitive because ancient Rome and Greece had this system.

But the word ‘dictatorship’ came into use only after the First World War. Throughout the course of history, powerful men haji often come on the scene and dominated the administration of government. Some of these had even enjoyed the support of public opinion and got full obedience in times of war and other emergencies. But the modem dictatorship is quite different from the ancient one. Modem dictatorship is the result of the First World War. Dictatorship means the rule of one powerful man without any regard for the wishes of the people.

It prevailed in so many modem States after the First World War. For example Italy came under the heels of Fascist leader Mussolini in 1922. The economic dislocation of Germany made Hitler the virtual dictator of the country. In Yugoslavia, King Alexander dismissed the Parliament and suspended the Constitution. In Rumania, King Carol established his royal dictatorship in 1931. Besides these States, Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey, Spain and Poland also came under the sway of such dictators.

U. S. S. R. witnessed another kind of dictatorship i.e., dictatorship of the Proletariat. Dictatorship in other countries of the world may be termed as the dictatorship of the capitalist class over the workers for exploitation. But the common feature between both these kinds of dictatorships is the rule of one person or a single group and existence of only one party in the State.

According to Ford, “Dictatorship is the assumption of extra legal authority by the Head of the state.”

According to Alfred, Dictatorship is the government of one man who has not primarily obtained his position by inheritance, but by either force or consent and normally by a combination of both. He must possess absolute sovereignty, that is all political power must ultimately emanate from his will and it must be unlimited in scope. It must be exercised more or less frequently in an arbitrary manner by decree rather than by law, and finally it must not be limited in duration to any other authority for such restrictions would be incompatible with absolute rule.”

The analysis of Alfred’s definition of dictatorship leads to following conclusions:

  1. It is a one-man rule.
  2. It is a combination of force and consent.
  3. The dictator enjoys unlimited powers.
  4. The dictator owes responsibility to none.
  5. The dictator rules over the country in an arbitrary manner by decree and not by law.
  6. The tenure of dictatorship is not fixed.

Characteristics Of Dictatorship:
Keeping in view the definitions of dictatorship we come to know that it .has the following characteristics:
1. Based on Physical Strength:
Dictatorship is a Government by the powerful man who has a right to exercise authority because of his superior physical force.

2. Arbitrary Rule:
Dictatorship is an arbitrary rule. Hie dictator runs the Government according to his. own sweet will and the other people have no right to participate in the Government. The dictator is not responsible to any other authority for all his actions and policies.

3. Absolute Powers:
The dictator does not exercise authority in accordance with the provisions of any Constitution. He commands law for the people and they 1 must obey his commands.

4. Term not Fixed: The tenure of office of a dictator is not fixed. He remains in i office so far as he can maintain his authority.

5. Either No Party or One Party System:
In a dictatorship either there is no party or there exists only one party. During the dictatorship of Ayub Khan and , Yahaya Khan in Pakistan there existed no political party. In China and in other communist countries there exists only one political party, i.e., the communist party.

6. Totalitarian State:
In dictatorship the concept of a totalitarian State is generally adopted. According to this view-point the State is concerned with all the aspects of individual’s like and it can interfere in the fives of the individuals whenever it thinks necessary. People are considered the means and the State an end. The people exist for the State and not the State for the people.

7. No Rights:
In a dictatorship rights are not given to the citizens. They are not allowed to express their opinion or criticise, and those who venture to do so are sent to Concentration Camps or slave labour camps or liquidated. Only those rights which are allowed by the dictator can be enjoyed by the people.

8. Control over Means of Communication:
All agencies of public opinion and means of communication are controlled and censored by the State.

9. Wide Gulf between Dictator and People:
In a dictatorship, there is a wide gulf between the dictator and the people and there is no distinction between state and government.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Question 6.
Discuss the merits and demerits of dictatorship.
Answer:
Merits Of Dictatorship:
Following are the merits of dictatorship:
1. Strong Administration:
The administration under a dictator is always very strong. The dictator suppresses disorder and opposition with a strong hand and he gives his country a strong government which can perform its functions well. Nobody under a dictatorial type of regime can dare disobey the orders of government and anybody violating the laws is severely punished.

The people obey the laws not because they like them but because they are afraid of punishment. Whatever the dictator does, he does it according to his own will. In such a system of government, corruption, favouritism and nepotism are rooted out speedily.

2. Administration becomes Stable and Efficient:
The administration under a dictator is always stable and efficient. The administration is not responsible to the public and the dictator remains in office till his death. There is no change in administration and the same policy continues for long. The dictator spares no effort to make administration efficient for he knows that the people will continue to support him as long as he carries on the administration efficiently.

History knows that dictators successfully solved the problems which the democratic governments could not. In dictatorship the judiciary co-operates with the administration and it never gives a decision against the government. AH the citizens and the officials are always afraid of the dictator’s strong rule and they never do anything wrong.

3. Useful in Emergency:
Dictatorial government is very useful in emergencies and crises. The dictator organizes, a strong army in order to establish a strong and stable government. He requires the establishment of a strong and powerful army in order to make himself strong. The dictator always rules with the help of a strong military force and he makes the people obey laws through the fear of punishment.

The major portion of the income of the country is spent on the military. All the big officers of the government are from the army and the administration is normally run from the military point of- view. In this system of government the cases are decided very speedily. The dictator does not feel the need of taking the advice of anybody for making a decision. He always sticks to his decision and never changes the decision under pressure. Under such circumstances the country can face emergencies and crises successfully.

4. Progress:
In this form of government the nation makes tremendous progress. The State becomes self-sufficient and there is no scarcity of anything. The country makes progress in all the fields of life. The problems which are not easily solved in a parliamentary form of government?are speedily solved by a dictator. The prices of essential goods are not made to shoot up.

Art, literature and agriculture progress under a dictator. Corruption is rooted out completely. The people develop? the spirit of patriotism and they are always ready to sacrifice their lot for the country. Individual has no importance and he is sacrificed at the alter of the State.

5. Prestige in the International Field:
A dictator makes his country strong and increases its power and prestige in the; international field. The country becomes self-sufficient and its military power increases. The country gets an important place in the international field, and it is all because of its military strength. No I other country can easily attack the country where there is dictatorship. A country ruled by a dictator is always counted as a first rate power.

6. National Solidarity. In dictatorship the individuals are completely subordinated to the authority of the dictator. The people do not enjoy the right to freedom of speech and expression. These rights to some extent are deterimental to the unity of the nation. The dictators generally create an atmosphere of war. All this helps in the development of patriotic feelings and national solidarity.

7. Less Expensive:
Dictatorship is less expensive whereas democratic government\is very costly. In dictatorship one does not find the costly luxuries of insecure and superfluous posts, particularly committees, sub-committees and commissions.

Demerits Of Dictatorship:
1. Despotic Government:
A dictator is an absolute ruler of the State. The dictator is not responsible to anybody for his actions and policies. His will is law for the people. People cannot expect justice at the hands of the ruler. The orders of the dictator are laws for the people. They may or may not like the laws but they render obedience to them. Atrocities are committed over the people and their wishes are not respected by the dictator. .

2. It attaches no importance to the individual:
In dictatorship the individual is not attached any importance.The State is an end and the individual is a means to achieve that end. The individual fives for the State and it is not the State which is to exist for the individual. The individual can he sacrificed for the progress, safety and security of the State.

It is the sacred duty of the individual to obey the laws of the State. The orders of the State are the orders of the dictator. It is expected that the individual will always remain loyal to the State. The individual is expected to sacrifice himself at the altar of the State.

3. No individual Liberty to the People:
Individuals are not granted civil liberties and other rights in dictatorship. Everybody, of course, is provided two times meals in this form of government but he is denied the freedom of speech and expression and the freedom to criticise the government. The individuals cannot express their opinions freely and they are not permitted to criticise the wrongs of the government.

People cannot organize themselves politically and they cannot even agitate against the government. The freedom of expression is even denied to newspapers. The newspapers cannot publish news against the government. Man does not live by bread alone, he requires so many other things which are essential for the development of his personality. The individual cannot develop his personality to the full if he does not breathe in a free atmosphere. He must enjoy some rights and should live in a free atmosphere. He gains confidence if he is. permitted to live in such an atmosphere.

4. Government is Unstable:
The government under a dictator is unstable, because it is not based on the will of the people. The dictator rules with the help of force and he gets his orders obeyed by the people by the use of force. If the dictator fails to maintain a strong military, he may not be able to continue in office for long because any other powerful person may replace him.

The people can also raise the standard of revolt against the dictator if his rule is not just and he commits atrocities on the people. It is an admitted fact that anything which is based on force cannot last long, because the people cannot tolerate unjust rule for long.

5. Problem of Successor of the Dictators:
There is a defect in this system of government that there is no definite method of appointing a successor to the dictator. It is not essential that the son of a dictator would be as able and powerful as his father. It has been observed that after the death of the dictator, there is a struggle amongst his party members to capture authority and sometimes it so happens that there is a great blood-shed to capture power.

6. War is Natural:
In dictatorship war is considered natural and essential and battles are fought against other countries in order to attain glory. A dictator always talks in terms of war in order to divert the attention of the people from political and economic problems of the country. The dictator fights battles in order to extend his territories. However, strong and powerful country may be, the war results in a big loss even to that country. War affects badly the economic condition of the country. War disturbs the peace of the world. In a war thousands of people lay down their lives.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Question 7.
Distinguish between the democracy and dictatorship.
Or
If you were to choose between democracy and dictatorship which one would you prefer? Give arguments to support your answer.
Or
Distinguish between democratic government and authoritarian government.
Answer:
Though modem age is considered to be an age of democracy, but the fact remains that it is becoming an age of dictatorship. It is quite true that democracy is indispensable for bright future, but dictatorship is found in, many countries of the world. Latin America, Africa and several countries in Asia have dictatorial rule. Dictatorship is completely opposite to democracy. If I am asked to choose one of the two then my preference is for democracy. Without any doubt democracy is the best form of government and it is very clear from the comparison between democracy and dictatorship.

Democracy Dictatorship
1. Govt, of the People: Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people. In a democracy the people rule the country either directly or indirectly. Democracy is a government by the people themselves. 1.Govt, of One Man or One Party: In dictatorship the powers of the government are concentrated in the hands of one person or one party. In dictatorship people have no participation in government.
2. Based on Public Opinion: Democracy is based on public opinion. It rests on the consent of the people. 2. Based on Force: Dictatorship is based on force. Dictators run the government on the basis of force.
3. Govt, can be changed by Peaceful Methods: Democratic government can be changed by the people whenever they so desire. Government is changed by peaceful methods e.g. by election. 3. Govt, can be changed by Revolution: Dictatorship cannot be changed by peaceful methods because no elections are held. Govt, can be changed by revolution only.
4. Development of the Personality of the Individual: In a democracy the aim of the government is to develop the personality of the individual. The state is a mean, while individual is an end. 4. Development of the State: In dictatorship importance is given to the state and not to the individual. The end of the state is development of the state. The state is the end, while individual is the means.
5. Importance to Individual Liberty: In democracy liberty and rights are given to the citizens. 5. No Liberty and No Rights: In dictatorship rights are not given to the citizens.
6. Based on Equality: Democracy is based on equality and it ensures the equality of rights. Everybody is equal before law and everybody has the opportunity to progress in life 6. No Importance to Equality: In dictatorship no importance is given to the principle of equality. Some persons are considered superior and everybody is not given the right to participate.
7. Belief in Peace: Democracy believes in peace and it is against violence and war. 7. Belief in War and Violence: Dictatorship believes in war and violence.
8. Against Imperialism: Democracy is against imperialism and it believes that every nation has the right to freedom. 8. Belief in Imperialism: Dictators believe in the policy of expansion. In dictatorship slogan is given ‘Expand or Perish.’
9. Decision by Discussion: In democracy decisions are taken after lot of discussion. 9. No Importance to Discussion: In dictatorship no importance is given to discussion. Decisions are taken by the dictator without any discussion.
10. Right to Criticise the Govt: In democracy people have the right to criticise the government. 10. No Right to Criticise the Govt: In dictatorship people have no right to criticise the government.
11.Existence of Political Parties a Necessity: In democracy the existence of political parties are essential. Democratic government cannot work successfully without political parties. 11. No Political Party or one Party: In dictatorship either there is no political party or there is only one political party. In China there is only one political party.
12. Distinction between State and Govt: In democracy distinction is maintained between  State and Govt. 12. No Distinction between State and Govt: In dictatorship no distinction is maintained between State and Govt.
13. Responsibility of the Government: In democracy government is responsible to the people. If the people indicate a lack of confidence over the government, the government will have to resign. 13. Irresponsible Govt: In authoritarian system government is not responsible to the people or to the legislature.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of democracy.
Answer:
The term democracy is derived from the Greek words—demos and krates, the former meaning ‘the people’ and the latter ‘power’. Democracy thus means ‘power of the people’ or *rule of the multitude’. Democracy means that the government of the state is to be run by the people. People will have a share in the administration of the state. Aristotle has called this type of Government as polity and in his view this is the best type of Government.

According to Dicey, “Democracy is a government in which the governing body is comparatively a large fraction of entire nation.” According to Seeley, “Democracy is a Government in which everyone has a share. According to Abraham Lincoln, “Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people.”

Question 2.
Explain the fundamental principles of democracy.
Answer:
Democray is based on the following fundamental principles :

  1. Sovereignty resides in the people and administration is run in accordance with the wishes of the people.
  2. The administration is run by the people either directly or indirectly.
  3. Everybody has a share in the administration.
  4. In a democracy, citizens enjoy Fundamental Rights.

Question 3.
What are the merits of democracy?
Answer:

  1. As compared to monarchial or aristocratic governments, democracy is indeed the best form of government.
  2. It is the only form of government which is more popular in the modem world because it rests on the consent of the public opinion.
  3. Democratic Government gives political education to the people.
  4. A democratic govt, is always stable and responsible.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Question 4.
What are the demerits of democracy?
Answer:

  1. It is said that a democratic govt, is a government by the incompetent and the ignorant.
  2. It gives more importance to quantity rather than to quality.
  3. Democratic government is wasteful and expensive.
  4. There is no possibility of progress of civilisation and culture in democratic government.

Question 5.
Discuss four conditions that are essential for a successful democracy.
Answer:
1. Enlightened Citizenship:
Enlightened citizenship is the first condition for the success of democracy. Every individual in a democracy must be prepared to perform his duties in a sincere manner.

2. Education:
The citizens should participate in governmental work in an intelligent way. This is possible only when the bulk of population is educated. Education makes people responsible and responsive.

3. Local Self-Government:
It is quite essential for the success of democracy that the administration should be a decentralized one. Bryce observes that without the existence of local self-government institutions, people cannot develop the spirit of independence.

4. Fundamental Rights should be protected by the Constitution so that no administrator violates them.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Question 6.
Define dictatorship.
Answer:
Dictatorship means the rule of one powerful man without any regard for the wishes of the people.
According to Ford, “Dictatorship is the assumption of extra legal authority by the Head of the state.”

According to Alfred, ‘Dictatorship is the government of one man who has not primarily obtained his position by inheritance, but by either force or consent and normally by a combination of both. He must possess absolute sovereignty, that is all political power must ultimately emanate from his will and it must be unlimited in scope. It must be exercised more or less frequently in an arbitrary manner by decree rather than by law, and finally it must not be limited in duration to any other authority for such restrictions would be incqmpatible with absolute rule.”

Question 7.
What are the main features of Dictatorship?
Answer:

  1. Dictatorship is a government by the powerful man who has a right to exercise authority because of his superior physical force.
  2. Dictatorship is an arbitrary rule. The dictator run the govt, according to his own sweet will.
  3. The tenure of office of dictator is not fixed. He remains in office so far as he can maintain his authority.
  4. In a dictatorship either there is no party or there exists only one party.

Question 8.
What, are the merits of dictatorship?
Answer:

  1. Strong Administration. The administration under a dictator is always very strong. The dictator suppresses disorder and opposition with a strong hand.
  2. Administration becomes stable and efficient. The administration is not responsible to the public and dictator remains in office till his death.
  3. Useful in Emergency. Dictatorial govt, is very useful in emergencies and crises. He requires the establishment of a strong and powerful army in order to make strong and stable govt.
  4. Progress. In this form of govt, the nation makes tremendous progress.

Question 9.
Make a brief distinction between democracy and dictatorship.
Or
Bring out distinction between democratic and authoritarian government.
Answer:

  • Democracy is the rule of people while dictatorship is rule of one man or one party.
  • Democracy is based on public opinion, while dictatorship is based on force.
  • In democracy government can be changed by peaceful methods, while in dictatorship government can be changed only by revolution.
  • Democracy emphasises on individual rights and freedom, while in dictatorship no rights and freedom.

Question 10.
What is Direct Democracy?
Answer:
In direct democracy people directly participate in the government of the country. The entire population forms an assembly for the purpose of making laws. People discuss the problems of the state and control the state machinery. But it is not possible to practise : direct democracy completely in the present age. Modem devices of direct democracy are Initiative, Referendum, Recall and Plebiscite.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Question 11.
What do you understand by direct democratic devices? Mention one device of direct democracy.
Answer:
Direet democracy is the real or true democracy. In such a system of government the people directly participate in the government of the country. The system prevailed in the jpast in India, Rome and Greek City States. The population of States used to be very less in tljpse days and very few people enjoyed the rights of citizenship. It was possible for the people to assemble at a particular, place for the purpose of law making in those times.

But it is not possible to practise direct democracy completely in the present age. But some devices have been used in certain countries to remove the defects of indirect democracy. Switzerland is famous for the use of these democracy devices. These devices are-Initiative, Referendum, Recall and Plesbiscite.

Question 12.
Distinguish between Direct and Indirect democracy with examples.
Answer:
Democracy is of two types-Direct democracy and Indirect democracy. Following are the differences between
the two :

  1. In direct democracy people participate in law-making, while in indirect democracy people indirectly participate in the government.
  2. In direct democracy people directly participate in law-making, while in indirect democrcy participation in law-making is indirect.
  3. Selection of magistrates is directly in indirect democracy, while in direct democracy selection of magistrates is indirectly.
  4. In direct democracy the institutions of initiative, referendum and recall exist, but no initiative and referendum in direct democracy.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of democracy.
Answer:
The term democracy is derived from the Greek words-demos and krates, the former meaning ‘the people’ and the latter ‘power’. Democracy thus means ‘power of the people’ or ‘rule of the multitude’. Democracy means that the government of the state is to be run by the people.

Question 2.
Define Democracy.
Answer:
According to Dicey, “Democracy is a government in which the governing body is comparatively a large fraction of entire nation.” According to Abraham Lincoln, “Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people.”

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Question 3.
Explain the fundamental principles of democracy.
Answer:
Democray is based on the following fundamental principles :

  • Sovereignty resides in the people and administration is run in accordance with the wishes of the people.
  • The administration is run by the people either directly or indirectly.

Question 4.
Discuss the merits of democracy?
Answer:

  • As compared to monarchial or aristocratic governments, democracy is indeed the best form of government.
  • It is the only form of government which is more popular in the modern world because it rests on the consent of the public opinion.

Question 5.
Discuss the demerits of democracy?
Answer:

  • It is said that a democratic govt, is a government by the incompetent and the ignorant.
  • It gives more importance to quantity rather than to quality.

Question 6.
Define dictatorship.
Answer:
Dictatorship means the rule of one powerful man without any regard for the wishes of the people.
According to Ford, ‘Dictatorship is the assumption of extra legal authority by the Head of the state.”

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Question 7.
What are the main features of Dictatorship?
Answer:

  • Dictatorship is a government by the powerful man who-has a right to exercise authority because of his superior physical force.
  • Dictatorship is an arbitrary rule. The dictator run the govt, according to his own sweet will.

Question 8.
What are the merits of dictatorship?
Answer:

  1. Strong Administration: The administration under a dictator is always very strong. The dictator suppresses disorder and opposition with a strong hand.
  2. Administration becomes Stable and Efficient: The administration is not responsible to the public and dictator remains in office till his death.

Question 9.
Make a brief distinction between democracy and dictatorship.
Answer:

  • Democracy is the rule of people while dictatorship is rule of one man or one party.
  • Democracy is based on public opinion, while dictatorship is based on force.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain any one factors which determine the form of government.
Answer:
Size of the population determines the form of government.

Question 2.
Mention the basis of Aristole in classification of state.
Answer:

  1. Number of persons
  2. The end or aim of the government.

Question 3.
Give one definition of Democracy.
Answer:
According to Abraham Lincoln,“Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people.”

Question 4.
Explain any one basic principles of democracy.
Answer:
The administration is run by the people either directly or undirectly.

Question 5.
Write down any one feature of dictatorship.
Answer:
Dictatorship is a Government by the powerful man who had right to exercise authority because of his superior physical force.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Question 6.
Write down any one demerits of dictatorship.
Answer:
Individuals are not granted civil liberties and other rights in dictatorship.

Fill in the blanks

1. Aristotle has classified the state on the basis of ………………… of persons in whom the sovereign power is vested.
Answer:
Number

2. In ………………… Democracy thf people directly participate in the government of the country.
Answer:
Direct

3. Indirect democracy is also called as ………………… democracy.
Answer:
Representative

4. The administration under a ………………… is always very strong.
Answer:
Dictator

5. The dictator is not ………………… to any body for his action, policies.
Answer:
Responsible.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

True or False statement:

1. Federal government is suitable for big states and unitory governments for small states.
Answer:
True

2. According to Lincoln,“Democracy is a government in which everyone had a share.
Answer:
False

3. Enlightened citizenship is the first condition for the success of democracy.
Answer:
True

4. Democracy is of five types.
Answer:
False

5. Democracy based on public opinion while dictatorship based on force.
Answer:
True

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
The term democracy is derived from which of the following Greek words :
(A) Demos and Cratia
(B) Casta
(C) Famulus
(D) Pocta.
Answer:
(A) Demos and Cratia

Question 2.
“Democracy is a government of the people, for the people and by the people.”
(A) AB. Hal
(B) Abraham Lincoln
(C) Aristotle
(D) Herodotus.
Answer:
(B) Abraham Lincoln

Question 3.
Which of the following is the basis of democracy?
(A) Equality
(B) Liberty
(C) Fraternity
(D) All of the above.
Answer:
(D) All of the above.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 11 Form of Governments: Democratic and Authoritarian (Dictatorial)

Question 4.
Which of the following is the feature of dictatorship?
(A) It is based on equality
(B) It is based on public opinion
(C) The dictator enjoys unlimited powers
(D) It ifr based on rule of law.
Answer:
(C) The dictator enjoys unlimited powers

Question 5.
Which one of following is merit of dictatorship?
(A) Strong Administration
(B) Weak Government
(C) No Individual Liberty
(D) Less Expensive.
Answer:
(A) Strong Administration

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 15 Organs of Government: Legislature

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 15 Organs of Government: Legislature Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 15 Organs of Government: Legislature

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is the Legislature? Discuss its main functions.
Or
Describe the functions of the Legislature in a modern democratic state?
Or
Discuss the functions of Legislature.
Answer:
The Government has three organs-the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. The legislature is more important than the executive and the judiciary. The legislature is a very important branch of Government because it is through the legislature that will of the people is expressed.

It is a forum for the discussion of various matters affecting the life of the people and, therefore, if it is to be truly representative of the will of the people, it must consist of a large number of persons representing all classes, sections and interests. Since modern democracies are representative, the legislature must be so composed that it reflects the will of the people correctly and represents fully the views of citizens, who are the ultimate masters in a democracy.

Legislature is that organ of the State which enjoys the power of making and amending laws. In the modern age of democracy the legislature is manned by the elected representatives of the people and these representatives always act in accordance with the wishes of the people. In fact the people govern over themselves through their representatives. This organ is considered the most important organ of the Government.

The main reason for this is that it is manned by the representatives of the people. The legislature frames laws and all the functions of the Government are framed with the help of laws. This organ of the Government formulates and expresses the will of the State. The other two- organs are meant to enforce the will of the State. This organ is important because it imposes taxes on the people and gives the authority to the executive to collect them. This way in all the States the legislature plays a very important role.

Functions of the Legislature:
Legislatures in modern State do not perform identical functions. Everywhere they pass laws, determine the ways of raising and spending public revenues, and discuss matters of public importance. Almost everywhere they have some power of amending the Constitution. Some Legislature, as in Switzerland and India, have elective functions. The Upper Houses of some states for example England have judicial functions. Some share in executive functions, the consent of the Senate is necessary in the U.S.A. for the appointment of officers and the making of treaties. In the modem democratic State, legislature performs the ahead functions:

1. Legislative Functions:
]The legislature makes laws, alters them, amends them and repeals them. It enacts such laws as satisfy the interests and demands of people. Such laws are passed after they are carefully considered by the various members of the House representing various shades of opinion. It has also the right to amend or alter the constitution according to a procedure laid down in it. In the past the laws were framed on the basis of social and religious customs and traditions.

The Kings in the past were guided by these customs and traditions in the governance of the State. The will of the King was to be the law for the people in certain cases but now-a-days it is the legislature which makes laws. Keeping in view the problems which are facing the country, the legislature makes the laws. It makes laws to improve the lot of the people.

2. Control over Finance:
The national finance is controlled by the legislature in all the democratic States. All taxes imposed upon the people or the money spent by the Government must have the sanction of the legislature. In a Parliamentary Government the Government must present the budget to Hie legislature and obtain its sanction for the taxes it proposes to impose and the expenditure it wishes to undertake.

In the past the British King summoned the Parliament only at a time when he felt the need of imposing new taxes. But in the modem age the Parliament passes the annual budget. Now-a-days no Government can impose any tax without the sanction of the legislature. The legislature has the authority to reduce, alter and even abolish the existing taxes. As the legislature controls the strings of the purse, so it controls the administration also because one who holds the purse holds the affairs.

3. Constituent Functions:
Some legislatures, such as the ‘British Parliament, can pass any law they like including those which affect the constitution of the country. They are called sovereign law-making bodies because they enjoy unlimited powers in the sphere of law-making. Others like American Congress have limited powers.

They cannot by themselves amend the Constitution. In almost all the countries the legislatures to some extent enjoy the power of amending the Constitution of ! the State. The administration of the State should be run according to the provisions of the Constitution. The members of the legislature amend the Constitution in accordance with the wishes of the people.

4. Control over the Executive:
In a democracy the legislature is considered the most important organ of Government, because it is given the powers to exercise control over the executive. In a Parliamentary Government the members of the executive are responsible to the legislature for all their functions and policies. The members of the legislature ask questions to the ministers regarding the working of administration and they must answer these questions.

The legislature can seek the removal of Cabinet by passing a vote of non-confidence against them. This way the ministry always functions in accordance with the wishes of the legislature. In a Presidential Government also the legislature exercises some degree of control over executive. While passing the budget the legislature can impose restrictions on the functioning of the Government. The approval of the Senate is essential for all the appointments which the President of U.S.A. makes. This way in all the forms of Government the executive cannot be given a free hand or to do whatever it likes. It is to function within certain limitations.

5. Judicial Functions:
In almost all the States the legislature enjoys certain judicial functions. The British House of Lords is the final court of appeal in the country. In India the Parliament can make an appeal to the President or the Vice-President through a resolution passed by the legislature. The legislature can pass a resolution to seek the removal of the judges. In Canada the divorce cases are heard by the legislature. In Switzerland the Parliament enjoys the right of pardoning criminals.

6. Electoral Functions:
The legislatures are to perform many electoral functions in most of the States. In India both the legislatures of the States and the Centre jointly elect the President of India. The Vice-President of India is elected by both the Houses of the Legislature (Union Parliament). In Switzerland the members of the Federal Council and the members of the Federal Tribunal are elected by the legislature. In U.S.A. also under certain special circumstances the President and the Vice-President are elected by the Congress. In India, the State legislatures elect the members of the Upper House of the Union Parliament.

7. Legislature redress the grievances of the People:
Legislature also redress the grievances of the people. People have many complaints against the administration and it is the duty of the members of the legislature to bring complaints of the people before the legislature, so that legislature can redress the grievances of the people.

8. Miscellaneous Functions:
Legislature performs many miscellaneous functions. In the democratic countries war is declared with the approval of the legislature. In India declaration of the Emergency by the President is approved by the Parliament within two months.

Conclusion:
We can say that the function of the legislature is not only to frame laws but it performs various other functions also. The legislature is to assist other organs also according to the need of the time.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 15 Organs of Government: Legislature

Question 2.
What is a Bi-cameral Legislature? Give its merits and demerits.
Or
Explain the merits and demerits of the Bi-cameral System.
Or
Examine critically the advantages and disadvantages of the Bi-cameral system.
Answer:
In ancient times legislatures did not play any important role because the kings enjoyed absolute powers and their commands were laws for the people. But in the modern democratic age the legislature represents the people and so it plays a significant role in the State. The legislature consists of the elected representatives of the people and it frames laws in accordance with the wishes of the people.

Organization:
The organization of the legislature can be of two types. A legislature can consist of one house as well as of two houses. A legislature having one house is called Unicameral legislature and a legislature having two houses is called Bicameral legislature. Where there is only one chamber, it consists of the representatives of the people and is called the popular house. Where there are two house of the legislature, the popular house is called the Lower House and the other chamber is called the Upper House.

The members of the Lower House are elected by the people in each country but the methods of electing the members of the second house are different in different countries. In England most of the members of the second house are hereditary. In Canada the members of the second house are nominated for life. In India the members of the Rajya Sabha are elected by the 1 State legislatures. Some members of Rajya Sabha are also nominated by the President of India. In America the members of the Senate are elected directly by the people.

Controversy over Bicameralism:
Scholars hold different opinions over the issue . whether a second house should exist or not. Even now-a-days some people hold the view- t point that the existence of a second chamber is useless. But in most of the States there exist two chamber legislatures. The second chamber has its merits as well as demerits and they are explained as follows:

Arguments In Favor of Second House:
The writers who support the existence of a second chamber have put forward the following arguments:—
1. Second chamber checks the despotism of a single chamber:
If the legislative power is centralized in one House, such a House is likely to become despotic. Just as an individual is tempted to act as a despot and some check is necessary, similarly the Upper House maintains a check on the Lower Chamber and keeps up a balance of power.

It serves as a meeting place for the conservative and progressive elements. When the power of making laws is in the hands of one Chamber, it can misuse its authority. But the Second Chamber prevents the Lower Chamber from becoming dictatorial. It prevents such bills which are not in the best interests of the country. According to Lecky, the Second Chamber exercises a “controlling, modifying, retarding and studying influence” upon the laws of the Lower Chamber.

2. It is a revisory chamber:
The law should be framed after a thorough and deep consideration so that it may further the interests of the general masses. If the law is not framed by taking in view the various points concerning it, it may harm some section of the society. The Lower House has enough work to do and the time at its disposal is very short. The majority party in the legislature may pass the laws in haste in order to put its policies and programmes into practice speedily.

It may harm the interests of general public. Sometimes the opposition parties do not get enough time to express their opinions on a particular issue. Sometimes the members of the Lower House are swayed and overpowered by fiery speakers and they pass the bills in haste. The Upper House is essential to serve as a check on hasty, rash and ill-considered legislation passed by the Lower Chamber. The Upper House makes provisions for revision and second thought.

As such it serves a great purpose and adds to the utility and efficiency of the laws. According to Bluntschli, “It is clear that four eyes see better than two especially when a subject may be considered from different stand points.”

3. Second House relieves the Lower House of a Part of its Work:
The Upper House is essential because it reduces the work of the Lower Chamber. It can attend to more important functions very carefully. There are so many bills which are of non-controversial nature and they need not to be discussed and debated thoroughly. The modern State is a welfare State and hence the legislature is always over-burdened with work and it cannot cope with the rush of work. A single chamber legislature cannot do legislative business speedily and efficiently. If one chamber is overburdened with work it cannot discuss the bill in detail.

4. Existence of a Second Chamber is more Democratic:
The existence of a Second Chamber is very much in accordance with the democratic principles. The consideration of a bill by the second Chamber affords sufficient time to the people to think over the bill and express their real public opinion. The bill framed this way will command more obedience because it is based upon the public opinion, which is essential in democracy. Some writers are of the opinion that if the Upper Chamber agrees with the Lower Chamber, it is superfluous and if it disagrees with it, it is mischievous. But this argument does not hold ground.

With the existence of Second Chamber the legislature can in a better way take into consideration public opinion. If the Second Chamber agrees With the Lower Chamber over a particular law, then decidedly it would be a good law and if it disagrees then there is a scope for giving a second thought to it. In the words of Dr. Finer, “If the two assemblies agree so much the better for our belief in the wisdom and justice of the law, if they disagree it is time for the people to reconsider their attitude.”

5. Second Chamber represents the Units in a Federation:
Some writers are of the opinion that the existence of a Second Chamber is essential in a federation. A federation is a union of semi-independent States. If there is a bicameral legislature, the Lower House may represent the people as a whole and the Upper House may represent the units of a federation. Without giving representation to the unit it is not possible to satisfy them.

The Lower Chamber in a federation is supposed to represent the national interests whereas the Upper Chamber gives representation to the local and specific interests of the units. In U.S.A. each State sends two representatives to the Senate and in Switzerland also each Canton sends two representatives to the Upper House of the Federal legislature.

6. It provides for Representation of Minorities and Special Interests:
The Upper Chamber can be used for giving representation to special interests and minorities which cannot get adequate representation in the Lower Chamber. The bi-cameral legislature gives due protection to some important minorities and interests which do not get representation through election. Sometimes very suitable candidates are not elected in the election. In the absence of such seasoned parliamentarians and scholars the nation is a loser. Their views can be very useful over the problems under discussion in the legislature.

These much needed persons, can find a ready place in the Second Chamber. The House of Lords in Britain has in it besides others, the big business magnates, directors of big companies and big landlords. The President of India has the power to nominate twelve persons to the Second chamber who have distinguished themselves in the field of art, literature, science and social service. The scholars, artists and scientists may not like to contest elections and hence by becoming the member of the Second Chamber they can be useful to the nation.

7. Debates of high quality in the Second Chamber:
Another merit of the Second Chamber is that debates in it are of a very high quality. It has been observed that the quality and standard of speeches in the Second chamber is comparatively better than that of the Lower Chamber. The main reason for this is that the members of the Lower Chamber are always overburdened with work. They are to make speeches in accordance with the wishes of the voters. No member can go against the directives and instructions of his political party.

Therefore, the members of the Lower chamber cannot freely express their view-point. On the other hand, the Upper Chamber is composed of experienced politicians and statesmen. The House of Lords in Britain is manned by retired Governors, Governor-Generals, administrators and diplomats of high repute. Besides this representatives of wealthier classes also sit in this chamber. Whatever these members say is always based on their rich experience.

They participate in the proceedings of the House after full preparation. In England and America there is complete freedom of speech in the Second Chamber. The members of the Lower House are very rarely fully well prepared. Moreover, in the Lower Chamber the members cannot go on speaking as long as they wish.

8. Second Chamber is more Stable:
Almost in all the countries the Upper Chamber is a permanent chamber which cannot be dissolved. Most of the members of the House of Lords are hereditary peers. In Canada the members of the Upper House are nominated for life. In India 1/3 members of the Rajya Sabha retire after every two years and this way each member remains in office for a period of six years.

In America also a member of the Senate remains in office for a period of six years. This way the members of the Upper Chamber are never worried about their re¬election. The members of the Lower Chamber are always worried about their re¬election. In this Chamber there is the possibility of the continuity of policy.

9. Historical Support:
The history of the world supports the existence of a Second Chamber. Almost all the legislatures are bicameral. In India, England, Canada, Switzerland, Japan, Russia, America, France and Australia Second Chambers have been established. Leacock says, “Unicameral system has been tried and found wanting.” Marriott says, “Experience has been in favour of two chambers, and it is not wise to disregard the lessons of history.” Whatever may be the system of government in any State, but the system of bi-cameral legislature has always been adopted.

Arguments Against Second Chamber:
Many scholars are of the view that a Second Chamber is not Tit all essential. They think that a Second Chamber does not serve any purpose. They put forward the following arguments:
1. Public opinion can be one and not two:
In a democracy the legislature always functions in accordance with public opinion. People always have one opinion about an issue or a problem. There cannot be two opinions about a problem at the same time. The people either support an issue or oppose it. A single chamber can well express the public opinion and this can be efficiently done by the Lower Chamber because it is the representative chamber of the masses.

Now-a-days sovereignty resides in the people and the people make use of their sovereign power through the legislature. As sovereignty cannot be divided similarly it is not proper to divide the institution which makes use of sovereign power. According to Abbe Sieyes, “The law is the will of the people, the people cannot at the same time have two different wills on the same subject, therefore, the legislative body which represents ought to be essential one.”

2. Second chamber is either mischievous or superfluous:
If the Second Chamber agrees with the Lower Chamber it is useless and if it disagrees with the Lower Chamber it is mischievous. The lower chamber represents public opinion and not the Second Chamber. French writer Abbey Sieyes says, “If the Second Chamber disagrees with the first it is mischievous, if it agrees it is superfluous.” The Second Chamber in Britain supports this view-point.

The Conservative Party has always been in majority in the House of Lords and it has been observed that the Conservative Party in the House of Lords always supported the measures of Conservative Party in the House of Commons. But when the Labour Party or the Liberal Party gained majority in the House of Commons, the Lords always rejected their progressive measures. It becomes quite clear from these things that a Second Chamber is useless.

3. Possibility of deadlocks
Another defect of the Upper Chamber is that it gives rise to deadlocks. Deadlocks are bound to occur between the two chambers especially in States like Russia and Switzerland where both the chambers possess co-equal powers. Such deadlocks greatly hinder the progress of the legislature which is made for the welfare of the whole society. Sometimes very essential laws are not passed due to deadlock. Benjamin Franklin has compared Bicameral legislature with a cart with a horse hitched to each end and both pulling.in opposite directions.

4. Difficulty in organisation of Second chamber:
There is no ideal method of composing a Second Chamber. The House of Lords in Britain is based on the hereditary system and this Chamber represents no one except the few who just by accident are bom in the families of peers. The Canadian Senate is composed of nominated persons. In U.S.A., each State elects two members to the Senate. The Rajya Sabha of India is composed of members who are elected from all the States on population basis by means of a single transferable vote by the method of proportional representation. Thus no single method has been adopted for composing a Second Chamber.

5. No hill is passed in a hurry:
Second Chamber is not even essential for checking hasty legislation. This provision of hasty legislation can be best provided by making a provision in the Constitution that bills before they are finally passed must be thoroughly thrashed in the committees or might be referred to the interest or classes affected.

Whether a country has a uni-cameral system of legislature, or a bi-cameral system of legislature, a bill is thoroughly well discussed in the Chamber where it is introduced. It is to pass through so many stages before it becomes a law. There are three readings of the bill in England and India.

The bill is referred to a committee which scrutinizes it clause by clause and item by item arid expresses its matured opinion about the bill. The bill does not become law after it is passed by the legislature. In some States the head of the State enjoys the power of rejecting the bill if he finds something wrong with it. The head of the State can ask the legislature to reconsider the bill. Under these circumstances there is very little or no need of a Second Chamber.

6. Second chamber is not essential in a federation:
Even in a federation there is a very little or even no need of a Second Chamber. It is the experience of today that members of the Second Chamber vote often on party lines rather than on behalf of the component States which have sent them in the Chamber. They care more for their own party than their States. The Supreme Court can protect the interests of the States better than the Upper Chamber. The members of the Second Chamber now-a-days are guided and’controlled by political parties which also control the Lower House.

7. Second chamber increases the State expenses:
The existence of a Second Chamber results in the increase of State’s expenses. It is an unnecessary charge or burden on the State’s finances and so it should be dispensed with. The Second House in a legislature is a luxury. The payment of salaries to the members of the Second House is a mere wastage of money in the modem days of economy. All this money spent on the Second Chamber can be utilized for national reconstruction. Thus Bicameralism is an unnecessary expense and heavy tax on the masses.

8. It is difficult to define the powers of the second chamber:
It is not an easy job to define the powers of the Lower Chamber. If the Second Chamber is given less powers as compared to the Lower Chamber, then it will only be the Chamber representing minorities and hence it will have no importance. If the two Chambers are given equal powers, then it will lead to disputes and deadlocks. The powers allotted to Second Chamber vary from country to country.

9. Second chamber cannot stop the despotism of the Lower House:
It is wrong to say that the Second Chamber is a check on the despotism of the Lower Chamber. In the modem age of democracy the real authority resides in the hands of the representatives of the people and these representatives occupy their seats in the Lower Chamber. In most of the countries the Lower Chambers enjoy more powers as compared to the Upper Chambers. In India, and Canada etc. the Second Chamber can never become a hinderance in the way of Lower Chamber.

The finances of the state are also controlled by the Lower Chamber. In countries where Parliamentary system of government prevails, the Lower Chamber also controls the executive. The Lower Chamber can seek the removal of the executive whenever it so desires. This way the Lower Chamber is more important than the Upper Chamber. The Lower Chamber can afford to be despotic.

Conclusion:
In the end we can say that the merits of the bicameral legislature are far greater than its demerits. A Second Chamber is useful for the reasons that have been discussed above. It facilitates the burden of the Lower Chamber. The creation of a Second Chamber is though somewhat expensive, yet it has checked the hasty, rash and ill- considered legislation of the Lower Chamber. It is due to this fact that modem tendency is in favour of having a bicameral legislature. Sir Henry Maine says, “Almost any Second Chamber is better than none, on the ground that a well constituted Second Chamber provides not a rival infallibility but an additional security.”

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 15 Organs of Government: Legislature

Question 3.
Give arguments in favor of Unicameral legislature.
Answer:
Unicameral legislature exists in China and in many states of India. Many scholars are of the opinion that Unicameral legislature is better than the Bicameral legislature. Following arguments are given in favor of Unicameral legislature:

  1. Unicameral legislature glorifies unity of the state.
  2. People always have one opinion about an issue or a problem. A single chamber can well express the public opinion and this can be efficiently done by the Lower House because it is the representative of the people.
  3. The legislature should be unicameral because a law is the expression of the will of the people and people do not have two wills at the same time.
  4. Unicameral legislature is the true mirror of the national mind. Members are directly elected by the people,
  5. Unicameral legislature saves the expenditure. The payment of salaries to the members of the Second House is a mere wastage of money in the modem days of economy.
  6. Minorities and special interests can be given representation in the Lower House. In India the President can nominate two Anglo-Indians to the Lok Sabha if he feels that they have not got adequate representation.
  7. Unicameral legislature is better than bi-cameral because it is easy to fix the responsibility.
  8. Unicameral legislature is better than bi-cameral because bi-cameral system leads to rivalry, deadlocks and delay.
  9. In a Unicameral system progressive laws are passed because members elected by the people are generally progressive and liberal, whereas members of the second chamber are generally Conservative.
  10. In a Unicameral system laws are passed without any delay. If there are two Houses, Second Chamber unnecessarily delays the bills.
  11. Unicameral legislature is better because it saves from the unnecessary headache of evolving a satisfactory method of election to the Second Chamber.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 15 Organs of Government: Legislature

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What are the different organs of the government and what are their functions? .
Answer:
There are three organs of the Governments-1. Legislature, 2. Executive, 3. Judiciary. The main function of the Legislature is the formation of laws. Executive runs the government according to these laws. It enforces the law. The main function of judiciary is to settle disputes of the people according to the laws made by legislature. Disputes arising among the people and those arising between the people and the government are all settled by judiciary. It also gives protection to the fundamental rights of the people and the constitution of the country.

Question 2.
What do you understand by Separation of Powers?
Answer:
The theory of the separation of powers means that legislative, executive and judicial powers of government should be distributed among different organs of government and each organ should exercise them separately and independently. The powers of each organs should be limited to its own sphere.

Within its own sphere each organ should be supreme and independent and no organ has any claim or right to encroach upon the work and functions of the other. The legislature should make the laws, the judge should interpret them and the executive enforce them. The theory of separation of powers is famous in the name of French Scholar Montesquieu.

Question 3.
What do you mean by legislature?
Answer:
By legislature we mean that organ of government which makes laws, alters, them, amends them and repeals them. It is, infact, a very important organ of government. It is through this organ that the will of the people is expressed. It is a forum for the discussion of various matters affecting the life of the people. The representatives of the people belonging to all classes, sections and interests constitute the legislature. In a democracy the legislature is the most effective organ while it loses its significance under dictatorship.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 15 Organs of Government: Legislature

Question 4.
What are the different types of legislature? Illustrate your answer with suitable examples.
Answer:
In all democratic countries of the world legislature exist to make laws. There can be two types of legislature-Bicameral and Unicameral. When the legislature consists of two Chambers (Houses), it is known as Bicameral legislature. When there is only one House of the legislature, then it is known as Unicameral legislature.

In almost all the big countries like U.S.A.- India, France, Switzerland, Canada, U.K. etc. there is bicameral system of legislature. The British Parliament consists of House of Lords and House of Commons whereas Indian Parliament consists of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. But there are some countries like China, Nepal, Portugal, Turkey, Bulgaria etc., where there is a single House of the legislature.

Question 5.
Upper House is permanent in the Bi-cameral Legislature. How?
Answer:
In India, England, U.S.A. etc. Upper House is permanent. The House of Lords in Britain is heredatary. The members of Canada are nominated for whole life. In India one- third members of the Upper House (Rajya Sabha) retire after every two years and in palce of them new members are elected. Rajya Sabha is a permanent House whereas Lok Sabha’s tenure is 5 years and it can be dissolved earlier by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. In U.S.A. One-third of the members of Senate (Upper Chamber) retire after every two years whereas the life of the Lower House in U.S.A. is only two years.

Question 6.
Discuss any four merits of Bi-cameral Legislative system.
Answer:
1. It prevents hasty and ill considered Legislation: The Upper chamber is essential to serve as a check on hasty, rash and ill-considered legislation passed by the Lower chamber.

2. It checks despotism of the Lower House:
The Second Chamber prevent the Lower chamber from becoming dictatorial. It prevents such bills which are not in the best interests of the country.

3. Division of Work: The second chamber of legislature is essential because it reduces the work of the Lower chamber.

4. More Stable:
Lower House of the Legislature can be dissolved before its expiry term but Upper chamber is a permanent House and it can’t be dissolved.

Question 7.
Give four arguments in favour of unicameral Legislature.
Answer:
Following, arguments are given in, favour of Unicameral legislature:
1. Unicameral legislature glorifies unity of the state.

2. People always have one opinion about an issue or a problem. A single chamber can well express the public opinion and this can be efficiently done by the Lower House because it is the representative of the people.

3. The legislature should be unicameral because a law is the expression of the will of the people and people do not have two wills at the same time.

4. Unicameral legislature is the true mirror of the national mind. Members are directly elected by the people.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 15 Organs of Government: Legislature

Question 8.
Explain the main functions of the Legislature.
Answer:
In a modern democratic state legislature performs many functions which are as follow:
1. Law Making:
The most important function of the legislature is to enact laws. It makes laws, alters them, amends them and repeals them. The legislature enacts those which satisfy the interest and demands of people. It makes laws to improve the lot of the people.

2. Control Over Finance:
The national finance is controlled by the legislature in all the democratic states. All taxes imposed upon the people, or the money spent by the government must have the sanction of the legislature. The legislature has the authority to reduce, latter and even abolish the existing taxes. Budget is passed by the legislature.

3. Amendment in the Constitution:
In a democratic state constitution is amended by the legislature. In England Parliament has a power to amend constitution by simple majority.

4. Judicial Functions:
In almost all the states the legislature enjoys certain judicial functions. The British House of Lords is the final court of appeal in the country. In India the Parliament can make an appeal to the President or the Vice-president through a resolution passed by the legislature.

Question 9.
Write a short note on Delegated legislation.
Answer:
Delegated legislation are those rules which are enacted by the administrative agencies under the law of legislature. These rules have the same validity as the laws. Delegated legislation means the exercise of minor legislative power by subordinate authority and bodies in pursuance of statutory authority given by the parliament itself. Delegated legislation has resulted in increasing the powers of the executive at the cost of legislature.

Question 10.
Write short note on Referendum.
Answer:
The method of referendum gives the final authority to the people to accept or reject the law passed by the legislature. If the legislature passes a law which is not in accordance with the wishes of the people can stop the execution of such a law. The system prevailing in Switzerland is that the opinion of the people is sought before the execution of laws. Referendum is of two types in Switzerland-
(1) Compulsory Referendum and
(2) Optional Referendum.
Important laws are referred to the people before they are executed and people cast their votes in favour of or against the law. If the majority of the cantons and the majority of the voters favour the law, it is enforced, otherwise rejected. In the case of optional referendum it entirely depends upon the will of the legislature whether to refer it to the voters or not. This practice is followed in the case of ordinary laws. If 50,000 voters demand that the law should be referred to the voters of their opinion then it is to be referred to them for their verdict. Such a law can be enforced only if the majority favors it.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 15 Organs of Government: Legislature

Question 11.
Write short note on Initiative.
Answer:
This device gives the power of the voters to get the law passed in accordance with their wishes. If a specified number of voters demands the making of a particular law, the legislature cannot reject it of its own. If the legislature makes a law according to the demand of the people, it is good, and if the legislature does not agree to the veiw-point of the voters, then view-point of the entire electorate is sought.

If the majority of the voters favours the law, then it is to be passed by the legislature. In Switzerland 1,00,000 voters have the right to demand the making of law. They can demand the complete or partial amendment of the constitution. If the legislature does not accept their demand then the matter is referred to the entire populace. If the majority of the voters favour the issue, the legislature is bound to make that law and make amendment in the Constitution.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What are the different organs of the government and what are their functions?
Answer:
There are three organs of the Governments—1. Legislature, 2. Executive, 3. Judiciary. The main function of the Legislature is the formation of laws. Executive runs the government according to these laws. It enforces the law. The main function of judiciary is to settle disputes of the people according to the laws made by legislature.

Question 2.
What do you mean by legislature?
Answer:
By legislature we mean that organ of government which makes laws, alters, them, amends them and repeals them. It is, infact, a very important organ of government. It is through this organ that the will of the people is expressed. It is a forum for the discussion of various matters affecting the life of the people.

Question 3.
What are the different types of legislature? Illustrate your answer with suitable examples.
Answer:
Inwall democratic countries of the world legislature exist to make laws. There can be two types of legislature—Bicameral and Unicameral. When the legislature consists of two Chambers (Houses), it is known as Bicameral legislature. When there is only one House of the legislature, then it is known as Unicameral legislature.

Question 4.
Give two arguments in favour of unicameral Legislature.
Answer:
Following arguments are given in favour of Unicameral legislature:
1. Unicameral legislature glorifies unity of the state.

2. People always have one opinion about an issue or a problem. A single chamber can well express the public opinion and this can be efficiently done by the Lower House because it is the representative of the people.

Question 5.
Explain the main functions of the Legislature.
Answer:
In a modem democratic state legislature performs many functions which are as ahead:
1. Law Making:
The most important function of the legislature is to enact laws. It makes laws, alters them, amends them and repeals them. The legislature enacts those which satisfy the interest and demands of people. It makes laws to improve the lot of the people.

2. Control Over Finance: The national finance is controlled by the legislature in all the democratic states.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 15 Organs of Government: Legislature

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Name the three organs of government.
Answer:

  1. Legislature
  2. Executive
  3. Judiciary.

Question 2.
What is the Bi-Cameral Legislature?
Answer:
Legislature, consists of two chambers, it is known as Bi-Cameral Legislature

Fill in the blanks

1. The ………………. makes law, alters them, amends them and repeats them.
Answer:
Legislature

2. In India, U.S.A. and U.K., exist ………………. legislature.
Answer:
Bi-Cameral

True or False statement

1. In India there is a Uni-Cameral legislature.
Answer:
False

2. In case of real executive, the executive powers are controlled by legislature.
Answer:
False

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 15 Organs of Government: Legislature

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Bi-Cameral Legislature is essential in a:
(A) Federation
(B) Unitary System
(C) Monarchy
(D) Aristocracy.
Answer:
(A) Federation

Question 2.
Which of the following is not function of the Legislature?
(A) To enact laws
(B) Control over finance
(C) To amend the constitution
(D) Recruitment in the Army.
Answer:
(D) Recruitment in the Army.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 14 Organs of Government: Executive

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 14 Organs of Government: Executive Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 14 Organs of Government: Executive

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define the term “Executive” and discuss its various forms.
Or
Distinguish between the following:
(а) Single and Plural Executive.
(b) Nominal and Real Executive.
(c) Hereditary and Elected Executive.
Answer:
Executive is that organ of the government, which enforces the will of the state expressed in the form of laws. In this sense, the executive includes all those officials from the head of the State down to the common policeman and clerks who are concerned with the administration of public affairs. It is the second branch of the Government’s machine and exercises wide powers over the people in the country.

There is a tendency to refer to the executive itself as the government, so great is the importance of this organ of government. The executive is entrusted with the execution of the will of the State. The legislature makes laws and the executive is charged with the responsibility of giving effect to these laws. In the narrowest sense the term executive refers only to that small body which exercises supreme authority in the State. According to Gilchrist, “The executive is that branch of government which carries out or executes the will of the people as formulated in law.”

According to Gettell, “In its broadest sense the executive department consists of all government officials except those acting in legislature and judicial capacity. It includes all the agencies of the government that are concerned with the execution of state’s will as expressed in terms of law.” In the widest sense of the term the executive refers to government officials concerned with the execution of State policies and programmes.

The executive has to give effect to laws passed by the legislature and is required to take quick action and prompt decisions. It must work efficiently and hence it is essential that such executive control should be concentrated in the hands of a small body of persons possessing unity, adequate power and sometimes secrecy of the produce.

Different Kinds of Executive. There are various kinds of executive:
1. Real and Nominal Executive:
In the case of real executive the executive powers are actually controlled and exercised by the real executive, as the President of U.S.A. or the Cabinet in England. The President of the U.S.A. is the real effective executive head of the State. The British Cabinet enjoys supreme authority in the country and the Queen simply reigns and does not rule.

In the case of nominal executive the executive powers are vested in the head of the state but in practice those powers are exercised by the prime minister and the cabinet. In India President is a nominal executive. The administration s carried on in his name but not by him. The government officers carry on the administration in the name of the head of the executive.

2. Single and Plural Executive:
The executive is single when the final authority is concentrated in the hands of a single person. In U.S.A. and India the executive is single because , the U.S.A. President and the Indian Prime Minister have a position of ascendancy among their colleagues. The control in plural executive less not with one person but with a council of several persons, for example, in Switzerland, the real executive powers are shared equally by all the ministers. The President of the Council is only one among the equals and not first among the equals.

3. Parliamentary and Presidential Executive:
In a parliamentary type of executive the head of the State is a nominal one and the real authority is vested with the council of ministers. The members of the real executive are the members of the legislature and for their ill actions and policies they are responsible to the legislature. In case the legislature loses confidence over the real executive, the real executive is to resign. In a Presidential-type of Govt, the President is the real effective head of the State. The executive is independent of the control of the legislature. In U.S.A. the President is elected for a fixed term. Neither the President and nor his secretaries are the members of the U.S. Congress.

4. Hereditary and Elective Executive:
The executive of a state may be either hereditary or elective. In England the monarch, who is legally speaking, the chief executive, is a hereditary chief. The value of a hereditary executive is that it is the keeper of national tradition. But hereditary executive is considered to be the legacy of the past and unrelated to a democratic polity. Where executive is elected, the election may take different forms ranging from direct election by the people to indirect election by the legislature.

The principle of direct election by the people is followed in some States of South America and also in the election of State governors in the United States. In India President is elected by an electoral college consisting of elected members of the Parliament and elected members of State Legislature Assembly. In U.S.A. President is elected by an electoral college but in practice election has become almost direct.

5. Dictatorial and Constitutional Executive:
If the source of the powers of the executive is the Constitution, the executive is called constitutional. In almost all the democratic countries, there exists a constitutional executive. If the source of the powers of the executive is the physical force and there is no limit to the authority of the executive this type of executive is called Dictatorial executive.

6. Appointive or Nominative Executive:
There can be appointive or nominative executive also. The governors in India and the Governor General in Canada, Australia, New Zealand etc., are the examples of this type of executive.

7. Political and Permanent Executive:
These are two parts of the same executive. The part of the executive which holds office on the basis of its belonging to the majority party in the legislati re is called the Political Executive. The part of the executive which holds office on the basis of its education or qualifications is called the Permanent executive.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 14 Organs of Government: Executive

Question 2.
Discuss judicial and legislative functions of the executive.
Or
Discuss the main functions of the Executive.
Answer:
The main function of the executive is to enforce the laws and to run the administration of the state. The modem executive is to perform so many functions besides the execution of laws.
Following are the main functions of the executive:
1. Administrative Functions:
The main function of the executive is to direct and supervise the execution of law. To achieve this end, the executive performs various functions such as appointment, transfer and dismissal of heads of the departments and of the subordinate officials. It formulates the general policy of the states and controls the public administration. It maintains law and order in the State. One or more than one department are controlled by a minister and he is responsible for the efficient administration of the department.

Each department enforces the laws which concern its working. The executive is to see that all the laws are properly obeyed and respected and those who break the laws are punished. The object of the punishment is to reform the criminal. The executive also issues decrees, proclamations and white papers. It controls the various departments-industrial, educational, financial—which deal with the various aspects of government policies.

2. Appointments:
All major appointments are made by the Executive. In India, the Executive appoints Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts of the various states, ambassadors, Chairman and members of the Union Public Service Commission, Attorney-General, Chiefs of Army, Air Force and Navy, Governors etc. In U.S.A. all major appointments are made by the President with the approval of the Senate. The executive also enjoys the power of removal.

3. Military Functions:
Military functions consist in exercising supreme command over the army, navy and air force. The Indian President is the supreme commander of the armed forces. The executive appoints officers to the armed forces and some countries, it has the right to declare war.

To secure obedience to the laws of the State, to maintain peace and to defend the country against the foreign attack is the responsibility of the executive. Executive is responsible for the preservation of perfect peace and security in the country. It has to keep internal peace, by putting down all those factors which disturb the peace of the country. In some countries the executive has the authority to declare war.

4. Foreign or Diplomatic Relations:
The foreign affairs of the country are also conducted by the executive. It makes treaties with other nations, sends representatives and ambassadors to them, and receives diplomatic representatives from other countries. It enters into trade treaties. It declares war and peace and signs the treaties in that connection. It controls all foreign relations but in certain matters it has to seek the approval of the legislature. It sends representatives to conferences of Big powers. It also corresponds with other countries.

5. Legislative Functions:
In the modern State the executive has a share in law-making. Normally it is the business of the legislature to make laws. Usually it is the executive which recommends what laws the legislature should pass. In U.S.A., the President sends messages to the legislature for making legislature proposals. In States where there is parliamentary form of government, the Cabinet is the part of the legislature and introduces and pilots all bills. If it is the executive which summons, adjourns prorogues and even dissolves the legislature and calls for new elections as in Britain.

The Cabinet in the sphere of law-making guides and directs public policy. In all the democratic countries the executive normally introduces majority of the bills in the legislature. The executive head of the State has usually the power of the veto over laws passed by the legislature. He can issue ordinances which are as valid as other laws. The executive also has the power of delegated legislation.

6. Financial Functions:
In the parliamentary-type of government the budget is introduced by the minister. The budget is prepared by the council of ministers. It is the executive which proposes new taxation, or decreases taxes, abolishes taxes and reduces taxes. The executive demands money from the legislature.

7. Judicial Functions:
The executive organises effective judicial system so that offences against law may be duly punished. The executive appoints judges. The executive head of the State enjoys the power of pardon, amnesty and of commuting punishment. Mercy petitions on behalf of convicted criminals are sometimes made to the executive head who may grant pardons.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 14 Organs of Government: Executive

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What are the different organs of the government and what are their functions? .
Answer:
There are three organs of the Governments-1. Legislature, 2. Executive, 3. Judiciary. The main function of the Legislature is the formation of laws. Executive runs the government according to these laws. It enforces the law. The main function of judiciary is to settle disputes of the people according to the laws made by legislature. Disputes arising among the people and those arising between the people and the government are all settled by judiciary. It also gives protection to the fundamental rights of the people and the constitution of the country.

Question 2.
What do you understand by Separation of Powers?
Answer:
The theory of the separation of powers means that legislative, executive and judicial powers of government should be distributed among different organs of government and each organ should exercise them separately and independently. The powers of each organs should be limited to its own sphere.

Within its own sphere each organ should be supreme and independent and no organ has any claim or right to encroach upon the work and functions of the other. The legislature should make the laws, the judge should interpret them and the executive enforce them. The theory of separation of powers is famous in the name of French Scholar Montesquieu.

Question 3.
Write short note on Plebiscite.
Answer:
Plebiscite is a device by which certain question is submitted to popular vote. The method of plebiscite is used in case of political questions. Plebiscite was taken on the issue of Goa’a merger with Maharashtra in our country. Pakistan demands that there should be plebiscite on the Kashmir issue, whether the people of Kashmir want remain in India or they want to side with Pakistan. In 1935, it was through the method of plebiscite that Saar was integrated into Germany.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 14 Organs of Government: Executive

Question 4.
Write short note on Recall:
Answer:
This method gives the power to the voters to recall their representative even before the expiry of his term. They can elect a new representative. This method is applied against those representatives of the people who do not work in the best interests of the public. In most of the countries the representatives of the people are elected for a fixed term and after their election, the voters have no control over them.

The representatives may do whatever they like and the public cannot exercise any control over them. But through the method of recall, a fixed number of voters can manage to recall their representatives. This way the voters control the activities of their representatives. They cannot go against the wishes of the electorate. This system prevails in some States of U.S.A. and Switzerland.

Question 5.
What is Executive?
Answer:
Executive is that organ of the government which enforces the wi-fi of the legislature expressed in the form of laws. The Legislature makes laws and the executive is charged with responsibility of giving effect to these laws. Besides it keeps law and order in the country. It also protects the life and property of the people and maintains internal peace by putting down all those factors that disturb the peace of the country. In fact, it is executive that runs the administration of the country. In other words, it is a government in itself.

Question 6.
Explain four functions of the Executive.
Answer:
Three main functions of the executive are as follow:
1. Administrative Functions:
The main function of the executive is to direct and supervise the execution of law. It formulates the general policy of the state and controls the public administration. It maintains law and order in the State.

2. Military Functions:
Military functions consist in exercising supreme command over the army, navy and air force. The Executive appoints officers to the armed forces and in some countries, it has the right to declare war.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What are the different organs of the government and what are their functions?
Answer:
There are three organs of the Governments-1. Legislature, 2. Executive, 3. Judiciary. The main function of the Legislature is the formation of laws. Executive runs the government according to these laws. It enforces the law. The main function of judiciary is to settle disputes of the people according to the laws made by legislature.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 14 Organs of Government: Executive

Question 2.
What do you understand by Executive?
Answer:
Executive is that organ of the government which enforces the will of the legislature expressed in the form of laws. The Legislature makes laws and the executive is charged with responsibility of giving effect to these laws. Besides it keeps law and order in the country.

Question 3.
Explain two functions of the Executive.
Answer:
Three main functions of the executive are as follow:
1. Administrative Functions:
The main function of the executive is to direct and supervise the execution of law. It formulates the general policy of the state and controls the public administration. It maintains law and order in the State.

2. Military Functions: The Executive appoints officers to the armed forces and in some countries, it has the right to declare war.

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Name the three organs of government.
Answer:
1. Legislature
2. Executive
3. Judiciary.

Question 2.
Which is the supreme law making body in a state?
Answer:
Parliament is the Supreme Law making body of state.

Question 3.
Give one advantage of direct popular election of the Chief Executive.
Answer:
Direct popular election creats an interest in public affairs on the part of the masses.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 14 Organs of Government: Executive

Fill in the blank

1. The main functions of the ………….. is to enforce the laws and to the administration.
Answer:
Executive

True or False statement

1. In a Parliamentary form of govt, legislature is superior to the Executive.
Answer:
True

2. Indian President is a real executive.
Answer:
False

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Which one of the following is the necessary condition for good executive?
(A) Prompt decisions during emergency
(B) Honest performance of duties
(C) No undue delay in administrative affairs
(D) None of the above.
Answer:
(C) No undue delay in administrative affairs

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 14 Organs of Government: Executive

Question 2.
Which one of the following executive the laws:
(A) Judiciary
(B) Executive
(C) Legislature
(D) None of these.
Answer:
(D) None of these.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the meaning and features of Unitary government.
Answer:
In the modern age there are big States and each State is divided into many units or provinces. In ancient India, the State was divided into many provinces. Each State was governed by a Governor or a Subedar and he was responsible for the smooth running of the administration of that State. Now-a-days we find two types of Governments in each State:
1. Central Government and
2. Provincial Government.

On the basis of- relationship between the centre and the provincial governments, there can be two types of governments-unitary government and federal government.

Meaning of Unitary Government:
The whole power of the State is concentrated in the hands of the central government from which the local governments derive their existence and powers. Under this system, the Constitution does not divide the powers between the central government and the local governments.

But for administrative convenience, the State is divided into a number of local areas which are placed under local authorities. They exercise powers within limits set by the central government which is responsible for the government of the people. The local governments are merely the agents of the central government and are subject to its control. In this type of government the entire country is ruled from one seat or authority. The definitions of Unitary government are given below:

1. According to Garner, “Unitary government is that system where the whole power of government is conferred by the Constitution upon a single central organ or organs from which the local governments derive whatever authority or autonomy they may possess and their very existence.”

2. According to Strong, “A Unitary State is one organised under a single Central Government.”

3. According to Dicey, “Unitary Government is the habitual exercise of supreme legislative authority by one Central power.”

Features of the Unitary Government:

On the basis of the definitions given above, we come to know about the following features of the unitary types of government: .
1. Single Administration:
The entire authority of administration is vested in the central government. The central government is all powerful and it can make any, law it likes.

2. No Division of Powers: The Constitution does not divide the powers between the Centre and the States.

3. Powers of Local govts, are not Original:
The existence of local government depends upon the will of the central government. The central government allots power to the local governments and it can take them back if it so desires.

4. Written or Unwritten Constitution:
The Constitution of Japan and India is written whereas Constitution of England is unwritten. The Constitution can be written as well as unwritten.

5. Flexible or Rigid Constitution. The Constitution can be flexible as well as rigid.

6. Parliament Supreme. In a unitary government parliament is supreme. In England there is supremacy of the Parliament.

7. Single Citizenship: The citizens are given single citizenship.

8. Judiciary Not Supreme:
The Judiciary is not considered as the supreme authority and it is not given the right to reject a law passed by the Parliament. Unitary governments exist in Great Britain, France, Japan, China etc.

Merits Of Unitary Government:
Following are the merits of a unitary government:
1. Strong Administration:
In a unitary type of government the administration is quite strong. All the powers are concentrated in the hands of central government and it can enforce the laws strongly in all the parts of the State. No State can dare revolt against the central authority because the States are always at the mercy of the central government. The disputes between the Centre and the States very rarely arise.

2. Uniformity of Administration:
The main advantage of unitary government is that there is uniformity of administration. Such uniformity in legislation and administration enables the central government to act quickly, promptly and vigorously in all matters. There is no duplication of functions and authorities. Thus waste and unnecessary expenditure is avoided. Both in external and internal matters, such a government can speak with one voice and follow a consistent policy. In a federal type of State the units make their own ties but in a unitary State, it is the central government which is the fountain head of all authority.

3. Administration is Simple and Flexible:
The unitary government had the advantage of flexibility and simplicity. There is no multiplicity of law issued by different authorities which it is difficult for a common man to understand. There is no need of a rigid and written Constitution. In a monarchical system of government there is never a Constitution and the entire authority rests with the king.

In a unitary type of government also the central government exercises supreme power and it can use all the powers according to his own sweet will. As the Constitution is flexible so it can be changed with the change of time. The British Constitution is very flexible. The Parliament can change it wholly or partially by an ordinary majority.

4. Less expensive Government:
The unitary type of government is less expensive. There is only one central legislature which frames laws for the entire country. This central government runs the administration of the whole country. This way quite a less amount is spent on the administration of the State. The money which is spent on State legislatures and executives is saved.

5. Useful in Time of Emergency:
The unitary type of government is very useful in time of emergency. As the central government controls the entire administration so it can well face the situation during emergency. It can take quick decisions and implement them speedily. It is not essential that the central government should seek the advice of the States. The central government can successfully face an emergency because it possesses wide powers.

6. National Unity:
In a unitary State there is greater degree of national unity. All the citizens are governed by the same laws of the land and the same government governs all the people. People do not develop the spirit of provincialism because the States are not given powers. The people of different States do not have ill-will against each other.

7. Single Citizenship:
In a federal type State there can be double citizenship as in case of U.S.A. Double citizenship results in the division of loyalty and the individuals loves only his own State and not the other States. In a unitary type of State there is only single citizenship and every individual is a citizen of the whole State and not of a province. This way his loyalty is not divided and he remains loyal to the country.

8. Suitable for Small States:
A unitary type of government is most suitable for small States. It is not good to divide a State with a small territory into small States. If in each small State a Government is established, it will be a very expensive proposition.

Demerits Of Unitary Government:
1. Central government becomes despotic:
The main objection to this type of government is the danger that the central government may take for itself all important powers delegating very insignificant functions to the local units. In the hands of people who are power drunk, such powers may lead to the creation of a despotic State.

2. It is harmful for big States:
Unitary government is not suitable to a country with a large size and with a population with varied cultural interests, different political standards, ideals and levels of economic achievement. The problems of these different areas requiring different treatment and uniform treatment may not be desirable.

3. It cannot fulfil local needs:
Each State or each locality has its own needs. The central government cannot fulfil the particular needs of a State or a locality. The central government makes laws which are applicable in all provinces. It does not make separate laws for a particular State. A particular law may not suit all the States.

4. Administration become inefficient:
In a unitary government it is the central government which is to bear the entire responsibility. National and provincial issues are to be handled by the central government. The central government becomes over-burdened with work and it loses its efficiency. Even the national problems are not tackled properly.

5. People do not get political education:
People do not receive political education even in a unitary type of government. The entire administration of the State is run by the officials of the central government and the people do not participate in the administration of the State. There are not frequent elections and the people have no opportunity to make use of their votes frequently. In a unitary type of government it is the bureaucracy which reigns supreme.

Conclusion:
The unitary government has its merits and demerits. In some countries this system of government is very suitable and in some countries it does not bear fruit. Some of its principles are desirable but they are not practicable. There is a unitary type of government in Britain but at the same time local government have also been established in the country. The unitary form of governments is not very popular these days because it cannot be a success in big States.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

Question 2.
What do you understand by Federation? Discuss its characteristics.
Answer:
The federal system of government has its origin in U. S. A. when after independence some independent States formed a federal type of government. Subjects of national importance were-given to the central or federal government and subjects of local importance were given to the local governments.

According to Hamilton, Federation is an association of States that form new ones. Indian federation has not come into existence by the union of interdependent States. The federation in India has come into existence by the integration of independent States into the British provinces.

According to Prof. Garner, “Federal government is a system in which the totality of government powers is divided and distributed by the national Constitution or the organic act of Parliament creating it, between central government and the government of the individual States or other territorial sub-division of which the federation is composed.” According to JelKnek.” A federal State is a sovereign state formed out of several states.”

According to Montesquieu, “Federal government is a convention by which several similar states agree to become members of a large one.”
According to Dicey, “It is a political contrivance intended to reconcile national unity with maintenance of state’s rights.”

Essential Features Of Federation:
Following are the essential features of a federal type of government-
1. Division of Powers,
2. Written Constitution,
3. Rigid Constitution,
4. Supremacy of the Constitution and
5. Independent Judiciary.

1. Division of Powers:
The powers of the government in a federation are distributed between the centre and the States. Matters of national importance which require uniformity of legislation and administration, such as defense, foreign affairs, coin and currency, railway, post and telegraphs customs, etc. are put under the control of the federal government.

Subjects of local importance like health, education, industries, law and order, jails, justice and works of public welfare etc. are controlled by the States or units. There is one government for national affairs and a number of local governments for local affairs. Generally the Constitution gives three list of subjects. Subjects on which state authorities can legislate (state list); subjects on which the centre is competent to legislate (federal list); and subjects on which both the centre and the units might legislate (concurrent list).

2. Written Constitution:
A written Constitution is essential in a federation in the sense that both the centre and states should be definite about their sphere of action. In an unwritten Constitution, the distribution of powers is not definite and it leads to disputes between the centre and the States.

3. Rigid Constitution:
The Constitution should be rigid so that it is not easily changed by impatient hands. The amending procedure is invariably more difficult than the enactment of ordinary laws. In almost all federal states, amendments require favourable action by the federal government and a large majority of the states.

4. Supremacy of the Constitution:
In a federal type of government it is the Constitution which distributes the powers between the Centre and the States. Therefore it is essential, that the supremacy of the Constitution should be maintained. Both the Centre and the States should run the administration in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution and should not violate any of the provisions.

5. Independent Judiciary:
The presence of an independent and powerful judiciary is most essential in a federation. It is the business of the Supreme Court to see whether or not the Constitution is being faithfully acted upon by the Centre and the units. The Supreme Court serves as the guarctum of the Constitution. It has the special function of interpreting it and deciding all disputes that may arise with reference to the Constitution.

Other Features:
The above-mentioned features are essential for the formation of the Federation. Besides these features there are certain other features but they are not found in all the federations. .

1. Double Citizenship:
Some people are of the opinion that the presence of double citizenship is also essential in a Federation. An individual is citizen of his state as well as he is a citizen of the Central Government. In America there exists double citizenship. In India there exists only single citizenship.

2. Bicameralism:
Some people are of the opinion that the legislature in a federation should be bicameral. The units should get equal representation in a Upper chamber of the Parliament. In America and Switzerland the States have been given equal representation in the Second Chamber of the Parliament but in India it is not so.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

Question 3.
Discuss the merits and demerits of Federal Government.
Answer:
Merits of Federal Government. Following are the merits of federation:
1. National Unity and Local Autonomy:
A federation combines the spirit of nationalism with the zeal for localism. People do not mind certain powers being enjoyed by the Central government if they are able to enjoy a big share in the control of their own affairs. They thus get political training in managing their own affairs.

Local initiative is encouraged and people naturally come to realize their responsibilities to the State. The component States keep their separate entity and enjoy complete sovereignty in their own affairs. Thus a federation affords the benefit of both the centralized as well as the local government.

2. Efficiency in Administration:
The administration of a federal type of State is always very efficient. There is a division of work between the Centre and the States. The central government is not over-burdened with work. The central government can control matters of national importance quite efficiently and State governments can handle the local affairs.

The States are left free to deal with the State subjects and central government is not to bother much about the administration of the States. It is only a federation that the component states together with their citizens can get the best opportunity to improve the conditions
because being on the spot, they can find a better solution than the central government situated at far-off distance.

3. Central Government cannot become Despotic:
The powers in a federation are rigidly distributed between the central and State governments and hence there is no danger of central government becoming dominant and despotic and overriding the liberties of people. The federation creates conditions whereby people can enjoy their freedom without difficulty and this is always safeguarded by the Constitution and the Supreme Court.

4. It is useful for Big States and Small as well:
The federal type of government is very useful both for the big States and the small states as well as small States by merging themselves into a federation become strong. They enjoy defence advantages such as large army, navy and air force. For this advantage they are not to sacrifice much.

The central government also becomes strong by the merger in it of so many small States. The federation is economically advantageous. The States are not to maintain many departments and it is the central government which shoulders the entire responsibility.

5. Political Education:
The federal type of government provides political education to the people. In a federation local matters are put under control of local citizens. This stimulates interest in public matters and gives them efficient training in matters of administration. The citizens are thus prepared, for higher responsibilities in political and administrative work.

6. Interest in Local Affairs:
People start taking interest in local affairs in a federal type of government. Local problems are to be dealt by the people themselves and this way they develop interest in matters of local concern. People think that they have a share in the government and the government is their own. They become politically conscious and share responsibility of administration.

7. A step towards world State:
A federal type of government is a step towards the establishment of a world State. Peace can be maintained in the world only if there is a world government. When some States can form a federation then world federation can also be formed. A world State would usher a new era in the world.

Disadvantages Of Federal Government:
We must not overestimate the merits of a federation because there are some main defects in this form of government. The defects are as follows:
1. Weak Government:
A fedreal type of government is weak in the conduct of internal as well as external affairs. The division of powers between the central government and the State governments always results into a conflict of legislation and administration between the two governments. In the conduct of foreign affairs, the federal government possesses an inherent weakness which is not to be found in a unitary type of government. Such a defect exists because the governments of component. States always interfere in the administration of the central government and put great difficulties with regard to the performance of international obligations.

2. Threat to National Unity:
If has been observed that in a federation there is always a threat to national urpty. In certain federations the people are given double citizenship. An individual is a citizen of the State and at the same time he is a citizen of the component unit in which he resides. It is difficult to maintain national unity under such circumstances. An individual owes loyalty to the central as well as his State Government.

This divided loyalty is not always desirable. People generally are more loyal to their units than to the State. People demand the creation of new units on the basis of language, religion and other things. Federation creates so many local and selfish interest by dividing the component States into different groups as a result of which the whole of the national solidarity and unity is destroyed.

3. Possibility of Revolt:
There is always a danger in a federation of the revolt by the States against the central government. The component units have their own governments and they run the administration as it suits them. If there is a difference of opinion between the Centre and the States over a particular issue, the States can arise the banner of revolt against the Centre. It is possible that the federating units on account of their grievances against the centre may form themselves into groups and factions. If this happens the federation would become a scene of hell and its dissolution might take place any moment. In 1991 U. S. S. R. disintegrated into Fifteen Republics.

4. Expensive Government:
There is a multiplicity of government in a federation. There is central government and there are State governments. Such multiplication of authorities is always expensive. People have to pay the taxes imposed by the central as well as the State government. Elections are held to the central as well as the State legislature and this is a very expensive proposition. The candidates also spend a huge amount of money in the elections. It is a misuse of public money.

5. Constitution does not change with the time:
The Constitution in a federation does not keep pace with the times. The Constitution in a federal State is always very rigid and it cannot be changed easily. With the passage of time the Constitution becomes out-dated and it fails to satisfy the people.

6. No Uniformity of Administration:
The federal State suffers from the defect that there is no uniformity of administration in the whole of the country. Each state makes laws according to its needs. Each State imposes its own taxes. In all the component units the people are governed by different sets of laws. The taxes of different articles vary from State to State. Moreover, in such a system of government, people develop the spirit of provincialism.

7. Double Citizenship is Harmful:
In a federal type of State the citizens are granted double citizenship. But double citizenship is harmful to the interests of the state. A citizen is to remain loyal to two sets of governments. No citizen can loyally perform his duties and” responsibilities towards the central and state governments. Generally the people are more loyal to their units as compared to the central government.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

Question 4.
Distinguish between unitary and federal forms of government.
Answer:
On the basis of relationship of the units with the central government, the government is divided into two ways-Unitary government and federal government. In a unitary type of government the supreme authority is vested in the central government but in a federal government the authority is divided between the centre and the states. Sir John Seeley did not consider that there was any vital difference between the unitary and federal states. To him there was no difference in ‘kind’ between them. But Merriott declares that the distinction is one of kind and not merely of degree. Following are the main points of differences between the two types of government.

1. Firstly, in a unitary government there is a concentration of powers in the central government, whereas in a federal government powers are divided between the Centre and the Units.

2. Secondly, in a unitary government the units are created for administrative convenience and they are mere parts or agents of the central government, whereas in a federation the units possess their own entities. In a federation the units derive their powers from the constitution and not from the central government and for their existence the units do not depend upon the central government.

3. Thirdly, in a unitary government there is a single government in the country, while in a federation there is double set of government-one at the centre and the others in the units. Federation makes provision for separate legislatures and executives for the centre as well as the units. But in a unitary government there is one legislature and one executive for the whole country.

4. Fourthly, a unitary state is unity while .a Federal state is only a union, not a unity.

5. Fifthly, a federal constitution generally is the outcome of a government by which the constituent units create a new state for common purposes while retaining autonomous powers for themselves. Hence, such a constitution can be altered through a special method of amendment. But the constitution of a unitary government is not the outcome of a treaty. Hence the procedure of amendment is simple.

6. Sixthly, in a unitary government it is not essential that the constitution should be in a written form. British constitution is unwritten. But in a federation it is essential that the constitution should be in a written form. The constitution of U. S. A. and India are written one.

7. Seventhly, in a unitary government there is a single citizenship, whereas in a federation generally there is a double citizenship. In U. S. A. and in Switzerland citizens enjoy double citizenship.

8. Eighthly, in a unitary government the constitution may or may not be rigid. For example the constitution of England is flexible whereas the constitution of Japan is rigid. But in a federation the constitution is rigid.

9. Ninthly, in a unitary government it is not necessary that the judiciary should be supreme and independent. In England judiciary is not supreme, there is supremacy of parliament. But in a federation judiciary is supreme and independent.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand by Unitary Government?
Answer:
Unitary form of government is a system of administration in which all the powers of the state are vested with the central government. The centre sets up administrative units and grants some powers for the convenience of administration. The powers of these units solely depend on the Centre which can reduce or enhance their powers as the circumstances demand. The Central government is fully empowered to alter the boundaries of these units. In short, the very existence of these units is dependent upon the Centre.

Question 2.
Define a Federation.
Answer:
According to Hamilton, “ Federation is an association of States that form new once.” Indian federation has not come into existence by the union of independent States. The federation in India has come into existence by the integration of independent States into the British provinces.

According to Prof. Garner, “Federal Government is a system in which the totality of governmental powers is divided and distributed by the national Constitution or the organic act of Parliament creating it, between central government and the government of the individual States or other territorial sub-division of which the federation is composed.” According to Jellinek, “A federal state is a sovereign state formed out of several states.”

Question 3.
Discuss the main features of the Unitary government.
Answer:
Following are the main features of the unitary form of government:

  • All the powers of the states are concentrated in the hands of the central government.
  • The constitution does not distribute the powers between the central government and the local governments.
  • The local governments are merely the agents of the central government and are subject to its control.
  • The entire state is ruled from one seat of authority.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

Question 4.
What do you mean by Federal type of Government?
Answer:
The word ‘Federation comes from the Latin word ‘Feodus’which means “agreement”. The federal government is a type of agreement by which many states with similar objectives, decide to become the members of a bigger unit. Under federal type of government, all the states that form federation enter into a government.

The first example of this type of federation is of America. These 13 states entered into an agreement after freedom and formed a federation. Under the agreement they granted all matters of national importance to the federal government and retained the local subjects with them. Federation is always formed by independent states. In India, the federation did not come into being as a result of independent states. Federation has been formed by provinces and states and the powers of both have been fully defined.

Question 5.
Describe the merits of Unitary government.
Answer:
Following are the merits of a unitary form of government:

  1. In this type of government the administration is quite strong. The disputes between the Centre and the states rarely arise.
  2. The main advantage of this government is that there is uniformity of administration. Such uniformity enables the government to act quickly and promptly.
  3. The unitary government has the advantage of flexibility. As the constitution is flexible, it can be changed with the change of time.
  4. This type of government is less expensive. The money which is spent on State legislature and executives is saved.

Question 6.
What are the demerits of a unitary government?
Answer:
Following are the demerits of a unitary government:

  • This form of government leads to the creation of despotic state.
  • It is not suitable to a country with a large size and population with different cultural interests.
  • It cannot fulfil the particular needs of a state or a locality.
  • In this type of government the central government becomes overburdened with work and it loses its efficiency.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

Question 7.
What are the essential features of federal type of government?
Answer:

  1. Written Constitution: A written constitution is essential in a federation in the sense that both the centre and the states should be definite about their sphere of action.
  2. Division of Powers: The powers of the government in a federation are distributed between the centre and the states.
  3. Independent Judiciary: The presence of an independent and powerful judiciary is most essential in a federation.
  4. Bi-cameralism: Some people are of the opinion that the legislature in a federation should be bi-cameral.

Question 8.
What is the difference between the Unitary and federal forms of government?
Answer:
1. In unitary form of government, there is one central government for the whole state. But in federation, there are two types of government-central government and the state governments.

2. The constitution may be written or unwritten in unitary form of government, but there is definitely a written form of constitution in a federation.

3. In a unitary form of government, the citizens have single citizenship, but in a federal government, they have dual citizenship. .

4. In Federal Government the powers of the state are distributed between the centre and the state governments. But in unitary form of government they are vested with the centre only.

Question 9.
Mention the merits of a Federation.
Answer:
A federal government has following advantages:

  • A federation develops the spirit of nationalism. It also affords the benefits of the local government.
  • The administration of a federal government is always very efficient. The central government can control the matters of national importance efficiently and the state government can handle the local affairs.
  • In a federation the central government cannot become despotic.
  • This type of government is useful for the big states and the small states as well.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

Question 10.
What are the demerits of Federal Government?
Answer:

  • A federal type of government is weak in the conduct of internal as well as external affairs.
  • The division of powers between the central govt, and the state governments always results in a conflict of legislation and administration between the two governments.
  • It has been observed that in a federation there is always a threat to national unity.
  • There is always a danger of the revolt by the states against the central government.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand by Unitary Government?
Answer:
Unitary form of government is a system of administration in which all the powers of the state are vested with the central government. The centre sets up administrative units and grants some powers for the convenience of administration.

Question 2.
Define a Federation.
Answer:
According to Hamilton, “ Federation is an association of States that form new once.” Indian federation has not come into existence by the union of independent States. * The federation in India has come into existence by the integration of independent States into the British provinces.

Question 3.
Explain the main features of the Unitary government.
Answer:
Following are the main features of the unitary form of government:

  • All the powers of the states are concentrated in the hands of the central government.
  • The constitution does not distribute the powers between the central government and the local governments.

Question 4.
What do you mean by Federal type of Government?
Answer:
The word ‘Federation comes from the Latin word ‘Feodus’ which means “agreement”. The federal government is a type of agreement by which many states with similar objectives, decide to become the members of a bigger unit.. Under federal type of government, all the states that form federation enter into a government.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

Question 5.
Explain the merits of Unitary government.
Answer:
Following are the merits of a unitary form of government:

  • In this type of government the administration is quite strong. The disputes between the Centre and the states rarely arise.
  • The main advantage of this government is that there is uniformity of administration. Such uniformity enables the government to act quickly and promptly.

Question 6.
Discuss the demerits of a unitary government.
Answer:
Following are the demerits of a unitary government:

  • This form of government leads to the creation of despotic state.
  • It is not suitable to a country with a large size and population with different cultural interests.

Question 7.
What are the essential features of federal type of government?
Answer:

  1. Written Constitution: A written constitution is essential in a federation in the sense that both the centre and the states should be definite about their sphere of action.
  2. Division of Powers: The powers of the government in a federation are distributed between the centre and the states.

Question 8.
What is the difference between the Unitary and federal forms of government?
Answer:

  1. In unitary form of government there is one central government for the whole state. But in federation, there are two types of government-central government and the state governments.
  2. The constitution may be written or unwritten in unitary form of government, but there is definitely a written form of constitution in a federation.

Question 9.
Discuss the merits of a Federation.
Answer:
A federal government has following advantages:

  • A federation develops the spirit of nationalism. It also affords the benefits of the local government.
  • The administration of a federal government is always very efficient. The central government can control the matters of national importance efficiently and the state government can handle the local affairs.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

Question 10.
Discuss the demerits of Federal Government.
Answer:

  • A federal type of government is weak in the conduct of internal as well as external affairs.
  • The division of powers between the central govt, and the state governments always results in a conflict of legislation and administration between the two governments.

Question 11.
Write the names of three modern states having federal form of government.
Answer:

  1. U.S.A.
  2. India
  3. Switzerland.

Question 12.
Write the names of four modern states having unitary form of government.
Answer:

  1. U.K.
  2. Japan
  3. China
  4. Bangla Desh.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Mention any one feature of Unitary Government.
Answer:
The Constitution does not divide the powers between the Centre and the States.

Question 2.
Mention any one demerit of Unitary Government.
Answer:
In a Unitary System Central government becomes despotic.

Question 3.
Write down any one merit of Federal Government.
Answer:
The administrator of a federal type of state is always very efficient.

Question 4.
Write down any one demerit of Federal Government.
Answer:
A Federal type of government is weak in the conduct of internal as well as external.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

Fill in the blanks:

1. In a Unitary type of government the administration is quite …………………… .
Answer:
Strong

2. A …………………… Constitution is essential in a federation.
Answer:
Written

3. In a federal type of state the citizens are granted …………………… citizenship.
Answer:
Double.

True or False Statement

1. According to strong, A Unitary state is one organised under a single central govt.
Answer:
True

2. Unitary government is a Expensive government.
Answer:
False

3. The presence of a federal sentiment is very necessary for the successful working.
Answer:
True

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 13 Form of Governments: Unitary and Federal

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Unitary form of government is found in:
(A) U.S.A.
(B) Switzerland
(C) U.K.
(D) India.
Answer:
(C) U.K.

Question 2.
Federal form of government is found in:
(A) India
(B) Japan
(C) U.K.
(D) Nepal.
Answer:
(A) India

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 8 Justice

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 8 Justice Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 Justice

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define the term ‘Justice’. Discuss the fundamental postulates of Justice.
Answer:
‘Justice’ is of utmost importance in Political Science. Its existence is as ancient as human society. Several scholars have defined justice differently in every age.
Meaning and definitions of Justice. The word ‘Justice’ has been derived from Latin word ‘ Jus’ which means, Bond or Tie. It means, Justice is that system where in all individuals are related to each other. In modern Political Science, Justice stands for that state of social life in which personal rights are combined with social welfare. Main definitions of justice are mentioned below :
1. To quote J.S. Mill, “Justice is the name for certain classes of moral values, which concern the essentials of human well-being more clearly and are, therefore, of more absolute obligations, than any other rules for the guidance of life.

2. According to Barker, “Justice is an order of persons and an order of the principles regulating the distribution of rights to persons, which is measured and determined by a final and ultimate value.”

3. According to Salmond, “Justice means to give every individual his due share.”

4. Merriam opines, “Justice consists in a system of understandings and procedures through which is accorded what is agreed upon as fair.”

Merriam’s definition highlights the following four aspects:

  • Justice is concerned with moral values and conceptions of society.
  • Justice is related to procedures also. Law and Courts are set to get justice.
  • The aim of Justice is to arrange rights and conveniences for people.
  • Different classes of society at a time can have different conceptions of rights and conveniences.

On the basis of above-mentioned definitions, we can conclude that Justice is that state in which a man can lead a well-set and disciplined life.

Fundamental Postulates Of Justice:
Arnold Brecht has described the following Fundamental Postulates of Justice-

1. Truth: Truth is the basic postulate of justice. Truth means exact presentation of an incident. Truthfulness of the facts stated in courts is of primary importance.

2. Generality of the Systems of Value: It means that the same conception of justice should be applied to every matter.

3. Equality before Law: All the citizens should be equal before law. The citizens should not be discriminated in the name of caste, colour, creed and sex.

4. Freedom: Justice and freedom are co-related. The Liberals are of the view that man can get justice only in a free atmosphere. Freedom should be restricted for the welfare of society and nation.

5. Respect for the Essentials of Nature: It is against the spirit of justice to compel a man to do some work which is beyond his capacity naturally. For example, to expect an old and ill man to put in physical labour is purely injustice.

These above-mentioned five fundamental postulates are necessary to be followed to get justice at the local, national and international level.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 8 Justice

Question 2.
What are the socio-economic dimensions of Justice ? Explain fully.
Or
What do you understand by the phrase, ‘Justice, Social and Economic’? Indicate five of its major implications.
Answer:
Two forms of Justice- Moral and Legal were prevalent traditionally. But these days Justice has various aspects – legal, political, social and economic. The importance of social and economic justice is increasing day-by-day and both are inter-connected. Social and economic justice is the very basis of present welfare states.

Social Justice:
Social justice is extremely popular in modem age. Innumerable people, all over the world, have adopted Socialism and Marxism only because of social justice. Once Pandit Nehru expressed his view that Marxism is extremely popular not because of its scientific principle but for its readiness for social justice.

According to Gajendra Gadker, “ Social Justice means the abolition of all social inequalities and provision of equal opportunities to all the individuals living in society.” Allen says, “ Social justice means removal of inequalities and discrimination amongst the members of the society.” Thus social justice means that all the people living in society are equal. The people should not be treated discriminately on the basis of caste, religion, colour and sex.

All the people should have equal opportunities to develop their personalities, all should have equal facilities to use public places, religious places and the places of entertainment. The State shouldn’t adopt the policy of untouchability and the interests of the minorities should be. safeguarded.

According to Barker, it is the main objective of society to give opportunity to each individual to develop his inborn talent. So establishment of adequate conditions for all is Social Justice.
Laski is of the view that to provide equal social rights is social justice. Establishment of social justice is the responsibility of the State. Social justice has been strongly emphasised in Indian Constitution and the Government of India has passed general laws to establish Social Justice.

Economic Justice:
Social justice and Economic Justice are intimately related to each other. Aristotle considered economic inequality to be improper. Kautilya suggested that the State would provide means to live to the orphans, helpless and the disabled. The State would organise economic system in such a way as to provide justice to its citizens.

Karl Marx, the expounder of Communism, called Economic Justice to be the basis of social, political and cultural justice. Now-a-days social justice without economic justice is thought to be sheer imagination. M.C. Chagla has rightly commented, freedom is meaningless if it obstructs the realization of economic justice. Social justice has no value for a hungry and unemployed person.

According to Setalvad, “Economic justice is the provision of equal opportunities to the citizens to acquire wealth and use it for their living, it is applied to those persons who are disabled or old or unemployed and therefore not in a position to acquire wealth and should be helped by society to live.”

Important elements of economic justice are mentioned below:

  • The bare necessities of all the citizens should be provided with.
  • Every individual should be given the sources of livelihood. Adequate wages for their work should be given.
  • Under special circumstances citizens have the right to get government aid. The State should protect the old, unemployed and economically infirm.
  • Men and women should get equal wages for equal work.
  • The scholars differ in their views about the control over property and sources of production.

It is the State’s responsibility to establish economic justice. The State aims at eliminating economic inequality. Economic justice is the very foundation of modem state. A just society can’t he established without economic justice. The Government of India is trying its best to maintain economic justice.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 8 Justice

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the term Justice.
Answer:
The word ‘Justice’ has been derived from Latin word ‘Jus’ which means, Bond or Tie. It means, Justice is that system where in all individuals are related to each other. Justice is connected with the fact as to what type of moral, social, economic, political and legal relations an individual has with the other individual. In Modern Political Science, Justice stands for that state of social life in which personal rights are combined with social welfare.

  1. According to Salmond, “Justice means to give every individual his due share.”
  2. Merriam opines, “Justice consists in a system of understanding and procedures through which is accorded what is agreed upon as fair.”

Question 2.
Distinguish between legal and moral justice.
Answer:
The difference between legal justice and moral justice is as follows:
1. Legal justice deals with Principles and procedures as laid down by the system of law prevailing in a state whereas moral justice deals with what is right and what is Wrong. What are our rights and what are our duties as human beings.

2. The coercion power of state works behind legal justice whereas the strength of morality is behind moral justice.

3. The scope of legal justice is limited than moral justice.

4. Legal codes are defined and fixed but this is not so with moral justice.

Question 3.
Discuss the meaning and importance of Social Justice.
Answer:
Meaning of Social Justice:
Social Justice means that all the people living in a society are equal. Social Justice implies that there should not be any discrimination among citizens from social point of view. No discrimination should be made on the basis of religion, caste, colour, sex, etc. All the people should have equal opportunities to develop their personalities.

Importance of Social Justice:
The importance of social justice is increasing day-by-day in a modern democratic state. Social justice is the very basis of present Welfare state. Once Pandit Nehru expressed his view that Marxism is extremely popular not because of its scientific principles but for its readiness for social justice. Social justice is very essential for the maintenance of social harmony and peace in the society. To make democracy a success, social justice is essential.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 8 Justice

Question 4.
What do you mean by Social Justice? Do you agree that majority of the people are denied social justice in India?
Answer:
Meaning of Social Justice:
Social Justice means that all the people living in a society are equal. Social Justice implies that there should not be any discrimination among citizens from social point of view. No discrimination should be made on the basis of religion, caste, colour, sex, etc. All the people should have equal opportunities to develop their personalities.

Majority of the People are denied Social Justice in India:
Though the makers of the Indian constitution have made a provision for social justice through Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy, yet majority of the people are being denied social justice in India. The citizens enjoy right to equality which is the very basis of the social justice, but in practice economic equality does not exist which is the pre-condition for social and political equality.

Though Article-17 had abolished untouchability yet in practice untouchability is followed in many parts of the country. Poor people are not getting social justice and more than thirty per cent of the people are living below poverty line. Children, women and weaker sections of the society are still exploited and they do not enjoy social justice.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 8 Justice

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the term Justice.
Answer:
The word ‘Justice’ has been derived from Latin word ‘Jus’ which means, Bond or Tie. It means, Justice is that system where in all individuals are related to each other. In Modem Political Science, Justice stands for that state of social life in which personal rights are combined with social welfare.

Question 2.
Define Justice.
Answer:

  1. According to Salmond, “Justice means to give every individual his due share.”
  2. Merriam opines, “Justice consists in a system of understanding and procedures through which is accorded what is agreed upon as fair.”

Question 3.
Discuss the meaning of Social Justice.
Answer:
Social Justice means that all the people living in a society are equal. Social Justice implies that there should not be any discrimination among citizens from social point of view. No discrimination should be made on the basis of religion, caste, colour, sex, etc. All the people should have equal opportunities to develop their personalities.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 8 Justice

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
From which language has the word ‘Justice’ been derived?
Answer:
The English word ‘Justice’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘Jus’.

Question 2.
Write down the meaning of Justice.
Answer:
The Enghsh word Justice means a Bond or tie.

Question 3.
Give a definition of Justice.
Answer:
According to D.D. Raphael,“Justice protects the rights of the individual as well as the order of society.”

Question 4.
Write down the definition of Justice given by Salmond.
Answer:
According to Salmond,“Justice means to provide everybody his share.”

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 8 Justice

Question 5.
Mention two basic postulates of Justice.
Answer:

  1. Truth
  2. Liberty.

Question 6.
Mention any two dimensions or forms of Justice.
Answer:

  1. Legal Dimension of Justice.
  2. Social Dimension of Justice.

Question 7.
What is the meaning of Political Justice?
Answer:
Political Justice means that every individual, without any discrimination, should have the right to participate in the governance of the state.

Question 8.
Write down any two means to get political justice.
Answer:

  1. Democratic System
  2. Political Rights.

Question 9.
What is meant by Social Justice?
Answer:
Social Justice means that all individuals living in a society are equal and there should be no discrimination in their mutual relations.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 8 Justice

Question 10.
What is the meaning of Economic Justice?
Answer:
There should be a proper division of the material means of the country. They should be used for the benefit of more and more people. They should serve the interest of maximum people.

Question 11.
What is Legal Justice?
Answer:
Legal Justice is concerned with the principle and process established by law in a state.

Fill in the blanks

1. Justice is that state in which a ……………… can lead a well-set and disciplined life.
Answer:
Man

2. The word justice has been derived from ……………… word.
Answer:
Latin

3. According to ……………… “justice means to give every individual his due share.”
Answer:
Salmond

4. Truth is the basic postulate of ……………… .
Answer:
Justice

5. All citizens should equal before ……………… .
Answer:
Law.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 8 Justice

True or False statement

1. Justice and freedom are co-related.
Answer:
True

2. Social justice is extremely popular in modem age.
Answer:
True

3. Social justice -and Economic justice are not related to each other.
Answer:
False.

4. Men and women should get equal wages for equal work.
Answer:
True

5. It is not the state responsbility to establish economic justice.
Answer:
False.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 8 Justice

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Justice require:
(A) Committed judiciary
(B) Fearful judges
(C) Independent judiciary
(D) Dishonest judges.
Answer:
(C) Independent judiciary

Question 2.
People get proper justice in:
(A) Dictatorship
(B) Totalitarian state
(C) Monarchy
(D) Democracy.
Answer:
(D) Democracy.

Question 3.
Which one of the following Is not the fundamental postulate of justice:
(A) Truth
(B) Equality before law
(C) Freedom
(D) Property.
Answer:
(D) Property.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 8 Justice

Question 4.
Justice la administered by:
(A) Executive
(B) Judiciary
(C) Legislature
(D) Political Parties
Answer:
(B) Judiciary

Question 5.
Justice Is essentially a:
(A) Legäl concept
(B) Moral concept
(C) Socia) concept
(D) All of the Above.
Answer:
(D) All of the Above.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Equality? Discuss its important kinds.
Answer:
Like liberty equality also has its importance for the individual. Both liberty and equality are very closely related to each other. There can be no liberty in the absence of equality. From the very beginning the individuals have tried to attain the right to equality. In ancient times the system of slavery was considered natural and it is quite clear from this thing that the individuals were not considered equal and they were not entitled to all the rights.

There were many struggles for the attainment of the right to equality. In the American Declaration of Independence (1776) it was declared that all the individuals are equal. In the French Declaration of Rights it was said that “Men are born and, always continue, free and equal in respect of their rights.” In the 19th and 20th centuries almost all the States recognized the right to equality. Russian constitution declared all individuals as equal and gave equal rights to all the citizens. In India also the right to equality is an important part of fundamental rights.

Meaning Of Equality:
Equality does not mean that all persons may be treated equal in all respects. Nor does equality imply that all persons should be given identical treatment irrespective of their capacity and temperament. Equality also does not mean ‘the identity of reward’ for efforts that are undesirable. The popular meaning of equality is that all men are equal, that all should get equal incomes and equal treatment. But this is a misconception of the principle of equality.

All men are never equal. Nature has endowed different men with different capacities. One individual is bom with the genius of the poet, another with that of the musician, a third with that of an engineer. The vast majority do not possess special aptitude of any kind. Men are not bom equal. In the words of Elton Trueblood, “Physically some men are three or four times as strong as others, able to perform many times as much work.

Intellectually the contrast is still greater, as may be realised when we compare an average person with a man like Sir Winston Churchill If intellectual in equality is more marked than physical inequality, moral inequality is still more so. The contrast between self-centred and cruel persons on the one hand, and the saints and heroes on the other, is really incalculable.”

All that is necessary to ensure the principle of equality is that special privileges of all kinds should be abolished. The State should grant equal civil and political rights to all people, making no discrimination on the ground of race, colour or income. All persons should be regarded as equal before the eyes of law.

Like liberty, equality has also a positive connotation. Not only all special privileges should be abolished, but all men should be given adequate opportunities to develop their abilities. This does not mean that all should get equal opportunities or that the State should make equal arrangements for everybody. All that is necessary to ensure equality is that the State should provide suitable opportunities for everybody.

If a citizen feels that he has the making of a good doctor in him, nothing stands in the way of his joining a good medical institution. He should be enabled to develop his abilities with the help of the State. The principle of equality is satisfied when the State provides its citizens with adequate opportunities for developing their abilities.

Thus there should be adequate and suitable facilities in the State for everyone to develop his own genius. The State should pass such laws that everyone in the State should be given full chances of development. The State should actively promote the welfare of all citizens.

Definitions of Equality:

  1. According to Laski, “Whatever rights inhere in another by virtue of his being a citizen must inhere and to the same extent in me also.”
  2. According to Barker, “The principle of equality accordingly means that whatever conditions are guaranteed to me in the form of rights shall also and in the same measure be guaranteed to others and that whatever rights are given to others shall also be given to me.”
  3. According to Laski, “Equality means, first of all the absence of special privileges and in the second place it means that adequate opportunities are laid upon to all.”

Characteristics of Equality:
On the basis of the above-mentioned facts we come to know about the following features of equality:
1. Absence of Special Privileges:
An important feature of equality is that no individual or section of people is given special privileges in society. Nobody is given special privileges on the basis of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood. All the members of the State and society should get equal opportunities on equal basis. The principle of equality cannot enjoy special privileges.

2. Provision for Adequate Opportunities of Development:
Equality means that every man in the State should get adequate opportunities for realizing his best self. Nature has not made all men equal. But it is not proper for the State to follow the law of Nature. On the other hand, the State through its laws should not increase this natural inequality. Rather it should pass such laws that no one in the State should be denied the opportunity of developing his own genius.

No one can be deprived of the opportunity to make progress on the basis of caste colour, creed and religion. The right to vote and the right to be elected should be given to all equally so that everybody gets the chance to participate in the administration, merit should be the main criterion to enter government service. Evferybody should be governed by the same law of the land and all should be equal in the eyes of law.

3. Provision for Minimum Standard of Living for every Individual:
Another important feature of equality is that all the basic needs of every individual should be satisfied in the society. The things without which life is meaningless must be accessible to all. “The urgent claims of all must be met before we can meet the particular claims of some.”

All the individuals in society cannot have the same amount of income. Every individual earns money according to his capacity and ability but everyone should have reasonable income so that he can make his both ends meet. Nobody should die of starvation. There should not exist gross inequalities of wealth among the members of society.

Kinds Of Equality:
Equality can be classified under the following heads:

  • Natural Equality.
  • Social Equality.
  • Civil Equality.
  • Economic Equality.
  • Political Equality.
  • National Equality.

1. Natural Equality:
Natural Equality has been explained differently by different writers. Some thinkers hold the opinion that Nature has created all the people equal and all persons should be given identical treatment irrespective of then- capacity and temperament. But the fact is that the Nature has not created all people equal.

People differ in colour, health, temperament and ability. Nature has not willed that all men should be equal. On the other hand, they are endowed with unequal abilities from their very birth. Natural equality may mean that all the individuals are basically equal and they should be treated equally. No individual can be sacrificed at the cost of the development of personality of another individual.

2. Social Equality:
Social equality implies that no distinction is made in the social status of the people on the ground of their riches, race, colour, religion, sex, class or caste. It implies that all members of the society are equal and no man is recognised as socially superior or inferior to other member of the community.

It also means that all persons should be treated as equal regardless of wealth, colour, caste and creed. If the society is divided into different castes or classes, that shows absence of social equality<197>that an untouchable should hold the same status in society as a Brahmin and a lord should not be considered superior to an ordinary citizen. But unfortunately that is not so in any State of the world except perhaps in Russia and that to a very limited extent. It will be nice if the sense of social inequality is uprooted and men are considered socially equal.

3. Civil Equality:
Civil equality means that everyone in the State enjoys the same status in the sphere of private law. It also sometimes implies the rule of law: It means that no person in the State should enjoy any special privileges. Fair justice is not possible in the absence of civil equality. This means that civil rights and liberties are enjoyed equally by all citizens irrespective of creed, colour and caste.

4. Economic Equality:
The aim of economic equality is to make all individuals equal in respect of wealth and income. This is the socialist idea.

Laski defines economic equality in a limited sense as consisting in equal opportunities for everyone to develop his natural faculties and power. Bryce considers that economic equality should not be an idea of democracy which is only a form of Government and should not disturb the foundations of social and economic order.

Nevertheless it should be the aim of democracy to reduce great inequalities in wealth. The concentration of property in the hands of a few is fatal to the purposes of the State and the socialist is right in his insistence that either the State must dominate property or property will dominate the State.

A very poor or starving man, having no economic opportunities has absolutely no use for the concept of equality. Therefore, economic equality has to be. given an important place in a State. Economic equality can exist, when all people have reasonable economic opportunities to develop themselves. Adequate scope for employment, reasonable wages, adequate leisure and other economic rights create economic equality.

5. Political Equality:
Political equality means that all the citizens should be treated equally in political sphere. According to Laski, by political equality is meant equal access of everyone to the avenue of authority. All the citizens should get equal political rights.

Every citizen should get the right to vote, right to contest elections, right to get Government job, right to criticise the Government and the right to address petitions and nobody should be discriminated against on the basis of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood. Certain qualifications can be laid down for getting the right to vote but these conditions should not be laid down on the basis of caste, colour, creed and religion.

6. National Equality:
National equality means that all nations of the world are equal while dealing with other nations of the world.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds

Question 2.
Discuss the relationship between Equality and Liberty.
Or
‘Liberty is meaningless without equality.’ Do you agree with this view? Give reasons for your answer.
Or
‘The passion for equality has made vain the hope of liberty.’ Do you agree with this view?
Or
Are Liberty and Equality opposed to each other? Discuss.
Or
Why do you think equality is a pre-condition of enjoying liberty in a democratic set-up? Comment.
Answer:
Both Liberty and Equality are the two basic principles of democracy. Since time immemorial people have struggled hard to attain them. Human life cannot develop fully without the attainment of liberty and equality. Now-a-days almost in all the States the citizens enjoy the right to liberty and equality.

Relation between Liberty and Equality:
Political thinkers differ among themselves on the exact relationship between liberty and equality. Some thinkers are of the opinion that the concept of equality is only a Utopia and not a reality. They say that both liberty and equality are opposed to each other and they are complementary terms. Both liberty and equality cannot go together. There are thinkers also who say that liberty and equality are closely related to each other and one cannot exist without the other. Liberty in the absence of equality is meaningless.

Liberty and Equality are opposed to each other:
There is a viewpoint that both liberty and equality are opposed to each other and they cannot go side by side. The main advocates of this viewpoint are De Tocqueville and Lord Acton. According to Lord Acton, “The passion for equality has made vain the hope for liberty.”

Equality curtails individual liberty. If everybody is considered equal in the eyes of law and equality is established in economic sphere then everybody’s liberty will be curtailed. Nobody will have the liberty to earn money according to his own sweet will. If equality is established then the intelligent and hard-working people will riot be able to develop their personality to the full. These thinkers say that liberty and equality are opposed to each other on the following grounds.

1. Natural Inequality:
People are of the opinion that Nature has not created all the people equal. Nature has created all the people unequal and all of them do not possess the same qualities. From their very birth some people are intelligent, some are fools, some are weak some are strong, some are active and others are lazy. Therefore, all these people cannot be considered equal. If all these people are treated equally, it will be unjust and irrational.

2. One Destroys the Other:
On the basis of the principles of individualism some people consider that both these concepts are opposed to each other. The individualists say that the individual should be left alone in the economic sphere and there should be free trade and competition. This will greatly help in the development of individual personality and the individual will live in a free atmosphere.

If the State establishes economic equalty then intelligent and hard-working people will not be able to make the best use of ability and capacity. If the individuals are left to themselves every individual will earn money according to themselves every individual will earn money according to his ability and capacity. It will result in gross inequalties of wealth and hence the end of equality. If the Government controls production and fixes the wages of the labourers* it will also result in the curtailment of liberty and the difference between the capable and incapable will come to an end.

3. Checks the Progress:
It is great injustice to treat the capable and incapable, the intelligent and the fool equally. This neither enhances the liberty of the people, nor it helps in the promotion of public welfare. The labourers, doctors, engineers, scholars, scientists, traders and artists, all cannot be treated on equal footing. This way equality is such a concept which is far away from reality.

Liberty and Equality are not opposed to each other. Most of the thinkers do not accept the viewpoint that liberty and equality are opposed to each other. In the modern age nobody would like to accept this viewpoint. Now-a-days the viewpoint that liberty and equality are closely related to each other is accepted at all hands. It is said that liberty in the absence of equality is meaningless.

Prof. Laski, Prof, Towny, Pollard and Maclver are the thinkers who support this viewpoint. According to Prof. Towny, “A large measure of equality, so far from being inimical to liberty is essential to it.” According to Pollard, “There is only one solution of problem of liberty. It lies in equality.”

Those who think that liberty and equality are opposed to each other misunderstand the meaning of these words. If liberty means unrestricted and unrestrained liberty and equality means equal wages and equal work then these people are right. But liberty does not mean unrestricted and absolute liberty. Nobody can be allowed to do things arbitrarily while living in society. Certain restrictions will certainly be imposed on the actions of every individual.

These restrictions should, of course, be reasonable, just and logical. The imposition of reasonable and moral restrictions instead of unjust and immoral restrictions on the actions of man is called liberty. The aim of liberty is to create comfortable atmos¬phere which can be conducive to the development of individual personality.

The people also misunderstand the meaning of equality. Equality does not mean that all the people are bom equal and all are entitled to get equal wages and equal work. This is not the real meaning of equality. All the people are not bom equal and, therefore, they are not entitled to get equal income and equal work.

Equality means that nobody should enjoy special privileges in the State and everybody should be entitled to get equal opportunities in life. Equality means reasonable distribution of wealth and not equal distribution of wealth among the members of the society.

Thus equality instead of being opposed to liberty is an essential condition of it. It is only when equal opportunities are provided to all that a man can be really free to develop his personality and powers according to his choice. In a society where social privileges and differences in income are the rule, there can be hardly any liberty for those placed in a position of inferiority.

Thus properly understood the two terms are not opposed to each other but rather complementary to each other. Laski rightly says, “De Tocquevile and Lord Acton misunderstood the meaning of the term equality They wrongly thought that equality means the identity of treatment of all or identity of reward of all and, therefore, it is incompatible with liberty, which means freedom for everybody to develop his or her personality according to his or her nature.”

According to Prof. Ashrivatham, “The French Revolutionists were neither mad nor stupid when they made their way cry Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.”

Conclusion:
It is quite clear from the above discussion that both liberty and equality go together. They are not opposed to each other. One cannot be had without the other. Both are consistent and the progress of man is impossible till he can enjoy political liberty and economic equality. Both of them are compatible and complimentary. They must be enjoyed together to bring about maximum individual and social welfare. Both must exist side by side and in the absence of one we cannot have the other.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is implied by the term ‘Equality’?
Or
Give the meaning of Equality. .
Answer:
Equality does not mean that all persons may be treated euqal in all respects. Equality stands for the absence or removal of special privileges available to some and denied to others. The state should grant equal civil and political rights to all people, making no discrimination on the grounds of race, colour or income. All persons should be regarded as equal before the eyes of law. Equality also means that all men should be given adequate opportunities to develop their abilities. The state should provide suitable opportunities for everyone to develop his own genius.

Question 2.
Define Equality.
Answer:
Some of the important definitions of equality are as under:
According to Barker, “The principle of equality accordingly means that whatever conditions are guaranteed to me, in the form of rights, shall also, and in the same measure be guaranteed to me and that whatever rights are given to others shall also be given to me.” .

Accroding to Prof. Laski, “Undoubtedly, it implies fundamentally a certain levelling process. It means that no man shall be so placed in society that he can over-reach his neighbour to the extent which constitutes a denial of the latter’s citizenship”.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds

Question 3.
What do you understand by equal opportunities for all?
Answer:
Equality means that every man in the state should get equal and adequate opportunities for realizing his best self. The state should pass such laws that no one in the state should be denied the opportunity of developing his own geinius. No one should be deprived of the opportunity to make progress on the basis of caste, colour, creed and religion. Everybody should be governed by the same law of the land and all should be equal in the eyes of law.

Question 4.
What is the meaning of Economic Equality?
Answer:
Properly understood economic equality implies the elimination of excessive inequalities of material resources. Economic Equality does not mean that everybody should have equal income. But it does mean that every citizen should enjoy equal opportunities for earnining his livelihood. All the citizens should have the means to meet their needs. Economic equality also implies the absence of exploitation of man by man or of one class by another.’

Question 5.
What is Political Equality?
Answer:
Political Equality means that all the citizens should be treated equally in political sphere. According to Laski, by political equality is meant equal access of everyone to the avenue of authority. All the citizens should get equal political rights. Every citizen should get the right to vote, right to contest election, right to get government job, rigtht to criticise the Government and right to address petitions.

Nobody should be discriminated against on the basis of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood. Certain qualifications can be laid down for getting the right to vote but these conditions should not be laid down on the basis of caste, colour, creed and religion.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds

Question 6.
Explain four types of Equality.
Answer:
Four types of Equality are as follows:

  1. Civil Equality: Civil Equality means that every one in the state enjoys the same status in the sphere of private law.
  2. Social Equality: Social equality means that no distinction is made in the social status of the people on the ground of their riches, race class or caste.
  3. Political Equality: Political equality means that all the citizens should be treated equally in political sphere.
  4. Economic Equality: Economic equality means that there should be minimum inequality in the society and everyone should have equal opportunities to develop his natural faculties and power.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the meaning of Equality.
Answer:
Equality does not mean that all persons may be treated euqal in all respects. Equality stands for the absence or removal of special privileges available to some and denied to others. The state should grant equal civil and political rights to all people, making no discrimination on the grounds- of race, colour or income.

Question 2.
What is the meaning of Economie Equality?
Answer:
Properly understood economic equality implies the elimination of excessive inequalities of material resources. Every citizen should enjoy equal opportunities for eamining his livelihood. All the citizens should have the means to meet their needs.

Question 3.
What do you understand by Political equality?
Answer:
Political Equality means that all the citizens should be treated equally in political sphere. Every citizen should get the right to vote, right to contest election, right to get government job, rigtht to criticise the Government and right to address petitions. Nobody should be discriminated against on the basis of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds

Question 4.
Mention any two kinds of Equality.
Answer:

  1. Social Equality: Social equality implies that no distinction is made in the social status of the people on the ground of race, class, caste, sex, religion etc.
  2. Economic Equality: Economic equality can exist when all people have reasonable economic opportunities to develop themselves.

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by Equality ?
Answer:
Every individualmust get equal facilities so that he may grow and develop in accordance with his ability.

Question 2.
Write down any one definition of Equality.
Answer:
According to Laski,“Equality means first of all the absence of special privileges. In the second place, it means that adequate opportunities are laid open to all.”

Question 3.
Mention any one feature of Equality.
Answer:
The main feature of equality is that no individual or class enjoys special rights.

Question 4.
Describe different kinds of Equality.
Answer:

  • Natural Equality
  • Civil Equality
  • Social Equality
  • Political Equality
  • Economic Equality.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds

Question 5.
What is the meaning of Natural Equality?
Answer:
Natural Equality means that nature has made all individuals equal. So all the individuals should be equally treated.

Question 6.
What is Civil Equality?
Answer:
Civil Equality means that all individuals should get equal rights. In other words, all men are equal before law.

Question 7.
What is meant by Social Equality?
Answer:
Social equality means that all individuals should be considered equal. They should not be discriminated on the basis of religion, caste, colour, sex and money.

Question 8.
What is meant by Political Equality?
Answer:
Political Equality means that all citizens, without any discrimination, should have the right to vote, to be elected, to petition and to hold any public office.

Question 9.
What is the meaning of Economic Equality?
Answer:
Economic inequality should be minimum in society. Every individual must get salary sufficient enough to fulfil his basic needs.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds

Question 10.
Liberty and Equality are opposed to each other. Discuss.
Answer:
Because of an open competition in the economic field, the rich will become more rich. It will increase economic inequality.

Question 11.
Liberty and Equality are not opposed to each other. Elucidate.
Answer:
The objective of both Liberty and Equality is the same. It is to provide facilities for the development of individual so that every individual may develop his personality.

Fill in the blanks

1. Justice is that state in which a ……………… can lead a well-set and disciplined life.
Answer:
Man

2. The word justice has been derived from ……………… word.
Answer:
Latin

3. According to ……………… “justice means to give every individual his due share.”
Answer:
Salmond

4. Truth is the basic postulate of ……………… .
Answer:
Justice

5. All citizens should equal before ……………… .
Answer:
Law.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds

True or False statement

1. Justice and freedom are co-related.
Answer:
True

2. Social justice is extremely popular in modem age.
Answer:
True

3. Social justice -and Economic justice are not related to each other.
Answer:
False.

4. Men and women should get equal wages for equal work.
Answer:
True

5. It is not the state responsbility to establish economic justice.
Answer:
False.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Justice require:
(A) Committed judiciary
(B) Fearful judges
(C) Independent judiciary
(D) Dishonest judges.
Answer:
(C) Independent judiciary

Question 2.
People get proper justice in:
(A) Dictatorship
(B) Totalitarian state
(C) Monarchy
(D) Democracy.
Answer:
(D) Democracy.

Question 3.
Which one of the following Is not the fundamental postulate of justice:
(A) Truth
(B) Equality before law
(C) Freedom
(D) Property.
Answer:
(D) Property.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds

Question 4.
Justice la administered by:
(A) Executive
(B) Judiciary
(C) Legislature
(D) Political Parties
Answer:
(B) Judiciary

Question 5.
Justice Is essentially a:
(A) Legäl concept
(B) Moral concept
(C) Socia) concept
(D) All of the Above.
Answer:
(D) All of the Above.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 10 State and Government

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 10 State and Government Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 10 State and Government

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Bring out the distinction between the state and the government.
Answer:
State is the main subject of Political Science. Without state development of personality of the individual is not possible. State is a community of persons, permanently occupying a definite territory, having a government which is sovereign in internal and external matters. There are four essential elements population, definite territory, government and sovereignty. Without these four elements there can be no state.
Government is one of the elements of the states. State does not perform any functions. Its functions are performed by the government. The government performs this function by framing laws. According to Garner “Government is the collective name for the agency magistracy or organisation through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and realised.” We in our daily life use the word state for government and government for i state. But distinction exists between state and government.

Distinction between State and Government:
In ancient times no distinction was made between state and government. King of France, Louis XIV used to say, ‘I am the state.’ He could claim that he was the government as he was the absolute monarch and all governmental authority was vested in him. But he could not claim himself to be the state as the state is altogether a different concept.

Similarly Stuart King of England tried to prove their absolutism never made a distinction between state and government. Even Hobbes has not made any distinction between state and government. Locke was the first writer who made a distinction between state and government. But even today masses do not consider any distinction between the two. Laski has pointed out that “the state is for the purposes of practical administration, the government.”

Following are the distinctions between State and Government : s 1. Government is a Part of State. Government is a part of the state and not itself a state. There are four elements of the state-population, fixed territory, government and sovereignty. Government is only one of the . elements which constitute the i state. No doubt without government there can be no state but government itself cannot be a state.

2. Government is the Agent of the State:
Government is the agent of the state. Just as it is the function of the’agent to carry out the will of the owners of his company, similarly aim of the government is to fulfil the wishes of the state. According to Laski, “It exists to carry out the purpose of the state. . It is not itself the supreme coercive power. It is simply the mechanism of administration which gives effect to the purposes of that power.

3. State is Abstract, Government is Concrete:
State is an idea. It has no form. It can be imagined only but we cannot see the abstract state. We can see the population and territory but not the state. But on the other hand government is a concrete institution. For example, we can think of Indian state but we cannot see it whereas we can see Indian government.

4. Membership of the State is compulsory, but not of Government:
Membership of the state is compulsory. Every citizen must be the member of one or the other state but every person cannot be the member of a government even if he so desires. The membership of a state is not voluntary. A man becomes a citizen of that state where he is bom, he cannot refuse to become a citizen of that state.

But every man is not a member of the Government and its membership is also not compulsory. To become a member of a government depends upon the will of the individual. To be a member of the government one must possess certain necessary qualifications and the persons fulfilling those alone can become the members of the government. The individual can leave the membership of the government at any time but no citizen can leave the membership of the state when he so likes.

5. Territory is essential for State, but not for Government:
Fixed territory is an essential element of the state. Without definite territory there can be no state. But definite territory is not essential for the government. Government is an institution which can be established in a closed room. During Second World War when Germany conquered many European countries then the governments of these countries were run in other countries. For example, government of France was run from England. But there cannot be a state without a definite territory.

6. State possesses Sovereignty but government does not posssess the same:
Sovereignty is an essential element of the state. Without sovereignty there can be no state. Before 1947 India was under the British empire and hence India was not a state. But sovereignty is not with the government. The powers enjoyed by the government are conferred upon it by the state. Powers of the state are unlimited whereas powers of the government are limited. Generally government derives its powers from the constitution, just in India. If government exercises its power in a corrupt manner, it can be changed.

7. State is peramanent, government is temporary:
State is permanent, though it is not immortal. A state remains state so long as it has four essential elements— population, definite territory, government and sovereignty. State ends when it loses sovereignty. But after gaining sovereignty it becomes state again. When Hitler conquered Austria, Poland etc. they did not remain states but after the war when they gained sovereignty they became states. But government is changeable.

Governments come and go but states continue for ever. If today, in one state there is monarchy, tomorrow there can be a democratic government. Before March, 1977, in India there was a Congress government but in the general election Congress Was defeated and Janata Party came into power but in the general election of 1980, Congress (I) gained a thumping majority in the Parliament.

8. Government does not include the whole population of the state:
Population is an essential element of the state. All the persons living within a territory of a state are included in the population of a state. But in the government only those persons are included who are working in different organs of the government, e.g., members of the parliament, members of the executive and judges of the judiciary etc. In other words in the population of the government only those persons are included who are drawing salary from the treasury.

9. State without government is impossible but government without state is possible:
Government is an essential attribute of the state and without government there can be no state. But it is not essential that there must be a state for the existence of a government. A government may exist without a state. During Second World War government of France was in England but there was no France state as France was conquered by Hitler.

10. Difference of Nature:
State is a result of growth. It is a natural institution. But government is an artificial institution which is formed by men. Thus from nature point of view state is natural whereas government is artificial.

11. States are the same everywhere, but Governments are different:
All states are essentially alike. Every large or small state has the same four elements-population, definite territory, Government and sovereignty. India, Pakistan, Japan, England, America, Russia, China etc., are having these four elements. But there are various forms of governments. Forms of government vary from state to state and from time to time. In India, Japan, England, Bangladesh etc. there is a parliamentary government but in U.S.A., there is a presidential government. In Communist China, Vietnam, Cuba, North Korea etc. there is a dictatorship of the Communist Party.

12. People can resist the Government, not the State:
People cannot oppose the state because whole population is included in the state. How can the population oppose themselves? Will of the state is expressed through government. All functions of the state are performed by the government. If a government does not work for the welfare of the people and enact such laws which are not in the interests of the masses, then masses have a right to oppose such a government and even government can be changed by peaceful or revolutionary methods.

Conclusion:
On the basis of above discussion we can say that differences exist between state and government. American Supreme Court has made a distinction between state and government in one of its decisions : “The state itself is an ideal personal, intangible, invisible, immutable. The government is an agent and within the spare of the agency a perfect representative, but outside of that it is lawless usurpation.” But state and government cannot exist without each other.

Both are different entities and though everything is done in the name of the state yet it is done by the government. According to Laski, “All institutions act through persons, the power they exercise cannot operate in any other fashion. The state, therefore, needs a body of men who operate in its name, supreme coercive authority which it disposes and this body of men is what we term the government of the state.”

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 10 State and Government

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by Government?
Answer:
There are four essential elements of a state-population, definite territory, government and sovereignty. Without these four elements there can be no state.

Government is one of the elements of the state. State does not perform any functions. Its functions are performed by the government. The government formulates and expresses the will of the state. The government performs this function by framing laws. According to Garner, “ Government is the collective name for the agency magistracy or organisation through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and realised.”

Question 2.
Distinguish between state and government.
Answer:

  • Government is a part of the state and not itself a state.
  • Membership of the state is compulsory, but not of government.
  • Fixed territory is an essestial element of the state. But definite territory is not essestial for the government.
  • State possesses sovereignty but government does not possess the same.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 10 State and Government

Question 1.
What do you mean by Government?
Answer:
Government is one of the elements of the state. State does not perform any functions. Its functions are performed by the government. The government formulates and expresses the will of the state. The government performs this function by framing laws.

Question 2.
Distinguish between state and government.
Answer:

  • Government is a part of the state and not itself a state.
  • Membership of the state is compulsory, but not of government.

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define the term Government.
Answer:
According to Garner- “Government is the collective name for the agency magistracy or organisation through which the will of the state is formulated expressed and realised.”

Question 2.
Mention any one difference between state and Government.
Answer:
Territory is essential for State, but not for Government.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 10 State and Government

Fill in the blanks

1. Government is one of the elements of the
Answer:
State

2. King of France used to say , “I am the state.”
Answer:
Louis XIV

3. State is but Government is concrete.
Answer:
Abstract.

True or False Statement

1. The government formulates and expresses the will of the state.
Answer:
True.

2. State is a part of Government.
Answer:
False

3. State is parmanent, but Government is temporary.
Answer:
True.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 10 State and Government

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
What is the difference between state and government?
(A) State is more comprehensive than Government
(B) Government is an agent of the state
(C) State is abstract, Government is concrete
(D) All of the Above.
Answer:
(D) All of the Above.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define Society. Explain the characteristics of Society.
Answer:
Man is by nature a social animal and he cannot live without a society. A man who does not five in a society is either a beast or a God.
Meaning and Definitions of Society:
Whenever a number of people unite together to carry out some definite purpose, they make a society. It is the most general form of human organization. But it is to be noted that the individuals who wander aimlessly in the street or gather in a picture-house without any common purpose among them do not constitute a society. In simple words common purpose and interest is the basis for the formation of any society.

Different writers have given different definitions of society:

  1. According to Dr. Jenks, “The term society means harmonious or at least peaceful relationship.”
  2. According to Ginsberg, “A society is the collection of individuals united by certain relation of modes of behaviour which mark them from others, who do not enter into those relations or who differ from them in behaviour.”
  3. According to Maclver, “Society includes every willed relationship of man to man.”
  4. According to Summer and Keller, “Society is a group of human beings living in co¬operative efforts to win subsistance and perpetuate the species.”
  5. According to Wright, “It is not a group of people, it is the system or relationship that exists between individuals or groups.”
  6. According to Giddings, “Society is a group of individuals cooperating for the achievement of any objective of common interest or utility.”
  7. According to G.D.H. Cole, “Society is the complex of associations and institutions within the community.”
  8. According to Leacock, “Society suggests not political relations by which men are bound together, but the whole range of human relations and collective activities.”

On the basis of above definitions we may define society as a group of people, large or small, who are combined together for the achievement of some definite aim or common purpose or plan with common effort. For instance there exist many societies like the Royal Asiatic Society, the Scientific Society and the Historical Society etc. for the welfare of the people.

The society may be local like a cricket club or may be national like national trade union or even it may be international like Red Cross Society which maintains its branches in every part of the world. In the ancient times societies existed in a very simple form because the desires of the people were limited and few.

But, the modem society is complex in nature because of increased desires as a result of advancement of culture and civilization. Thus many associations and organizations may exist in one wide society. Hence in the true sense, society is an assemblage of such associations through which men develop their physical, mental and spiritual qualities for human welfare.

Characteristics Of Society:
1. A Group of Persons:
Society is a group of persons living and working together in a spirit of peace and harmony for the satisfaction of their common wants and the promotion of their common good. It is a group of human beings living together and working together to achieve a common purpose for a common good, through their joint efforts.

2. Common Aims:
Persons living in a society have common interests and common wants for the attainment of which they work together and live together. Societies as Aristotle said were formed for the sake of good life. But they are maintained afterwards for the sake of good life. Thus the aim of society is to promote the good life of the members. Common needs and common interests of the members of the society give them common activities which serve as a bond of unity among the members of society. Unity gives strength and solidarity to the group.

3. Mutual Cooperation:
The individual is dependent on the society for the various needs. His ideas and actions are coloured by the society in which he lives. He is what the society makes him. As life becomes more complex, the necessity of living in society grows more urgent. From the early childhood to full grown manhood, the individual needs society at every stage of his life. He cannot satisfy his material needs for food or shelter without the co-operation of others. He cannot solve the problem of security of protection by his isolated efforts. Hence a good and happy life is possible only through co-operation.

4. Voluntary Membership:
The membership of a state is compulsory while that of a society is voluntary. An individual may become the member of a society or may not or he may become the member of the more than one society. State and family are two natural associations of which an individual must be a member. But once he accepts the membership of a society he must abide by the rules and regulations of that society. .

5. Equality among Members of the Group:
All the members of society irrespective of caste, colour, creed and sex must enjoy equal rights. There should be no discrimination against any member of the society. No member should be above the rules of the society and no member should enjoy special privileges. Majority decisions should be final.

6. Loyalty to the Group:
Lack of discipline creates a confusion and chaos and so all the members of the group must show perfect loyalty to that group by thoroughly observing the rules of discipline. All the members should be loyal to the organisation. Strength, permanance and unity can be had in the organization only if all the members are thoroughly disciplined.

7. Aims of Society:
The society always aims at the development of the individual. It provides the individual with all those opportunities or facilities with which he can develop his powers and faculties to the fullest extent. Moreover, the society aims at general welfare and not merely looks to the benefit of a particular section of people. The ultimate aim of society consists in the development of national life, cultural and ideal as constrasted with individual personality.

8. Fulfilment of Social Instinct:
According to Aristotle, “Man is a social animal.’ Man wants to live in society for the fulfilment of his social instinct. He cannot lead life in isolation. He possesses an instinct of gregariousness. If there is anybody who wants to lead an isolated life, he is either a god or a beast. Man’s social instinct is satisfied only if he leads a group life.

Conclusion:
We can conclude in the end that the proper progress of life is impossible without society. A man can develop his personality and be at his best only in society. It is because man lives in society that he proudly calls himself, “The top and crown of all creation.” Society enables man to live happily.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Question 2.
Define State and discuss its essential elements.
Or
Discuss the essential elements of a State.
Answer:
State is the main subject of Political Science, but the term ‘State’ is used in many ways due to which it is difficult for a common man to understand the proper meaning of the word ‘State’. Generally distinction is not made between State, Society and Nation and ordinarily the people use the word State for society, country, nation, government etc. But from Political Science point of view, it is not correct because all these terms have different meanings.

Many times the word State is used for the federating units and for the federation. For example, the word ‘State’ is used for United States of America as well as the units of U.S.A. Similarly the word ‘State’ is used for India and for its units. Punjab, Bengal, Haryana, U.P., M.P. etc. are often called states but in fact these are not states. For a student of Political Science it is essential to know the meaning of term ‘State’.

Etymology of the word State:
The word ‘State’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Status’. The term ‘Status’ means social status of a man. In ancient times, no distinctioin was made between state and society. Hence the word ‘state’ was used to connote social status. But gradually its meaning changed and during the time of Cicero it was used for the status of the whole society.

In modern sense this term was used for first of all by Machiavelli, a great political scientist of Italy, in the book ‘The Prince’. In ‘The Prince’ Maehiavelli writes “All the powers which have had and have authority over men are states (state) and are either monarchies or republics.” Explaining the importance of the word ‘State’ as used by Machiavelli, Sir Earnest Barker writes, “The word ‘State’ when it came into use in England during the sixteenth century, brought with it from Italy the idea of a high ‘State’ or stateliness vested in some one person or some body of persons.”

Definition of State. According to Garner, there are as many definitions of the state as much is the number of writers. Different writers have given definitions from their own point of view. Some writers on the basis of source, some on the basis of elements, some on the basis of the origin of the state and some on the basis of aims of the state has defined the word ‘State’.

1. According to Aristotle, “State is a union of families and villages having for its end a perfect and self-sufficing life by which we mean happy and honourable life.” But Aristotle’s definition cannot be used in modem times as Aristotle has not made any distinction between state and society. Moreover, Aristotle’s definition has not mentioned territory and sovereignty.

2. According to Bluntschli, “State is politically organised people of a definite territory.”

3. According to Oppenheim, “The State exists when people are settled in a country under its own sovereign Government.”

4. According to Laski, “The State is a territorial society divided into government and subjects claiming within its alloted physical area a supremacy over all other institutions.”

5. According to Woodrow Wilson, “The State is a people organised for law within a definite territory.”

6. According to Gamer, “The State, as a concept of Political Science and Public Law, is a community of persons, more less numerous, permanently occupying a defined portion of territory, independent or nearly so of external control, and possessing an organised government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.”

7. According to Gilchrist, “The State is a concept of Political Science and exist when a number of people, living on a definite territory are unifed under a government which in internal matters is the organ for expressing their sovereignty, and in external matters is independent of other governments.”

8. According to Bodin, “The state is an association of families and their common possessions governed by Supreme Power and by reason.”

9. According to Burges, “The State is a particular portion of mankind viewed as an organised unit.” .

10. According to Maclver, “The state is an association which acting through law as promulgated by a government endowed to this end with corecive power maintains within a community territorially democrated the universal conditions of social order.”

Among all these definitions, Garner and Gilchrist’s definitions are considered the best one because in these definitions all the four elements i.e. population, territory, government and sovereignty are clearly mentioned.

Elements of State:
On the basis of different definitions of State, we can say that state is a group of people having sovereignty, living in a fixed territory under the control of an organised Government. This definition of ‘state is based on four elements: Population, Fixed territory, Government and Sovereignty. It is true that different writers have stressed different elements. Some have emphasised Population, Government and Sovereignty and others have stressed Population, Territory and Government. But modem writers agree with the fact that state has four elements and state can’t exist without any one of them.

These elements are given below:
1. Population
2. Fixed Territory
3. Government
4. Sovereignty.

1. Population:
Population is the main element of state. State is not a group of animals and birds. It is a political institution of human beings. Existence of State can’t be imagined without population. No fixed rules are there to fix the limit of population, but sufficient population is needed for the state. Ten to twenty people can’t make a State.

However, difference of opinions exist among the writers about number of persons in a state. According to Plato, the number of population in a ideal state should be 5040. But according to Aristotle the number of population should neither be too small nor too large, but large enough to be self-sufficing and small enough to be well governed.

In other words, according to Aristotle population of the state should not be 50-60 because with this number the state cannot become self-sufficient and at the same time it should not be ten lakhs because such a big population is not controlled properly. Rousseau was a supporter of direct democracy, hence he fixed the population of a state at ten thousand and remarked that larger the population of state, less and liberty of the people.

But in the present time it is not possible to fix the population of the state. Modem tendency is in favour of states with huge population. Population of Communist China is about 135 crores whereas that of India more than 130 crores. Population of Russia is about 20 crores, and that of U.S.A. 30 crores.

But on the other hand there are very small states like San Marino and Monaco which have population of about 25 thousand and 32 thousand respectively. There are also countries which have the population in lakhs. Luxemburge has the population of 4 lakhs whereas that of Switzerland is more than 70 lakhs. For some countries large population becomes a big problem.

For example for India large population is problem and government is emphasising family planning so that the growth of population is checked. But there are states which encourage the couples to produce more children. Before World War in Germany as in Italy state prizes to the couple were offered who produced children above a fixed number. But those who were issueless and the married they were heavily taxed by the state.

But seeing the population of the modern states, we can say that it is not only difficult but rather impossible to fix the population of the state. But still we agree with the view expressed by Aristotle that the population of the state should be large enough to be self-sufficing and well governed. In fact the population of the state should be to such an extent that the masses of that state lead a happy and prosperous life.

2. Fixed Territory:
Just as population is an essential element of the state, similarly fixed territory is an essential attribute of the state. But some scholars do not consider fixed territory as an essential element of the state. According to Jellinek before 19th century no writer had included territory in the definition of the term ‘State’. Kulber was the first writer who wrote and talked about the element of territory. Seeley and Duguit have not regarded fixed territory as an essential element of the state. In the words of Duguit, “Territory is not an indispensable element in the formation of state.”

But modern writers are not ready to accept this view. According to them, without fixed territory there can be no state. If masses are the soul of the state then fixed territory is the body of the state. According to Bluntschli, “As the state has its personal basis in the people, so it has its material basis in the land. The people do not become a state until they have acquired a territory.

So long as the people do not occupy a fixed territory, state cannot come into existence. Nomadic tribes and gypsies who wander from one place to another do not constitute a state because they do not have fixed territory. Before T948 Jews were scattered all over the world but they could not form a state because they were having no fixed territory. But when they started living on a fixed territory of Israel, then Israel became a state. In fact this element of the state made state separate from other associations.

Meaning of State Territory:
When we say that territory, is essential for the state then territory does not mean only a part of land but it means land, water and air. All the rivers, mountains, lakes and the mineral resources which are within the area of the state, are included in the territory. If sea is along the land then certain miles of that set is also a part of the territory of the state. The air¬space over the land is also included in the territory of the state.

Limits of State Territory:
Just as population cannot be fixed for the state, similarly no definite limit can be laid down about the territory. In ancient times the area of Greek City-states was very small. In those days the means of transportation and communication had not much developed. In those days small city-states were preferred for the successful running of direct democracy because all the people were personally acquainted with one another and hence could easily assemble together for some discussion or to take some decision. But modern age is a scientific age.

Means of transport and communication are fully developed and it is not difficult to administer a vast territory. Today, big states have been established. There are countries, like China, India, Russia, America etc. whose territory spreads into lakhs of squre miles. At present the largest territory is under the jurisdiction of Russia. The area of Russia is 17,075,000 square Kilometre while that of Canada is 9,976,139 square kilometre.

But there are also countries with small territories like Monaco, San Marino, Liechtenstein Vatican, Luxumberge etc. which have 1.95 sq Km., 61 sq Km., 160 sq Km., 0.44 sq Km., 2586 sq Km. areas of land respectively. But in internationalism all countries are equal. For example, in the United States all member-states are equal. In the modem age that state is considered more powerful and important which is having a large territory because in a large territory there are more natural resources.

3. Government:
The third essential element of a state is government. People inhabiting a certain territory cannot by themselves constitute a state, until and unless there is a political organisation of the people. Such a political organisation is the government. Government is that agency which formulates, expresses and fulfils the collective will of the people. Without the government masses cannot be organised. In the words of Garner, “Without a government the population would be an incoherent, unorganised anarchic mass with no means of collective action.”

In a state government can be of any type. In India, U.S.A., England, Switzerland, Canada, France, Germany etc. there is a democratic form of government while in China, Cuba, North Korea, etc. there is a dictatorship of the communist party. In Nepal there is a monarchy. In some states there is a parliamentary form of government, while in some there is a presidential government. In Japan, India, England etc. there is a parliamentary government, while in U.S.A. there is a presidential government.

In some state there is a federal government, while in some there is a unitary government. In U.S.A., Switzerland and India there is a federal government, while in Japan and in England there is a unitary government. It is immaterial which form of government exists in a state because government is changeable. With a change of government the status of state does not change. Whatever the form of government, every government has three main functions- law-making, enforcement of law and interpretation of law.

To perform, these three main functions there are three organs of the government,
(1) Legislature,
(2) Executive and
(3) Judiciary.
The government should be powerful enough to maintain law and order and should be able to defend its territory against any sort of foreign aggression.

4. Sovereignty:
The fourth essential element of the state is sovereignty. Population, fixed territory and government cannot constitute a state unless there is sovereignty also. The word sovereignty is derived from Latin word Superanus which means supreme. In this way sovereignty means the supreme power of the State. State possesses supreme right and no body can disobey the state. Due to sovereignty state is having full control over all the citizens and their associations. It also implies freedom from control from any outside authority. According to Laski, “It is the possession of Sovereignty that the state is distinguished from all other forms of human associations.” Sovereignty is of two types-Internal Sovereignty and External Sovereignty.

(i) Internal Sovereignty:
Internal sovereignty implies that the state has full control over all individuals, associations, institutions, and organisations within the state. No one can challenge its authority. If anyone disobeys the orders of the state, state has a right to punish him. The will of the state is supreme and must prevail under all circumstances and in all cases. Sovereignty cannot be divided among the different associations within the state.

Some people think that in a federal government internal sovereignty is divided between the Centre and the states. But this view is not correct. Internal sovereignty cannot be divided. In a federation, instead of sovereignty, powers are divided between the Centre and the units.

(ii) External Sovereignty:
External sovereignty implies that outside the state there is no institution of power which can compel the state to do certain things which state is not otherwise interested to do. A sovereign state is complete independent. It is absolutely free to determine its policy towards other states. If the policies of a country are controlled by other countries then it means that country is not state. Before 1947 India was under the control of Great Britain, hence it was not a state.

But India got independence on 15th August, 1947 and then India became a state. International treaties and agreements are made by the will of the state. To be a member of the United Nations is not against the external sovereignty of the state because to become a member of the United Nations is the will of the state concerned. The United Nations cannot be called a state, because it does not give sovereign powers to its members. Similarly Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh etc. are not states because they don’t possess sovereignty which is with India. Thus there are four essential elements of the state and if out of these four elements one element is missing, state cannot be established.

Can any element be called the most important one ? Ordinarily, this question is raised which of the four elements of the state is the most important. Every element in its own place is important and if one element is missing we cannot have a state. We cannot think of a state without population. Without fixed territory we cannot have a state. Peace and order cannot be established without a government.

Government formulates, expresses and fulfils the collective will of the state. Fourth element of the state i.e., sovereignty is very important because other three elements are available in other associations also but sovereignty is possessed only by the state. Sovereignty is the only element which draws a line of demarcation between the state and the other associations and hence state is the highest association.

That is why some writers give more importance to sovereignty than other elements. In the word of Gettell, “The state is not the people, nor the land, nor the government, but all of them and in addition the state must possess that unity which makes it a distinct and independent political unity.”

But the truth is that all the four elements are essential elements for the formation of the state. In the words of Gettell, “The absence of any one of these elements destroys the state, all must exist in combination.”

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Question 3.
Distinguish between State and Society.
Answer:
In ancient time no distinction was made between the State and the government. Aristotle has not made any distinction between state and society. For Plato and Aristotle state was society. It was due to the reason that at that time city-state was so small that it was very difficult to make a distinction between state and society. Greek city-states covered all aspects of human life-State was not only a political organisation, but it was also a religious, economic and cultural institution.

Hence it was natural not to make a distinction between state and society. In the modern age Hegel and Bosanquet have not made any distinction between state and society. Hitler and Mussolini have also not considered any distinction between state and society. Mussolini remarked, “Everything within a state, nothing outside the state and nothing against the state.”

But State and Society are not one. Maelver has rightly said that, “To identify the social with the political is to be guilty of the grossest of all confusions, which completely bars any understanding of either society or of the state.”
Following are the differences between State and Society:

1. Society is prior to the State:
According to Aristotle man is a social animal by nature and necessity. From the beginning man is living in the society. With the advent of man on earth, society began. But state was established at that time when political organisation with the society was established. Political organisation was established when men realised the necessity of peace and political consciousness was created among them. Thus state was established after the formation of a society.

2. Aim of Society is wider than that of State:
Aim of the society is wider, whereas the aim of the state is narrow. Aim of the society is development of all aspects of individual life. It is concerned not only with the political relations of man but with the whole range of human relations such as religious, educational, recreational, economic, social etc. But the state is mainly concerned with the political aspect of individual life.

3. Society is larger than the State:
Size of the state is small in comparison to the size of society. If we take a broader view of the word ‘Society’ then we can include whole humanity in it. For example members of Hindu Samaj are in many countries-India, Pakistan, Canada, Great Britain etc. Hence the size of society is larger than the State.

4. Definite territory is essential for the State, not for the Society:
Definite territory is an essential element of the state and without it there can be no state. But for a society definite territory is not essential. The group of people who wish to form a society may live in a particular country or may be scattered all over the world. Before the establishment of Israel, Jewish society was spread all over the world. Red Cross Society has its branches all over the world.

5. State is organised, Society can be organised as well as unorganised:
Political organisation is very essential for a State. Without political organisation (government) there can be no government. Government is an essential element of the state and will of the state is expressed through it. But society includes organised as well as unorganised communities.

When there was no state man lived in family and in tribes and these tribes wandered from place to place but still there was society though it was unorganised. With the establishment of government organisation came into society and with this state came into being.

6. State possesses sovereignty, Society does not:
Sovereignty is an essential element of the state. State has a power to issue orders and get them obeyed. Those who disobey the laws of the state, they are punished by the state. But the society has no such power through which it can enforce its rules. Society can only make rules for the guidance of man’s conduct. But if anyone disobeys the rules of society, he cannot be punished by the society. At the most, society can exert moral pressure but it is up to the people whether to obey rules of the society or not.

7. Society regulates both External and Internal activities of man while state regulates only the external activities of man. State is concerned with the external activities of man and not with the internal, whereas society is concerned with both. State regulates the external activities of man through its laws. State can take action against the activities of the individual but when a man thinks, state has nothing to do with that. But society is concerned not only with external activities but also with what man thinks.

8. The rules of State are different from the rules of Society:
Rules, and laws and the state are definite and clear and they are enacted by the legislature. But rules of the society are based on customs traditions and conventions and hence they are not definite and clear.

Conclusion:
Prom the above discussion it is clear that clear-cut distinction exists between the State and the Society. This distinction is not only theoretical but practical also. State’s sphere is political and it should not interfere in the social life of the individual. If it interferes then it becomes a totalitarian state. However, modern state is a welfare state and hence it cannot interfere into religion, culture, language and morality etc. of the people.

Though State and Society are different entities, yet they are closely related and interdependent. According to Barker “Society is held together by the state and if it were not held together, it could not exist.” Though state is an organ of the society, but society is maintained by state and if the state does not maintain the society, state will cease to exist.

In the words of Barker, “State and society have the same moral purpose. They lend and borrow from each other.” In the end we can say that though both are closely related yet they are not one. Laski has rightly said that, “the state may set the keynote of the social order but it is not identical with it.”

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Question 4.
Define ‘Nation’ and discuss the distinctions between ‘Nation’ and ‘State’.
Answer:
Various terms which are generally used in Political Science have been defined differently by different writers. The term ‘Nation’ has also been defined in various ways. Different writers have defined this term from different points of view. These view-points can be divided into three parts:
1. Ethnic view;
2. Cultural and Psychic view;
3. Political view.

These three view-points are explained as follows:
1. Ethnic view:
The word ‘Nation’ comes from the Latin word ‘natus’ which means ‘bom’. A nation, therefore, means a people having common origin of coming from a common stock. The definitions given from this point of view are as follows:

  • According to Burgess, “A nation is a population of an ethnic unity, inhabiting a territory of a geographic unity.”
  • According to Leacock, “Nation is a union of men having racial or ethnographic significance.”

Comments:
In the ancient times the oneness of community or race may have been the basis of a nation but in the modem age this view is not acceptable. No community or a race can call itself absolutely pure. Therefore, this view-point is not acceptable because it does not suit the present conditions.

2. Cultural and Psychic View:
Some people are of the opinion that a nation refers to the large number of people in a state who are bound together by certain emotional and cultural ties and who have a feeling of oneness. They feel that the feeling of oneness is the result of same language, religion, culture, history and traditions. The definitions given from this point of view are as ahead:

Society, State And Nation:
(i) According to Bluntschli, “Nation is a union of masses of men .bound together, specially by language and customs in a common civilization which give them a sense of unity and distinction from all foreigners.”

(ii) According to Barker, “A nation is a community of persons living in a definite territory and there by bound together by the bonds of mutual love.” Comments. This view-point is comparatively better than the one given before. One thing is quite clear now that psychological and spiritual unit is quite essential for the building up of a nation.

3. Political View:
The modern writers generally take the meaning of a nation as a political organisation. Most of the writers are of the opinion that the nation does not only mean that group of people which has a cultural and spiritual unity but it should also have a political unity.

Following definitions have been given from this point of view:

  • According to Hyes, “A nationality by acquiring unity and sovereign independence becomes a nation.”
  • According to Gilchrist, “Nation is the State plus something else the unit of the people organised in one State.”

Comments:
Most of the writers now-a-days consider nation a political institution but this view-point is not wholly correct. It is not proper to use the word ‘nation’ from political point of view. According to J. W. Garner, “ a nation is not necessarily a people organized as a State nor is a State essentially a nation.”

From the above discussion we can conclude that no single point of view can justifiably define or interpret nation. No point of view is complete in itself, there is some truth in every point of view. In a nutshell we can say that a nationality is a group of people bound together by certain ties like religion, culture, traditions, conventions and literature, etc. in such a manner that they have a sense of oneness. One nation, one state principle in the modern times is the most important one.

Difference Between State And Nation:
Ordinarily no difference is considered between nation and nationality. Nation comes very near to the State. Union of states is often called the union of nations, e.g., League of Nations, United Nations Organisation. In the modern age we find nation state which are formed on the basis of ‘one nation, one State’ principle.

The theory of one nation, one state itself points out towards the distinction between state and nation. According to this theory every nation should have the right to form a state and the states formed in this manner are called natural states. It implies that there can be state without the nation and there can be nation without the state.

Following points would make the distinction between the nation and the state clear:
1. State has four essential Elements:
State has four essential attributes- population, territory, government and sovereignty. Out of these, if there is even the lack of one element, the state cannot come into existence. We don’t need any of the four elements for the making of a nation. Nation is an association organised through cultural and spiritual feelings.

Nation can come into existence only when the people get conscious of unit. e.g., themselves into one group. That one group must have the feeling of oneness and that is possible only if the people have the same language, religion, culture, traditions and conventions etc. The elements of a nation may change and they go on changing, but the elements of state are permanent and they are always the same.

2. Idea of oneness is Essential for the Nation but not for the State:
Only that group of people can be called a nation which has sense of unity, but it is not essential in the case of a State. In case of State, it is essential that the people should be politically organised. Before Bangladesh’s coming into existence Pakistan was certainly a State but it was not a nation.

3. Definite Territory is essential for the State but not for the Nation:
State is a territorial organisation and it is only a definite territory. Nation is connected with the feeling of unity and not with any fixed territory. The members of an association or an organisation may be limited to small territory and they may also be spread all the world over.

4. There can be Many Nations in one State and Many States in one Nation:
Austria-Hungary was a single State before World War I, although there was no sense of spiritual unity among her people. In fact, she was a State having two distinct nations-Austria and Hungary within its fold. This proves that there can be many nations in one State. Pakistan and Bangladesh were two nations but they were one State. It is now that Pakistan and Bangladesh are two different States. On the other hand, one nation may be divided into two States, as North Korea and South Korea are one nation but they are two different States.

5. Sovereignty is essential for the State and not for the Nation:
State has the elements of sovereignty and it is essential for the existence of the State. The nation does not have any sovereignty. Nation attempts at attaining freedom and when it wins it, it gets sovereignty and with it also becomes a State and starts using its sovereignty. Now Bangladesh has become a State and the sovereignty which previously was in the hands of the rulers of Pakistan, now rests with the rulers of Bangladesh.

6. The State can Neither Create a Nation Nor End a Nation:
Due to the element of sovereignty, the State has control over all its citizens and other foreigners living in its territory and also controls the associations and other organisations but- the State can neither create that sentiment for unity in the hearts of the people which is essential for the making of a nation nor it can end a nation. We can very well see the things in our own case. The English tyrannized over the Indians for a long time but despite that they could not become a hindrance in our uniting as a nation.

Despite all these differences it would not be wrong to say that as in the modem times, on the basis of one nation, one State theory, national states are emerging, the nation and the state are coming close to each other.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand by Society?
Answer:
Society is a group of persons living and working together in a spirit of peace and harmony for the satisfaction of their common wants and the promotion of their common good. It is a group of human beings living together and working together to achieve a common purpose for a common good, through their joint efforts.

  1. According to Dr. Jenks, “The term society means harmonious or at least peaceful relationship.”
  2. According to Maclver, “ Society includes every willed relationship of man to man.,
  3. According to Giddings, “ Society is a group of individuals co-operating for the achievement of any objective of common interest or utility.”
  4. According to Wright, “Society is not a group of people, it is the system or relationship that exists between individuals or groups.”

Question 2.
Write down any four characteristics of society.
Answer: .

  1. Group of Persons: Society is a group of persons living and working together in a spirit of peace and harmony for the satisfaction of their common wants and the promotion of their common good.
  2. Voluntary Membership: The membership of a state is compulsory while that of a society is voluntary.
  3. Mutual Co-operation: The individual is dependent on the society for various needs.
  4. Social Instinct: Society provides the individuals with all those opportunities or facilities with which he can develop his powers and faculties to the fullest extent.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Question 3.
Describe the meaning of the word state.
Answer:
The word “State’ is derived from the Latin word “Status’. The term ‘Status’ means social status of a man. In ancient times, no distinction was made between state and society. But gradually its meaning changed and during the time of Cicero it was used for the status of the whole society. In modern times this term was used for first of all by Machiavelli. State is a superior organisation to all other associations.

Different writers have given different definitions of the State. According to Bluntschli, “ State is politically organised people of a definite territory.” According to Garner, “ The State, as a concept of political science and public law, is a community of persons, more or less numerous. Permanently occupying a defined portion of territory, independent or nearly so of external control, and possessing an organised government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.”

Question 4.
What are the essential elements of a State?
Answer:
There are four essential elements of a state. These elements are:
1. Population
2. Fixed territory
3. Government
4. Sovereignty.

1. Population:
Population is an essential element of the State. No fixed rules are there to fix the limit of population, but sufficient population is needed for the state.

2. Fixed Territory:
So long as the people do not occupy a fixed territory state cannot come into existence. Territory does not mean only a part of land but it means land, water and air. All the rivers, mountains, lakes and mineral resources which are with in the area of the state are included in the territory.

3. Government:
People living in a certain territory cannot by themselves constitute a state until and unless there is a political organisation of the people. Such a political organisation is the government. In a state the government can be of any type.

4. Sovereignty:
Sovereignty means the supreme power of the state. State possesses supreme rights and nobody can disobey the state. Due to sovereignty state is having full control over all the citizens and their associations.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Question 5.
Make a distinction between State and Society.
Answer:
Following are the differences between state and society:

  1. Society is prior to the state. With the advent of man on earth, society began. But state was established at that time when organisation within the society was established.
  2. Aims of the society is development of all aspects of individual life whereas the state is mainly concerned with the political aspects of individual life.
  3. Size of the state is small in comparison to the size of society.
  4. Definite territory is essesntial for the state but not for society.

Question 6.
Is Punjab a State?
Answer:
Punjab is not a State. It is one of the provinces of Indian State. The population of Punjab is infact not the population of Punjab because people residing in Punjab are the citizens of India. Centre has a right to change the boundary of Punjab. Punjab government is not sovereign neither in internal matters nor in external matters. Hence, Punjab is not a State.

Question 7.
Define Nation.
Answer:
The Word ‘Nation’ comes from the Latin word ‘Natus’ Which means ‘bom’. A nation, therefore, means a people having common origin of coming from a common stock. Many writers defined Nation according to their view point. Following are the definitions of the Nation.

  1. According to Burgess, “A nation is a population of an ethnic unity, inhabiting a territory of a geographic unity.”
  2. According to Leacock, “Nation is a union of men having racial or ethnographic significance.”
  3. According to Barker, “A nation is a community of perons living in a definite territory and thereby bound together the bonds of mutual love.”
  4. According to Gilchrist, “Nation is the state plus something else the unit of the people organised in one state.”

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Question 8.
Distinguish between State and Nation.
Answer:

  1. State has four essential elements, but elements of nation are not fixed.
  2. The element of a nation may change and they go on changing, but the elements of state are permanent and they are always the same.
  3. Idea of oneness is essential for the nation but not for the state.
  4. Definite territory is essential for the state but not for the nation.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand by Society?
Answer:
Society is a group of persons living and working together in a spirit of peace and harmony for the satisfaction of their common wants and the promotion of their common good. It is a group of human beings living together and working together to achieve a common purpose for a common good, through their joint efforts.

Question 2.
Discuss any two characteristics of society.
Answer:
1. Group of Persons. Society is a group of persons living and working together in a spirit of peace and harmony for the satisfaction of their common wants and the promotion of their common good.
2. Voluntary Membership. The membership of a state is compulsory while that of a society is voluntary.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Question 3.
What do you understand by state?
Answer:
The word “State’ is derived from the Latin word “Status’. The term ‘Status’ means social status of a man. In ancient times, no distinction was made between state and society. In modern times this term was used for first of all by Machiavelli. State is a superior organisation to all other associations.

Question 4.
Define State.
Answer:
According to Garner, “ The State, as a concept of political science and public law, is a community of persons, more or less numerous. Permanently occupying a defined portion of territory, independent or nearly so of external control, and possessing an organised government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.”

Question 5.
What are the essential elements of a State?
Answer:
There are four essential elements of a state. These elements are:-
1. Population,
2. Fixed territory,
3. Government, and
4. Sovereignty.

Question 6.
Make a distinction between State and Society.
Answer:
Following are the differences between state and society:
1. Society is prior to the state: With the advent of man on earth, society began. But state was established at that time when organisation within the society was established.

2. Aims of the society is development of all aspects of individual life whereas the state is mainly concerned with the political aspects of individual life.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Question 7.
Is Punjab a State?
Answer:
Punjab is not a State. It is one of the provinces of Indian State. Punjab government is not sovereign neither in internal matters nor in external matters. Hence, Punjab is not a State.

Question 8.
Discuss the meaning of Nation.
Answer:
The Word ‘Nation’ comes from the Latin word ‘Natus’ Which means “bom’. A nation, therefore, means a people having common origin of coming from a common stock. Many writers defined Nation according to their view point. Following are the definitions of the Nation.

Question 9.
Distinguish between State and Nation.
Answer:

  • State has four essential elements, but elements of nation are not fixed.
  • The element of a nation may change and they go on changing, but the elements of state are permanent and they are always the same.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
From which word the word state is derived?
Answer:
The word state is derived from the Latin word status.

Question 2.
Define state.
Answer:
According to Blunstachli, “State is politically organised people of a definite territorý.”

Question 3.
Write down any two elements of state.
Answer:

  1. Population
  2. Government.

Question 4.
Define society.
Answer:
According to G.D.H. Cole, “Society is the complex of association and institutions with in the communit.”

Question 5.
Write down any one feature of society.
Answer:
Society is a group of persor.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Question 6.
Distinguish lietween state and socIety.
Answer:
Aim of society is wider than that of state.

Question 7.
Define Nation.
Answer:
According to Barker, “A nation is a community of persons living in a definite territory and there by bound together by the bonds of mutual love.”

Question 8.
Write down any two factors which promote feelings of Nationalism.
Answer:

  1. Common motherland
  2. Common Language

Question 9.
Write down any one difference between nation and state.
Answer:
State had four essential elements but elements of nation are not fix.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Fill in the blanks

1. The term …………………….. means social status of man.
Answer:
Status

2. …………………….. and Gilchrist definition of state are considered the best.
Answer:
Gamer

3. In China there is a …………………….. of the Communist Party.
Answer:
Dictatorship

4. Sovereignty means the …………………….. power of the state.
Answer:
Supreme

5. U.N.O. is not considered a …………………….. .
Answer:
State.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

True or False statement

1. Jammu and Kashmir is not a state in the strict scientific sense.
Answer:
True.

2. State is prior to society.
Answer:
False

3. State possess sovereignty, society does not.
Answer:
True.

4. State has four essential elements, but nation has five essential elements.
Answer:
False

5. Ideas of oneness is essential for the Nation but not for the state.
Answer:
True.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Who said “Society is the web of social relationships and it is always changing.”
(A) Ogg and Zink
(B) Garner
(C) Maciver and Page
(D) Karl Marx.
Answer:
(C) Maciver and Page

Question 2.
The main difference between ‘State’ and ‘Society is:
(A) State is an association within society.
(B) Society is territorial, while the state may or may not be.
(C) Society is prior to state.
(D) State commands force, while ‘Society’ rnly uas’io.
Answer:
(D) State commands force, while ‘Society’ rnly uas’io.

Question 3.
The principle “that the population of a state should be large enough to make it self-sufficient and small enough to make good government
possible” was advanced by:
(A) Rousseau
(B) Plato
(C) Aristotle
(D) Laski.
Answer:
(C) Aristotle

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 9 Society, State and Nation

Question 4.
Who said, “A nationality by acquiring unity and sovereign independence becomes a nation.”?
(A) Gilchrist
(B) Hayes
(C) Burgess
(D) Barber.
Answer:
(B) Hayes

Question 5.
Which of the following is not a difference between State and Nation?
(A) State has four essential elements but no essential elements of Nation.
(B) Idea of oneness is essential for the Nation but not for the State.
(C) Sovereignty is essential for the State and not for the Nation.
(D) Sovereignty is essential for the Nation and not for the State.
Answer:
(D) Sovereignty is essential for the Nation and not for the State.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Who is known as the father of Sociology?
(a) Anguste Comte
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Durkheim
(d) Max Weber
Answer:
(a) Auguste Comte

2. In which year the word Sociology was used for the first time?
(a) 1840
(b) 1839
(c) 1842
(d) 1844
Answer:
(b) 1839

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

3. When was Karl Marx born?
(a) 1820
(b) 1822
(c) 1818
(d) 1816
Answer:
(c) 1818

4. Who wrote Communist Manifesto?
(a) Weber and Marx
(b) Marx and Durkheim
(c) Durkheim and Weber
(d) Marx and Engles
Answer:
(d) Marx and Engles

5. According to Marx, how many classes are there?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
(d) Five
Answer:
(a) Two

6. Which of these classes present in every type of society?
(a) Capitalist Class
(b) Labour Class
(c) a + b
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) a + b

7. According to Karl Marx, what is the reason of class struggle in society?
(a) Exploitation of labourers by capitalists
(b) Exploitation of capitalists by labourers
(c) Historical problems between the both
(d) All of these
Answer:
(a) Exploitation of labourers by capitalists

8. Which of these concepts was given by Karl Marx?
(a) Class struggle
(b) Historical Materialism
(c) Theory of Surplus value
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

9. When was Durkheim born?
(a) 1870
(b) 1858
(c) 1964
(d) 1868
Answer:
(b) 1858

10. Who is known as the successor of Comte in France?
(a) Weber
(b) Marx
(c) Durkheim
(d) Spencer
Answer:
(c) Durkheim

11. Which of these books was written by Durkheim?
(a) Division of labour in society
(b) Suicide-A study of Sociology
(c) The Rules of Sociological Method
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

12. Which of these concept was given by Durkheim?
(a) Division of Labour
(b) Social Fact
(c) Suicide
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

13. How many types of Social Facts are given by Durkheim?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
(d) Five
Answer:
(b) Three

14. Which of these concepts was given by Weber?
(a) Authority
(b) Ideal type
(c) Social action
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Karl Marx was a ……………… philosopher.
Answer:
German

2. Max Weber gave the concept of Social …………….
Answer:
action

3. The concept of division of labour was given by ……………….
Answer:
Durkheim

4. Historical materialism is the contribution of ………………
Answer:
Karl Marx

5. Karl Marx gave the theory of Class ……………..
Answer:
struggle

6. According to Weber, ……………… religion is responsible for the advent of capitalism.
Answer:
Protestant

7. The theory of suicide was given by ……………….
Answer:
Durkheim

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

True/False:

1. Durkheim was born in France.
Answer:
True

2. Durkheim explained about three types of suicide.
Answer:
True

3. Weber gave four types of authority.
Answer:
False

4. According to Marx, there are three types of classes in society.
Answer:
False

5. Labour class exploits the capitalist class.
Answer:
False

6. The concept of social solidarity was given by Dürkheim.
Answer:
True

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
Who is known as the father of Sociology?
Answer:
Auguste Comte is known as the father of Sociology.

Question 2.
When was the word Sociology used for the first time?
Answer:
An 1839 A.D. the word Sociology was used for the first time.

Question 3.
When and where was Karl Marx born?
Answer:
Karl Marx was born on 5th May, 1818 at Rearcity of Ryan state of Prussia.

Question 4.
When and where did Karl Marx receive his Doctrate?
Answer:
Karl Marx received his Doctrate in 1841 at Jena University.

Question 5.
When and who wrote ‘Communist Manifesto’?
Answer:
Karl Marx and Engles wrote ‘Communist Manifesto’ in 1848 A.D.

Question 6.
When did Karl Marx die?
Answer:
Karl Marx died on 14th March, 1883.

Question 7.
According to Karl Marx, how many classes are there in society?
Answer:
According to Karl Marx, there exist two classes in society, Capitalist class and Labour class.

Question 8.
Name the Concepts given by Karl Marx.
Answer:
Class Struggle, Historical Materialism, Dialectic Materialism, Social Change, Alienation, Surplus Value etc.

Question 9.
Who is known as the successor of Comte in France?
Answer:
Emile Durkheim is known as the successor of Comte in France.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Question 10.
In which university, Durkheim was appointed as a professor in Sociology?
Answer:
In Paris University, Durkheim was appointed as a professor in Sociology.

Question 11.
Name the Concepts given by Durkheim.
Answer:
Social Fact, Suicide, Religion, Division of Labour etc.

Question 12.
Name the types of authority given by Max Weber.
Answer:
Max Weber gave three types of authority-traditional, legal and charismatic.

Question 13.
According to Weber, which religion is responsible for the emergence of capitalism?
Answer:
Weber was of the view that Protestant religion was responsible for the emergence of capitalism,

Question 14.
Name the concepts given by Max Weber.
Answer:
Authority and its types, domination, ideal type Capitalism, Protestant Ethics and the spirit of capitalism, social action, Verstehen etc.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Capitalist Class?
Answer:
According to Karl Marx, Capitalist Class is that which owns all the means of production with the help of which it exploits all the other classes. With the help of means of production, it earns more money and spends its leisureful life. Marx was of the view that one day will come when labour class will throw away its power and authority.

Question 2.
What is Labour Class?
Answer:
According to Marx, labour class is that which does not own any means of production. It does not have any money or wealth. It does not have anything to sell except its labour to earn its livehood. It is always exploited by the capitalist class.

Question 3.
What is Social Solidarity?
Answer:
According to Durkheim, each society has some of its own ideals, beliefs, ways of behaviour, institutions and laws which bind it. Due to such elements, solidarity is maintained in society. They help in the formation of social relations and create unity in society which is known as social solidarity.

Question 4.
What is Capitalism?
Answer:
Capitalism is an economic system in which private property is of great importance and there is negligible govt, control on the market. Every one earns according to his qualification and ability. In Capitalism, capitalist earns more money with the help of its existing resources and exploits the labour class.

Question 5.
What is Division of Labour?
Answer:
According to Durkheim, division of labour is the division of work among the people or groups, according to their ability so that the work could be done in an organised and efficient way. It exists in every society. It does not originate but it gradually develops.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Class Struggle?
Answer:
Karl Marx has studied two classes in every society. According to him, in every society two opposite classes are there. One who exploits and other who is exploited by first one and there is always a struggle in them. To this struggle Marx has given the name of Class struggle. The class which exploits, to whom he gives the name of Capitalist class or Bourgouise, has all the means of production. With these means of production it always tries to suppress the other classes. Second class to which he has given the’name of Labour class or Proletariats, don’t have any means of production. They don’t have anything to earn their livelihood except to sell their labour. They are always exploited by Capitalist class. A continuous struggle is always going on in these both the classes. To this struggle Marx has given the name of ‘Class Struggle’.

Question 2.
When class and class struggle will come to an end?
Answer:
Under the leadership of labour class with the help of class struggle, the tools of state will come in its hands and then the age of Socialism will start. According to Marx, “State is the biggest tool in the hands of capitalists to exploit others.” After the revolution, Feudalism and Capitalism will try for anti revolution. That’s why the stage of Socialism from Capitalism is the temporary stage of authority of labourers. After the establishment of Socialism, exploitation will come to an end, groups also will come to an end and every one will be able to get according to his labour. But in the developed stage of communism every one will be able to get according to his needs. Slowly and slowly the state will disintegrate and the institution based on cooperation will come into being and class and class struggle will come to an end.

Question 3.
What is Capitalist Class?
Answer:
Marx has given the concept of Capitalist Class. According to him, one group in society is of that type which has all the means of production and which is the owner of all the means of production. With the help of its means of production it always exploits other classes. With the help of its means it earns more money and becomes more and more rich. Because of the ownership of money and means of production the capitalist lives a luxurious life. It is a developing class which has become the powerful owner of production forces in a short span of time. It stops the social progress and exploits the labour class. One day will come when the labour class will throw away their authority and will establish a Socialist Society.

Question 4.
What is Labour class or Proletariat class?
Answer:
According to Marx, there are two classes in society—Capitalist class and labour class. Labour class doesn’t have the ownership of means of production. It doesn’t have any money. It doesn’t have any other way to earn their livelihood except selling its labour. They are always exploited at the hand of capitalist class. Capitalist class always take more work from them and pays less money for their work, Because of the labour of labour class always produces surplus value and keeps it with themselves. Because of this exploitation labourer will become poorer and poorer. One day will come when a struggle will start in both the classes and labour class will throw the capitalist class from their authority and Socialist Society will be established.

Question 5.
What is meant by Capitalism?
Answer:
About Capitalism Marx was of the view that the reason of exploitation is Capitalism. Capitalists always taking away everything economically from labourers. They are taking extra work from labourers but are not paying them enough money. The capitalist is taking away the whole surplus value produced by labourer. Labourers are forced to do more work than the definite time. Capitalists are taking advantage of thier economic condition and are not giving them enough money. In this condition one day will come when all the labourers will unite and throw away the whole Capitalism.

Question 6.
What is a Social Fact?
Answer:
In every type of society some facts are there which are different from materialistic, Biological—Psychological facts. This type of facts Durkheim calls as social facts. Durkheim has given some definitions of social fact. At one place Durkheim writes, “Social facts are those ways of thinking, doing work and feeling which has the special characteristics to maintain its existence exterior to the individual consciousness.” At one more place Durkheim writes, “Social facts are those ways of working, thinking and feeling which are exterior to man and which controls the men by their power of constraint.”

Question 7.
Give Types of Social Fact.
Answer:
Durkheim has described two types of social facts—Normal social fact and Pathological social fact. Normal social facts are those facts which are scattered everywhere in the human society and if they are not common among all the persons then atleast they are common in most of them. Pathological social facts are those social facts which are not scattered everywhere in human society but are available at some places or at some particular place.

Question 8.
What is Division of Labour?
Answer:
According to Durkheim, meaning of division of labour is division of functions among different people according to their ability and capacity. Works are divided in this so that the work could be done in an organized way. Division of labour is a social fact, moral system and a universal phenomenon which exist in all the societies. It does not originate but it develops.

Question 9.
What is Social Solidarity?
Answer: Durkheim says that in every society some values, ideas, beliefs, ways of behaviour, institutions and laws are there which binds the society in one knot. Because of these elements, the relations and unity or solidarity exists in society. These elements increase acceptance and solidarity in society. This type of solidarity is known as social solidarity. If these elements start to disintegrate then the society will also start to disintegrate.

Question 10.
What is meant by Mechanical solidarity?
Answer:
According to Durkheim Mechanical solidarity can be seen in the repressive laws of society. The basis of this solidarity are the similarities exist among the members of society. The society in which the life of members is full of similarities, where general norms of thoughts, beliefs, functions, life styles and ideas are there and the society which thinks, works as a collective unit on the basis of these similarities shows mechanical solidarity. Its members are united like parts of a machine. In old primitive socieities, mechanical solidarity was there.

Question 11.
What is meant by Organic solidarity?
Answer:
Darkheim says that second type of solidarity is organic solidarity. In modern societies man is not directly united with group. In these socieities, there is a lot of importance of mutual human relations. That’s why Durkheim was of the view that Restitutive laws are important in modern socieities. In the societies, which are based on differences, humans are dependent upon each other. Each individual can specialize in one field and for other works, he is dependent upon others. This interdependence of members of group or society and their personal inequalities force them to come closer to each other. It leads to establishment of solidarity in society. This, according to Durkheim, is organic solidarity.

Question 12.
Give four differences between Mechanical and Organic solidarity.
Answer:

  • We can see mechanical solidarity in repressive laws but organic solidarity could be seen in restitutive laws of society.
  • Mechanical solidarity is based on similarities but organic solidarity is based on division of labour.
  • Mechanical solidarity lies in the hands of collective representation but organic solidarity lies in the hands of functional differences.
  • Mechanical solidarity establishes direct relations between an individual and society but in organic solidarity no direct relation is there between society and an individual.

Question 13.
What is Ideal Type?
Answer:
Weber has used the term Ideal Type not to indicate any ideal thought or some normative ideology but as a specific name for general nomenclature of the social phenomena or the social events. This is based on rational understanding and characteristics. This ideal type forms the basis of his methodology. In fact, this ideal type is an attempt at a scientific explanation of the social phenomenon. Martindale has defined it in these words, “Ideal types are hypothetical concrete individuals constructive out of their relevant components by researchers for the purpose of instituting precise comparison.” Ideal type is not a general or abstract concept but they are such assumed ideal units that have a realistic acceptance.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Question 14.
What is Social Action?
Answer:
According to Weber, social action is very much different from individual action. While giving its definition Weber has written, “Action is social in so far as, by virtue of the subjective meaning attached to it by the acting individual or it takes into account of the behaviour of others and is there by oriented in its course.” Weber has not recognised very overaction as a social action. Social action has to be guided by the object or the meaning because of which it has been done. Similarly, it is to have a social connotation. Every action or any action that is guided towards inanimate object alone, is not a social action. It has to be a meaningful orientation to the actor imitating it.

Question 15.
What is Legal Authority?
Answer:
Authority based upon formal rules and laws is known as legal authority. This type of authority is being given by laws or rules of the country. Jurisdiction of the concerned person is being given in this. Authoritative person uses this type of authority according to the definite rules and he can be punished if he will go beyond his Jurisdiction. All the persons, who have got legal authority, don’t have same type of authority but the authority of the concerned person depends upon his post. There is a definite hierarchy among the different posts.

Question 16.
What is meant by Traditional Authority?
Answer:
Authority given on the basis of Social values, folkways, mores, traditions, customs etc. is known as traditional authority. No written rules or laws are behind this authority. Traditional authority always depends upon unwritten rules. Social Sanction is the main force behind this type of authority. If anyone defies this type of authority then he is punished by social boycot. Example of this type of authority is head of the joint family in Indian Society. Authority of Brahmins in caste sytem was also based upon traditions.

Question 17.
What is Charismatic Authority?
Answer:
The source of individual authority can be completely different from traditional authority. The power of order can be used by a leader, a prophet, a hero etc. but this type of person can be a charismatic leader if he has any magical power, revelation or any other extraordinary quality and he has some sort of charisma.

This type of authority is neither based on legislative rules and nor on tradition but is based on some sort of charisma. This type of power only those people who have some charismatic forces. It takes a lot of time to achieve this type of authority. In other words the person should develop his personality in such a way that the people should be able to understand that this person has developed some charismatic powers and people accept his authority. Magicians, Prophets, Pir, Military-General, Religious leaders come in this type of category.

Question 18.
What were Weber’s views about Social Actibn?
Answer:

  • Weber says that social action can be influenced by the past, present or future’s behaviour of other persons. If we are doing any action for the answer of our past action then it will be a past action. If we are doing any action in present then it will be a present action and if we will do any action while keeping in mind the future then it will be a futuristic action.
  • Weber says that every type of external action cannot be a social action. Exterior action can be non-social action if it is influenced by non-living things.
  • Few human contacts can come in the category of social action upto that extent when these contacts are influenced by the meaningful behaviour of others.
  • If so many persons are doing some action then it cannot be called a social action and that action also cannot be called a social action which is only influenced by other persons.

Question 19.
Law of three stages.
Answer:
In the field of Sociological concepts, Comte has given a very important contribution and that is the concept of ‘Law of three stages’ given by him. He has written about this concept in his famous book ‘Positive Philosophy’. Comte gave this concept in 1822 when he was only 24 years of age. Comte got the thought of this law from ‘Conderecet’, Turoget and from ‘Saint Simon’. Comte wrote that the human knowledge was not developed at once. It came through a number of stages. Comte says that by studying the intellectual development of man in all ages and societies, we can come to know about its base and basic law under which man’s thinking is there and whose concrete result is included in the facts of our structure and in our historical experiences. These laws are like this. Our every main concept, every branch of our conceptual knowledge goes through three different stages and these three stages are :

  • Theological or Fictitious Stage
  • Metaphysical or Abstract Stage
  • Scientific or Positive Stage

In simple words, the meaning of this law is that when humans wanted to get knowledge about any subject then they were thinking on the theological basis. With the passage of time, people started to get knowledge about any subject on metaphysical basis instead of theological basis. But again with the passage of time, instead of using these two bases, -people started to understand any phenomena on positivistic basis. In first stage fiction, in second stage feeling and in third stage rational or reason became important.

Question 20.
Theological stage.
Answer:
In the conceptual scheme of Comte this theological stage is of great importance. According to him to understand the beginning of social evolution, evaluation of first stage is must. In theological stage thoughts or views of man were fiction or of imagination. Man sees, believes and understands all things as a result of actions at that time of God. They believe that all things whether they are living or non-living are supernatural. It means that there exists some supernatural power in all the things. While talking about human thoughts in religious stage Comte says that in theological stage while finding the essential nature of the universe and while finding the last reasons of natural phenomena human mind believes that all phenomena are the proof of the phenomena of supernatural beings.

In this stage man believed too much in magic and totemism. He believed that in every object, one God or soul or the other resides. That’s why they had separate gods for separate things. As a result of this a number of Gods multiplied. When this number became quite large then an hierarchical order was established and the most important God was placed at first. According to Comte, this stage can be divided in three different sub-stages and these three sub-stages are :

  • Fetishism
  • Polytheism
  • Monotheism

Question 21.
Metaphysical stage.
Answer:
Comte has called this stage the revolutionary time of modern society. This stage lasts long for five centuries and infact it was started in 14th century and lasted upto 19th century. We can divide this passage of time in two parts. In first part revolutionary movement was started automatically or by itself. Second part started in 16th century. In this negative principle was started whose main aim was social change. The start of revolutionary stage can be accepted as from the time of differentiation of spiritual and worldly powers of monotheism. Revolutionaly Philosophy was started from the arrival of Protestentism in 16th century. Here one thing should be kept in mind that in Roman Catholicism the differentiation of spiritual and worldly powers has also encouraged the theological questions to think over the social problems. The second part of metaphysical stage can be divided in three parts. In first part old system came on to an end automatically at the end of 15th century.

In second stage Protestentism came in front of us. Here there was complete independence of observation but it was limited only to Christian religious matter. In third stage deism came forward in 18th century. It has broken all the limits of observation and said that it has no limit. In this stage the middle aged Philosophy and experts of Law came forward and got higher status in society. These both attacked a lot on Catholic System. Because of it Spiritualism came down. Feudal Society and higher class also see a lot of downfall in them. Protestantism has shown the way of wider independence with the help of which people became ready to finish the social and intellectual elements of old system. In this stage Negative philosophy was established.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Question 22.
Positivism stage.
Answer:
At the start of this stage two things are important. First thing is this that Comte views it as Industrial society. Second thing is that he believes that it was started in 14th century. It means that this stage was started in comparison with metaphysical or revolutionary stage but in 19th century it started to gain momentum. One difference came into being between the concept and its usage in this stage. Intellectual imagination was divided in three parts. These are Industrial, Asthetic and scientific or philosophical. These three stages are matching with three aspects of every subject like Good or Useful, Beautiful and Truth. From these three parts the most important part is industrial part on the basis of which we can- compare primitive society with modern stage. The special quality of industrial movement was the birth of political independence. One more quality is its revolutionary aspect.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Law of Three Stages:

Question 1.
Explain Comte’s theory of Law of Three Stages.
Or
What do you know about Comte’s Law of Three Stages? Give in detail.
Answer:
In the field of sociological theories, one of the major contribution of Comte is the theory of Law of Three Stages. He gave this theory in his book ‘Positive Philosophy. He created this concept in 1822 when he was only 24 years of age. Comte got this concept from Conderecet, Turoget and Saint Simon. Comte was of the view that human knowledge and contemplation processes did not develop momentarily. It has crossed many stages, Comte was of the view that after studying human intellectual development in all ages, we come to know about the basic rules under which human contemplation does occur and its result is included in our historical experiences and organisational facts.

All of our major concepts, every branch of knowledge has gone through three separate theoretical conditions and these are—Theological or fictious stage, Metaphysical or abstract stage and Scientific or positive stage. In simple words, this rule says that initially in human life, when people wanted to get knowledge on any subject, they thought about it on theological base. Gradually, instead of thinking on theological level, people started thinking on metaphysical level. Later on, humans left both the levels and started to observe any phenomenon on scientific or positive level. In first stage, imagination was important. Feeling in second stage and reason in third stage became important.

Comte made this law on the basis of different aspects of human nature. There are three important aspects of human nature and these are :

  1. Feelings. Human feelings motivate a person to do work and these feelings serve his functions.
  2. Thought. An individual always thinks to satisfy his feelings and makes a few thoughts. These thoughts take responsibility of satisfying such feelings and help in regulating them.
  3. Action. Humans do work (action) to satisfy their feelings.

Comte was of the view that an individual can live life after maintaining balance in all the three aspects of his nature. If human feelings are different, he thinks differently and acts differently, he cannot live a simple life. In this way, there is a need of a system of knowledge, institutions and beliefs for the existence and continuation of a system regulating behaviour between social individuals. It can lead to the successful establishment of ideological relations between different members of society.
Comte studied the history of human society and said that for giving answer to the given problem, three social systems developed, during the course of time, which had such co-ordination. These three systems were :

  • Theological Stage
  • Metaphysical Stage
  • Positive Stage.

1. Theological Stage. Theological stage has an important place in the conceptual scheme of Comte. According to Comte to understand the beginning of social evolution, the proper observation of first stage is necessary. He believed that in theological stage, all the human ideas were imaginative. Humans always considered every thing as a consequence of activities of a supernatural power i.e. God. He believed that in all the things—alive or lifeless, that supernatural power exists. About human views in theological stage, Comte writes that human brain believed that all the events occurred in the world, are the proof of instant events of that supernatural power. According to Comte, this stage can be divided into three sub stages and these are :

1. Fetishism. Comte established social mobility as a basic element in his philosophy and used it to study human society. Comte believed that his basic element will help in the re-establishment of social sciences. Comte believed that theological stage starts with fetishism. In human thinking, it was a naturally born idea that all the external things have humans like life. At this stage feelings were more dominant than intellectual life. The basic element of fetishism philosophy was the belief that some unidentified influences on human life come forward due to actions of few . things which they considered are alive. Fetishism is an impaired form of theology but is one of its sources.

Fetishism had a close relation with morality, language, intellect and society. At the initial level of human life, sentiments were quite dominant and that is why much stress was given on morality and moral values. Language had no symbolic base. Comte believed that human language has a formative structure. At intellectual level, fetishism was a thumping system. At this stage, humans could only understand theological concepts. There were very few natural phenomenon of which he had personal experience and about which he had very good knowledge. Consequently, the level of this stage’s civilization was of low level. At social level, fetishism gave birth to a specific type of priesthood or clericalism. In this, priests came into being who were astrologers and knew the art of magic. In this stage, humans had direct relation with everything. That is why priesthood or clericalism did not develop in an organised way. The fetish gods did not influence much human life. Consequently, there was not any chance of the birth of intellectual class in this stage.

Here one thing should be kept in mind that in the sub stage, humans started conquering over nature. The most important aspect in this sub stage was the domestication of animals. Comte was of the view that Polytheism, which is the second sub stage, beginning was started in Fetishism. He takes this stage to a historical level. To reach the second sub stage of theological stage, the most important change came at intellectual level was the change in human views about stars. Stars were worshipped in fetishism but when they reached the level of Gods, it took a concrete form.

2. Polytheism. This stage remained for the maximum time. To explain this sub stage, Comte tells us about his analysis method. He tells us that our analytical method must study abstractly the major features of polytheism. After that, polytheism must be analysed in the context of its features. Basically, Polytheism was completely against every type of scientific explanation but the beginning of science started in this stage. Actually reaching polytheism from fetishism was one of the major achievements of human intellect. The social thought of polytheism can be observed from two sides and these are political and moral.

1. Political Structure. Humans sowed the seeds of politics, right from the beginning, in many ways. Initially in politics, military features such as courage and strength were the most important aspects in politics. Later on intelligence and diplomacy became the base of politics. According to Comte, there were many aspects of political structure in Polytheism such as, religious wars (crusades) and military system. In this sub stage, religion gained social importance. Religious festivals in the Greek civilisation express this aspect very well. Except this, in this sub stage, there was a need of military development. The major reason of military development was that without this, the political structure and its progress was almost impossible. Polytheism not only established military discipline but it maintained this discipline as well. Political structure of Polytheism had two important features and these were slavery and centralisation of spiritual and temporal forces.

2. Morality. The above given explanation of political structure clearly tells us that morality, at this stage, was not in good shape. According to Comte, under the system of slavery, personal, familial and social relations became corrupt to a great extent. Except this, in comparison with political structure, morality was at its lower level. -According to

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Comte, Polytheism had three phases :

1. Comte gives the name of Egyptian phase to the first phase. Intellectual and social elements of primary phase can develop only when whole power comes in the hands of priest class. Its important function was to accept different occupations on a large scale. Consequently, in this stage, one important institution came into being which is known as caste system. First of all, caste system developed in the Asian countries. Yet, the caste system emerged out of military system but it curbed the wartime interests and gave authority to the priest class. Caste system did not develop in the western societies. According to Comte, social equalitarianism was the main aspect of the civilisation. Sometimes he seems to agree with Karl Marx when he says that Colonialism was good for the Asian countries because the equalitarianism of western countries played an important role in breaking the clutches of caste system. Its universality is a major proof of its activeness for the human needs. Major role of caste system in the intellectual progress is to differentiate theory and its execution. Politically, its importance was to maintain system and peace in society. Even after having many advantages, this phase was against any type of progress or change.

2. Second phase was Greek or intellectual in which, first time, discrepancy was created between intellectual and social progress. In this stage, in Greece, one such intellectual class took birth which did not do any work except the conceptual framing. That is why it emerged as an alternative to the pries’! class. Its direct impact was on the progress of science. The revolutionary change occurred in this was the progress in Geometry. The progress of philosophy was started with the progress of science.

3. Comte gave the name Roman or Military phase to the third phase. Major achievement of Rome was to make free itself from the priest class. Consequently the authority of Senate was established in Rome or Roman Civilisation. The centralised feature of the Roman Civilisation was its war policy. Main objective of the wars was to establish colonial areas. The development of individual personality was based on war culture. Humans were nurtured under military discipline. The reasons of Rome’s decline can be seen in its expansionist policy.

These three phases of Polytheism had a universal character. Comte observes them as a specimen of Egypt, Greece and Rome. His main objective was to express three types of Polytheism.

3. Monotheism. When Rome united whole of the civilised world, Monotheism got a chance to work on intellectual level to raise the living standard. Intellectual decline of theological philosophy was bound to happen. Comte gave the example of Roman Catholicism to explain this stage. Monotheism basically is a belief system which is independent from the political system. Differentiation of religion and political power was the major achievement of modern age. One of the achievements of Roman Catholicism was to bring morality under its control. Initially, morality was controlled by political needs. In this stage, an independent and effective existence of an intellectual class was established. Consequently differentiation between theory and its usage came into being. Now, there is no need of empirical context to create new theories. To bring reforms in political system, abstract theories can be created. In the same way, talks could take place about the needs of future society.

In Monotheism’s sub stage, feudalism could be considered as a base of modern society. In the field of morality, Roman Catholicism was able to maintain a universal morality. It helped in creating different moralities such as personal morality, familial and social morality but there was an intellectual decline in this stage. In comparison to this stage, Polytheism was having better opportunities of intellectual progress.

2. Metaphysical Stage. Comte gave the name of revolutionary time of modern society to this stage. This stage remained for five centuries i.e. from 14th till 19ril centuries. This stage can be divided into two parts. In first part, revolutionary movement started without any deliberate efforts. Second stage started in the 16th century. One negative theory started in this whose main aim was to bring social change. The time of revolutionary stage could be considered at the time of differentiation of spiritual and worldly powers in Monotheism. Revolutionary philosophy started in 16th century with the advent of ‘Protestantism’. Second part of Metaphysical stage can be divided into three phases :

  • In first phase, old system automatically ended in the later part of 15th century.
  • In second phase, Protestantism came into being. In this, there was a complete right of observation but it remained confined with the Christian religion. It broke the limits of observation and said that it has no limits.
  • In third stage, Deism came forward in the 18th century. It broke the limited limits of observation. This phase established the authority of medieval philosophy and legal experts. These both gave a great blow to the Catholic system. Consequently, spiritualism declined which greatly affected the world. Feudalism and upper classes also declined. Protestantism gave birth to universal freedom and consequently people became ready to remove social and intellectual elements of ancient system. Negative philosophy was also established in this stage.

3. Positive Stage. To understand the beginning of positive stage, two things should be kept in mind. First of all, Comte considered it as Industrial society. Secondly, he considers the beginning of this stage also from the 14th century. It means that the positive stage also started with the revolutionary stage but it started dominating in the 14th century. In the positive stage, one difference occurred in its concept and usage. Intellectual imagination was divided in three phases and these were’ industrial, aesthetic and scientific. All of these phases were similar in three aspects of each subject such as good or profitable, beautiful and truth. Most important aspect out of these is industrial on the basis of which, we can compare ancient society with modern system. Major feature of the industrial aspect was the advent of political freedom. One of its another feature is its revolutionary nature.

Positivism:

Question 2.
Explain Positivism theory given by Auguste Comte.
Or
Discuss the theory of Positivism given by Comte.
Answer:
Auguste Comte used the word ‘Positivism’ in his book ‘Positive Philosophy’ in a way that it became polemical. Actually, he used this word as an ideological weapon to struggle against the revolutionary culture. Comte’s main objective, to understand social phenomenon, was to dismiss critical and destructive theories of negative philosophy and, in place of it, to establish formative and constructive theories of positive philosophy. In other words, main objective of Comte was to bring social study and research at scientific level. Positivism wanted to use methods of natural sciences in social studies and to make social sciences more realistic such as Physics, Chemistry etc. He believed that through positivism, real and positive knowledge could be attained. He said that through their practical use, social progress could be made possible. Real and positive knowledge will become strong base of social reorganisation. In this way, the ultimate objective of positivism is social reconstruction or reorganisation.

Now the question is that what is meant by the concept of Positivism given by Comte. In simple words, the scientific method used by Comte to study social phenomenon is positivism. Comte adopted this method as study method from Huem, Kont and Gaul. He used positivism while formulating his theories but never gave its clear cut explanation in his books. He never tried to prove the correctness of its rules. He did so deliberately because he believed that the explanation of method cannot be differentiated from the study of its phenomenon which can be found through these methods.

After studying Comte’s writings, we can say that the meaning of positivism is a scientific method. Scientific method is the method in which, to understand and explain any subject matter, there is no place of imagination, guessing, exchange etc. It is a systematic functional method of observation, experience, classification, comparison and scientific method. In this, to understand and to gain any knowledge of any subject, the scientific method based on observation, experience, classification, comparison and historical method is known as positivism.

Chamblis explained the meaning of Comte’s positivism in these words. Comte rejected the thing that positivism is antitheist because, in any form, it is not attached with supernaturality. He also believed that positivism is not fatalist because it accepts that change can come in outer phase. It is also not optimistic because it lacks the metaphysical base of optimism. Positivism is related with reality, not with imagination, is related with useful knowledge, not with complete knowledge. It is related with those definite facts whose pre-knowledge is possible. It is also related with real knowledge, not with indefinite ideas. In short, positivism is the system of ideas which is universally accepted.

From the given description, it is clear that positivism is the scientific method based on observation, explanation, classification, comparison and historical method through which the real and positive knowledge about any subject is gained. While following Huem and Kont, Comte was clear about the fact that what any science should achieve and what it should try to achieve. The scope of scientific knowledge is limited. Such logics are included in scientific knowledge which are about the relations of traditions and can be checked. These logics, are of two types :

  • Uniformity of co-existence
  • Uniformities of succession.

During the times of Comte, natural sciences such as mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and biology were completely developed and the study of their subject matter was done through scientific method. But Comte was not satisfied with the study system of social phenomenon through prevailing hypostatical and religious methods. He gave the utmost importance to scientific method. He was in favour of bringing social study system into the scientific study system of observation, classification, analysis etc. Comte was of the view that, with the help of systematic functional systems based on observation, experience, classification etc., the study of not only natural phenomenon is possible but the study of society is also possible because society is a part of nature. The way in which natural phenomenon are based on few definite rules, in the same way, as a part of nature, social phenomenon also occur according to certain rules.

Social phenomenon never occur suddenly but occur according to pre-determined rules. It means that the study of collective life and its related basic rules is realistically possible. This is the basic concept of positivism. So, it is clear that Comte’s Positivism is not based on imagination but is based on the systematic functional system of observation, comparison, classification, historical method which explains social tradition and instead of finding reasons, it gives more stress on finding causal-effect relationship.

It is clear from the given description that in positivistic system, initially we select a topic and then, through observation, we collect all the related facts. In the eyes of Comte, observation is the major method to study any phenomenon, natural or social. After this, it is explained, analysed and on the basis of general features, they are classified. In the end, related with the topic, conclusions are drawn and they are verified by using comparison and historical method.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Theory Of Social Action:

Question 3.
Discuss Max Weber’s theory of Social Action.
Answer:
Among the propounders of the theory of Social Action, Max Weber is quite prominent. Weber gave a detailed and scientific explanation of the theory,of Social Action. Only through the concept of Social Action, Weber explains scientific nature of Sociology. A number of Sociologists, such as Raymond Aaron, Irwing Zetlin, Bogardax, Rex etc. criticised Max Weber and they started their work of criticism only with the theory of Social Action. Before the beginning of this theory, we must keep in mind that there must be no technical difference between action and behaviour. It is necessary for the members of the society to interact with others for the formation of relations. There is always an objective behind every type of human action. One needs to act to achieve his objective. As a sociologist, one cannot include all the actions in the purview of Social Action. Only such actions come in its purview which are given any particular meaning by the actor. This action of an individual can be external, internal, mental and material. Along with this, actions can be related with any time present, future or past. It means it can be related with any age.

First of all the theory of Social Action was given by ‘Alfred Marshall’. Marshall studied Utilitarianism and developed the concept of action. Marshall considered action as a special category of value. After Marshall, Vilfredo Pareto developed the theory of ‘elites’ and ‘circulation of elites’. In this category, Durkheim gave the theory of ‘Social Fact’.  In modern age, major propounder of the concept of Social Action was Max Weber who gave the concept of meaningful ‘Social Action’. In the same way the names of Weblin, Commons, Karl Manheim, Parsons and Merton are quite important. We can also include the names of William White and C. Right Mills in this category. Max Weber gave his theory of ‘Social Action’ in his book ‘The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation’.

Weber says that social action is very much different from individual action. While defining social action, Max Weber writes that, “That action is social in so far as by virtue of the subjective meaning attached to it by acting individual it takes account of the behaviour of others and is ther eby oriented in its course.” To explain his concept of social action, Weber divided it into four parts. According to Weber, this classification of Weber is based on the relations with things. Parsons considered it a form of orientation. Gerth and Mills call it as a motivational direction.

Before understanding Weber’s classification of action, we need to understand the concept of Social Action. According to Weber, we need to keep in mind four things before accepting any action as Social Action :

  1. Weber believed that social action can be affected by the past, present and future behaviour of other individuals. If we act in accordance with our action of past, it will be a past action. If we act in present time, it is a present action and if we act while keeping in mind future, it will be a future action.
  2. Weber says that every exterior action cannot be a social action. Exterior action is non-social which is influenced completely by non-living things.
  3. Few human contacts come in the category of social action till the extent that they are related and influenced by meaningful behaviour of others.
  4. Action is neither called social if same type of action is done by many and nor it can be called social which is only affected by others. For example, during rain, if every one opens up his umbrella, it cannot be a social action because action of every one is not related with the action of others. Weber says that imitation of someone’s action is not social until your action is having a meaningful relation with others’ action.

Types Of Social Action:

1. Rational Action. Rational Action (also known as value-rational ones, wertrational) is the action which is taken because it leads to a valued goal, but with no thought of its consequences and often without consideration of the appropriateness of the means chosen to achieve it (‘the end justifies the means’). Value rational or Instrumentally rational social action is divided into two groups : rational consideration and rational orientation. Rational consideration is when secondary results are taken into account rationally. This is also considered alternative means when secondary consequences have ended. Determining this mean of action is quite hard and even incompatible. Rational orientation is being able to recognize and understand certain mediums under common conditions. According to Weber, heterogeneous actors and groups that are competing, find it hard to settle on a certain medium and understand the common social action.

2. Instrumental Action (also known as value relation, goal-instrumental ones, zweckrational): actions which are planned and taken after evaluating the goal in relation to other goals, and after thorough consideration of various means (and consequences) to achieve it. An example would be a high school student preparing for life as a lawyer. The student knows that in order to get into college, he/she must take the appropriate tests and fill out the proper forms to get into college and then do well in college in order to get into law school and ultimately realize his/her goal of becoming a lawyer. If the student chooses not to do well in college, he/she knows that it will be difficult to get into law school and ultimately achieve the goal of being a lawyer. Thus the student must take the appropriate steps to reach the ultimate goal.

Another example would be most economic transactions. Value Relation is divided into the subgroups commands and demands. According to the law, people are given commands and must use the whole system of private laws to break down the central government or domination in the legal rights which a citizen possess. Demands can be based on justice or human dignity just for morality. These demands have posed several problems. Even legal formalism has been put to the test. These demands seem to weigh on the society and at times can make them feel immoral.

The rational choice approach to religion draws a close analogy between religion and the market economy. Religious firms compete against one another to offer religious products and services to consumers, who choose between the firms. To the extent that there are many religious firms competing against each other, they will tend to specialize and cater to the particular needs of some segments of religious consumers. This specialization and catering in turn increase the number of religious consumers actively engaged in the religious economy. This proposition has been confirmed in a number of empirical studies.

It is well known that strict churches are strong and growing in the contemporary United States, whereas liberal ones are declining. For lannaccone’s religious experience is a jointly produced collective good. Thus members of a church face a collective action problem. Strict churches, which often impose’ costly and esoteric requirements on their members, are able to solve this problem by weeding out potential free riders, since only the very committed would join the church in the face of such requirements. Consistent with the notion that religious experience is a collective good, lannaccone et al. show that churches that extract more resources from their members (in the form of time and money) tend to grow in membership.

3. Affectional Action (also known as emotional actions) are the actions which are taken due to one’s emotions, to express personal feelings. For example, cheering after a victory, crying at a funeral would be affectional actions. Affectual is divided into two subgroups : uncontrolled reaction and emotional tension. In uncontrolled reaction there is no restraint and there is lack of discretion. A person with an uncontrolled reaction becomes less inclined to consider other peoples’ feelings as much as his own. Emotional tension comes from a basic belief that a person is unworthy or powerless to obtain his/her deepest aspirations. When aspirations are not fulfilled there is internal unrest. It is often difficult to be productive in society because of the unfulfilled life. Emotion is often neglected because of concepts at the core of exchange theory. A common example is behavioral and rational choice assumptions. From the behavioral view, emotions are often inseparable from punishments.

Emotion. Emotions are one’s feelings in response to a certain situation. There are six types of emotion : social emotions, counterfactual emotions, emotions generated by what may happen (often manifested as anxiety), emotions generated by joy and grief (examples found in responses typically seen when a student gets a good grade, and when a person is at a funeral, respectively), thought-triggered emotions (sometimes manifested as flashbacks), and finally emotions of love and disgust. All of these emotions are considered to be unresolved. There are six features that are used to define emotions : intentional objects, valence, cognitive antecedents, physiological arousal, action tendencies, and lastly physiological expressions. These six concepts were identified by Aristotle and are still the topic of several talks.

4. Rational choice theorists, on the other hand, believe that all social actions are rationally motivated. Rationality means that the actions taken are analyzed and calculated for the greatest amount of (self)-gain and efficiency. Rational choice theory although increasingly colonized by economist, it does differ from microeconomic conceptions. Yet rational choice theory can be similar to microeconomic arguments. Rational choice assumes individuals to be egoistic and hyperrational although theorists mitigate these assumptions by adding variables to their models.

5. Traditional actions. Actions which are carried out due to tradition, because they are always carried out in a particular manner for certain situations. An example would be putting on clothes or relaxing on Sundays. Some traditional actions can become a cultural artifact. Traditional is divided into two subgroups: customs and habits. A custom is a practice that rests among familiarity. It is continually perpetuated and is ingrained in a culture. Customs usually last for generations. A habit is a series of steps learned gradually and sometimes without conscious awareness. As the old cliche goes, “old habits are hard to break” and new habits are difficult to form.

Social Action models help to explain social outcomes because of basic sociological ideas such as the Looking Glass Self. The Idea of Cooley’s Looking Glass Self is that our sense of self develops as we observe and reflect upon others and what they may think of our actions. Additionally, impression formation processes allow us to interpret the significance of others’ actions.
Social Actions and Institutions Model. An ‘institution’ consists of specialized roles and settings that are linked together semantically, with the complex typically being devoted to serving some function within society.

In sociological hierarchy, social action is more advanced than behavior, action and social behaviour, and is in turn followed by more advanced social contact, social interaction and social relation.
Weber said that social actions are directed in three ways :

  1. Traditional Usage: It means that which is edited on the basis of tradition. Social customs affect human actions. Consequently human actions never move away from social traditions which led to the maintenance of social decorum.
  2. Interest: The meaning of interest is by such similarities in which actions could be understood in the form of prudential guidance.
  3. Legitimate Order: In this, actions are directed by actor’s ideals.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Authority-Concept And Types:

Question 4.
What is meant by Authority? Explain the types of authority given by Max Weber.
Answer:
Human activities are always according to social structure. In each organised group, elements of authority are always there. In an organised group, few general members are there and few other members are there who are given responsibility as well as authority. Few persons work as administrators. Composition of a group is always according to this rule of authority which states that few are empty handed and few are given enough. Legal or sanctioned form of power is known as authority. Meaning of sanction of power is by that power which is sanctioned by society. This sanction can be given through written rules, laws, traditions or written norms. Power is the capacity of a person or a group of influencing other’s behaviour according to one’s wish. Power is an institutionalised concept and Weber’s analysis is in this direction. Weber has given three basic types of authority and these are :

  1. Legal Authority
  2. Traditional Authority
  3. Charismatic Authority

1. Legal Authority. The authority based upon formal rules and laws is known as legal authority. This type of authority is being given by laws or rules of the country. Jurisdiction of the concerned person is being given is this. Authoritative person uses this type of authority according to the definite rules and he can be punished if he will go beyond his jurisdiction. All the persons, who have got legal authority, don’t have some type of authority but the authority of the concerned person depends upon his post. There is definite hierarchy among the different posts..

There are certain rules in using authority which keep restrictions on those who use authority. Authority differentiates his personality as an individual and as an authoritative person. It is expected from him to keep all of his activities in written form. In this way State makes certain rules according to which few statuses are there with which some authority is associated. So if any person gets that status, he automatically enjoys the authority associated with that status.

In this type of authority, the source of authority is not the individual prestige of a person but is the authority associated with the rules. For this his scope is limited until the authority is given to him by laws. An individual cannot go beyond the limits of authority which is given to him by his official status or laws. In this way there is a basic difference between his scope of official activities and personal activities. For example, if any one is working as an officer then in office he enjoys certain type of authority which he cannot enjoy at home. At home he enjoys the authority of a father and a husband but not of an officer. In any complex society, legal authority is not the same in every one’s hand but there is definitely a hierarchy in it. It means that in legal authority certain higher and lower authorities are there.

2. Traditional Authority. Authority given on the basis of social values, folkways, mores, traditions, customs etc. is known as traditional authority. No written rules or laws are behind this type of authority. Traditional authority always depends upon unwritten rules. Social sanction is the main force behind this type of authority. If any one defies this type of authority then he is punished by social boycot. Example of this type of authority is head of the joint family in Indian society. Every one obeys the orders of head of the family due to traditions. Authority of Brahmins caste system was also based upon traditions. They are considered as superior to other castes and they have the permission to perform religious rituals. Even today, Brahmin plays a very important role as a religious consultant. In the same way authority of husband over wife is the fine example of traditional authority in Indian society.

This type of authority is not given according to one’s status or is given to any one under certain rules but one enjoys it because authority to him is given by tradition. This status is defined according to traditional system because of which one gets a specific type of authority. In this way authority based on traditional beliefs is known as traditional authority. For example, in earlier times, the authority given to panchs in panchayat was not according to certain rules but was according to traditions associated with the status of panchs. Even the authority of panchs was compared with the authority of God. It means that panch was seen as replica of God. In the same way the authority given to father in a patriarchal society is not according to rules but is based on traditions. We do not follow father’s orders because of any legal authority given to him but we follow him because traditionally this process is going on from the ages. Legal authority is definite and limited according to certain defined rules but this is not the case in traditional authority because traditions are not clearly defined and they don’t have any definiteness. There is no limit of this type of authority. For example, the limit of authority of an officer can be defined but we cannot define his authority as a father or as a husband.

3. Charismatic Authority. The source of charismatic authority can be completely differ ent from traditional authority. The power of order can be used by a leader, a prophet, a hero etc. but this type of person can be a charismatic leader if he has any magical power, revaluation or any other extraordinary quality and he has some sort of charisma. Those people who obey his orders, are his followers who, instead of belie’zing in legal or traditional authority, believe in his charismatic abilities and individual charisma. Those followers can barely be characterized as an organisation and their activi ties are based on the authority of the leaders. Officials of this type of organisation can be designated by ithe leader not by any rule or tradition. They are bounid to the orders given by their charismatic leader.

This type of authority is neither’ based on legislative? rules and nor on tradition but i:s based on some sor-t of charisma. This type of power only those people enjoy who have some charismatic forces. It takes a lot of time to achieve this type of authority. In other words; the person should develop his personality in such a way that the people- should be able to understand that this, person has developed some charismatic powers and people mus?t accept his authority. Magicians, Prophets, Pir, Military General, Religious leaders come in this type of authority. People accept authority of thin type of person because they feel that this person has some charismatic traits; which ordinary people don’t have. Thai’s why they even bow in front of him. This type of au thority don’t have any limit. This type of authority has a feat ure that after some time, it changes into either legal or traditional autho:rity.

Social Fact:

Question 5.
Explain the concept of Social Fact of Durkheim. Critically examine it also. .
Or
Explain the nature and characteristics of Social Fact. Criticise it also.
Answer:
The analysis of‘social fact’ given by Karl Marx is very important. Durkheim’s views about ‘Social Fact’ can be seen in his second main book ‘The Rules of Sociological Method’. Durkheim felt that Sociology cannot be established as independent science until or unless its subject matter is not clear and for the analysis of this there is need of systematic objective methodology. Because of these two objectives Durkheim wrote ‘The Rules of Sociological Method.’Durkheim clearly felt the drawbacks of Sociologists like Comte, Spencer, Mill etc. and clearly wrote, “These Sociologists have gone forward unclear towards the relations between nature of Sociology and Socio-biological areas.”

What are Social Facts? From the point of view of subject matter and study methodology, Durkheim has tried to establish Sociology as an independent Social Science. Durkheim was of the view that Sociology does not include all the human activities in its study’ but it limits itself to the study of social facts. In this chapter Durkheim tries to clarify that actually which facts oan be called as Social Facts? What are the characteristics of social facts and how these can be studied?

While explaining the meaning of Social Fact, Durkheim said that there are many wrong views about social fact and that’s why many misconceptions are there regarding the subject matter of Psychology, Biology and Sociology. Himself Durkheim has written, “Before knowing methodology of social facts we should know that which facts are generally known as ‘Social’? This is also important from this point that the word ‘Social’ has been used in very indefinite way. Today this word is used for that phenomenon which occurs in society. That is a different thing that how much interest that phenomenon have in society. But we don’t have any human phenomenon which cannot be called as social. Every man is sleeping, eating, drinking and thinking and it is in the interest of society that everthing should be done in a systematic way. If we’ll call all these social facts then there will be no independent subject matter of Sociology and there will be a great confusion in Sociology and Psychology and Biology.

While explaining the meaning of social fact, first of all Durkheim said that social facts should be seen as things. Yet Durkheim has not given clear meaning of the word ‘thing’. Durkheim has used the word ‘thing’ in four different meanings. These are :

  1. Social fact is that thing which has some characteristics and externally which can be seen.
  2. Social fact is that thing which we can know with experience only.
  3. Social fact is that thing whose existence is not dependent upon humans,
  4. Social fact is that thing about which we can understand externally. But because social fact is like thing so it is not a static concept but it should be taken as moveable concept.

In this way we can see that in every type of society some those type of facts are there which are quite different from Material, Biological and Psychological. To this type of facts Durkheim is calling them social fact. Durkheim has given many definitions of social facts. At one place Durkheim has written, “Social facts are those ways of doing work, thinking and experiencing, in which they have extraordinary characteristic of keeping their existence outside of personal consciousness.” At another place Durkheim has written, “Social facts are the ways of doing work, thinking and experiencing, which are external from man and which controls the man with the help of their power of constraint.”

In the end of first chapter of his book Durkheim gave clear definition of social fact. He wrote, “A social fact is a temporary, permanent way of doing work, which is capable of putting external pressure or every way of doing any work which is available in any society in general form but with that they are independent from personal consciousness and have their independent existence.”

From all these definitions of Durkheim it is clear that way of acting are social facts. In ways of acting all human behaviour are included which are related with his thinking, feeling and acting. These are the parts of social reality. These phenomenon can be temporary or can be permanent. For example in any society there is little bit difference between numbers of suicide, marriages and dead people. It means that their annual rate is .generally static or permanent. So these can be called social facts. In this way ‘God’ cannot be called as social fact because it is always from real observation.

In this way any thought of mind cannot be called as social fact because it doesn’t have any external form. But any concept as rule given by any scholar or any pray, in which Totemism is included, can be called as social fact because their real observation is possible. Language, folk stories, religious beliefs, business laws, actions moral rules are the best examples of social facts because their observation, experimentation is possible and they are external of humans and they are capable to pressurise them.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Characteristics of Social Facts:

On the basis of given description we can say that there are three characteristics of social facts. These are :

  1. Exteriority
  2. Constraint
  3. Generality

1. Exteriority. The first and most important characteristic of social fact is its exteriority. By exteriority it means that it is right that social facts are made by the members of society but when they are developed once then they are not under control of any particular person and they are taken as independent reality. Then they don’t have any internal relation with scientist or maker of that fact and no one can influence these social facts.

To explain exteriority of social facts Durkheim has explained this on the basis of difference between individual consciousness and collective consciousness. According to Durkheim if we will analyse the organization and forms of individual consciousness then it will be clear that the main bases of individual consciousness are sentiments. Sentiments are the results of interaction of different cells. But these sentiments, which develop from different cells, have their own characteristics which are not there before the birth of cells. With collection a system comes in front. To this concept Durkheim is calling ‘Synthesis and Suigeneris. Durkheim believes that the way in which the main base of personal thoughts is the different collection of cells, in that same way the main base of social thoughts is members of society. Collective consciouness is developed from the organization of personal consciousness. In this way “these show the exceptional fact of living outside of individual consciousness.”

2. Constraint. The second characteristic of social fact is its constraint. In other words, social facts have a type of pressure or constraint on man. Social fact cannot be made by one man or by some men, it will be made by many or a number of humAnswer: So that why these are very powerful and they can put effect of constraint on any man. Durkheim was of the view that social facts not only affect the behaviour of man but they affect his way of thinking and doing work. In this way according to Durkheim we can see this characteristic of social fact in this way that it is not according to the interests of humans but the behaviour of humans is according to them. Durkheim is giving a number of explanations to explain this characteristic.

According to him, the behaviour and ways of humans all are influenced by many social facts like moral rules, religious beliefs, economic systems etc. Durkheim has written, “Constraint is their internal characteristic and its proof is that how much I am trying to opposing them they are exerting more pressure or constraint on me. If I will not use the ways of my country, If I will not wear clothes and obey rules of my country then my countrymen will keep me away from them. In actual words these are as effective as punishment. Yet these are indirect but still they are influential.”

At another place Durkheim has written, “It is’not necessary for me to talk with other French people in French language or I should use popular currency, but it will not be possible for me to do work against this. As an industrialist I am free to use old methods of business but if I will do this then definitely I will’ call my destruction. It means that these social facts are exerting on me to work according to them.”

In this way social facts are coming in the category of collective consciousness and collective consciousness is the collection of individual consciousness. This is the consciousness of consciousnesses. A social fact can be seen with the power of constraint pressure.

3. Generality. The third characteristic of social fact is its generality and these have been distributed right from the ancient times till today and these are spread in every sphere of life. These are common to all. These do not belong to any particular person. This generality is not just the collection of many personal facts. They are collective by nature and they are influencing people because of their characteristics of generality and collectiveness. In this way we can see that according to Durkheim, there are three important characteristics of social facts :

  1. Social facts are keeping their independent existence from personal thoughts.
  2. Social facts have an effect of constraint on humans.
  3. They are universal and general and are available everywhere.
    In short, according to Durkheim social fact is the every way of doing work which is external, puts pressure on humans and are general in nature.

Rules For Distinguishing Between Normal and Pathological Facts. In his 3rd chapter Durkheim has given laws for distinguishing normal and pathological facts. Marx has said that the social facts of subject matter of Sociology generally are coming in front of us in two forms. First are those which are according to the accepted behaviour of the society and others are those which are different from these. To these Durkheim has given types of social facts and these are of two types.
Types :

  • Normal facts
  • Pathological facts

According to Durkheim, science must have power to formulate those rules on the basis of which we can differentiate these normal and pathological facts. Normal social facts are those facts which are spread everywhere in human society and if they are not spread in all then atleast they are spread in most of these.

Pathological social facts are those facts which are not spread everywhere but are spread only in some parts. To clarify Durkheim’s view, Raymond Arron has written, “Any phenomenon is normal at that time when they are found in the special stage of evolution of any particular society.” With this definition of Arron the types of facts will be cleared. According to him any social phenomena or fact will be normal in that condition when it is available in any particular stage of evolution of one particular society. In contrary to that if any fact is not of that type or it don’t have characteristic of this type then it can be called as pathological fact.
Durkheim has given three important rules to -differentiate in Normal and Pathological facts.

1. According to Durkheim, the first important rule of differentiating between these two is Generality. Generality is called to that fact when any characteristic or fact is available in most of the members of the group. According to Durkheim the General Phenomenon available in any society or group can be called as normal. Those phenomenon or facts don’t have this characteristic means the phenomenofi which are not average those will be called as Pathological.

In this way Generality is the main base of differentiating in Normal and Pathological facts but Generality is a neutral concept. It is not sure that we can find all the facts everywhere and in every type of society. We can give two examples to clarify this rule. In U.S.A. ‘Kissing’ at any place is a General Phenomena but it is not in India. In this way ‘untouchability’ was a general phenomena in India before independence but now it is not.

2. The second rule of differentiating between normal and pathological fact according to Durkheim is that all use the result of preceding method (Generality) to show that the Generality of the phenomena is related with the general condition of community life of that society. It means that if it is called any fact as general fact according to first rule then to verify our result we can say that this phenomenon is related with the general conditions of community life of that society. For example, marriage is a social phenomena which can be found in every type of society. It is general because it is related closely with our life.

3. According to Durkheim’s 3rd rule we can verify any social phenomena as formal fact in that condition when that normal fact is available in that society which has not evolutionized fully or which is in underdeveloped condition. It is must in that condition when that particular fact is available in that society which has not evolutionized fully.

Division Of Labour:

Question 6.
What do you know about the concept of Division of Labour given by Durkheim? Give its functions and reasons also.
Or
Write a note on ‘Division of Labour’ as described by Durkheim.
Answer:
In 1893 Durkheim published his first book in French language called ‘De La Division due Trovail Social’. Though it was his first writing yet it was a strong base for his popularity. On this book only he got doctorate from Paris University in 1893. In this great book he has fully explained the social division of labour. Durkheim’s this book has been divided into three parts. In every part he has analysed the different aspects of division of labour. These three parts are :

  1. The Functions of Division of Labour
  2. Causes and Conditions
  3. Abnormal forms of Division of Labour

In the first part of this book ‘Functions of Division of Labour’ he has tried to prove that division of labour is the base of social solidarity. With that from the point of view of scientific study he has explained different forms of Law, types of solidarity, different forms of human relations, crime, punishment, social evolution and some problems of society. In second part of this book he has given detailed explanation of reasons and results of division of labour. In third part of this book he has given some abnormal forms of division of labour.

Here we will give brief description of two parts and with this we will explain the concept of division of labour.

Functions of Division of Labour:

Durkheim accepts every social fact as moral fact. Any social behaviour lives on the base of moral base. As a functionalist first of all Durkheim has given function of division of labour. According to him, division of labour is a social fact, that’s why he started his book from its functional analysis. First of all, Durkheim has given the meaning of function. He has given two meanings of function:

  • Meaning of function is from system of movement it means from action.
  • Second meaning of function is from this action or movement and from interrelation according to its needs which means the need to be fulfilled by action.

Here Durkheim is using meaning of function from second point of view. In this way by function of division of labour his meaning is that which basic of social existence is fulfilled by the process of division of labour. Function is that in the absence of which, the basic needs of its units cannot be fulfilled. Generally it has been said that the function of division of labour is the development of Society because it is a truth that with the development of division of labour and

  • Penal law. These are related with giving suffering, causing loss, to kill and to obstruct independence. We can call them organised Repressive laws.
  • Diffused law. Some repressive laws are there which are spread in the whole society or group on the basis of morality. That’s why Durkheim is calling them diffused law.

According to Durkheim, Repressive laws are related with criminal functions. These laws explain the crime and its punishment. These laws also show the basic conditions of collective life of society. Every society has its basic circumstances. So in different societies repressive laws are also different. The power of these repressive laws is based in collective mind and collective mind gets power from equalities.

2. Restitutive law. Another type of law is Restitutive law system. These laws provide balance to the imbalance produced in the human relations. In this group civil laws, business laws, constitutional laws, administrative laws are coming. These laws are not related with the whole society but are related with human. These laws are regulating the balance and imbalance produced in the personal relations of members of society. Restitutive laws are joining individuals and society with some middle institutions.
On the basis of these two types of laws according to Durkheim two types of solidarities can be made. These two types of solidarities are the result of two different types of life styles. Repressive laws are related with general nature of man and with equalities. But Restitutive laws are realted with differences or with division of labour. The type of solidarity which comes due to Repressive Jaws, according to Durkheim, it is Mechanical Solidarity arid the solidarity which comes due to Restitutive laws is called Organic Solidarity whose base is division of labour.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

In this way according to Durkheim there are two types of social solidarities :

1. Mechanical Solidarity. According to Durkheim, Mechanical Solidarity can be seen in the repressive laws of society. The basis of this solidarity are the equalities available in the members of society. The society in which the life of members is full of equalities, where general norms of thoughts, beliefs, functions, life style and ideal are there and the society which thinks, works as a collective unit on the basis of these equalities shows mechanical solidarity. Its members are united like a machine. In old primitive socieities mechanical solidarity was there. He was of the view that even crime helps in binding the people in solidarity. In this way there is existence of one social solidarity which comes out of definite conditions of consciousness which are normal for the members of any society. These can be shown by Repressive laws. These are based on the power of collective consciousness.

2. Organic Solidarity. According to Durkheim, second type of solidarity is organic solidarity. The power of Repressive laws is in collective consciousness. Collective consciousness gets power from equalities. In primitive societies repressive laws were there because the base of social life was equalities. According to Durkheim, modern societies are influenced by division of labour and specialization in which instead of equalities, inequalities are the base. This difference of group or collective life gives importance to individual consciousness.

In modern societies man is not directly united with group. In-these societies there is a lot of importance of mutual relations of humAnswer: That’s why he was of the view that in modern societies instead of Repressive laws, Restitutive laws are important. In the societies which are based on differences humans are dependent upon each other. Every human can specialize in one field and for other works he is dependent upon others. This interdependent of members of group or society and their personal inequalities force them to come closer to each other with the help of which solidarity in society would be established. To this type of solidarity Durkheim is saying organic solidarity. This can be seen in restitutive social system.

According to Durkheim, this solidarity is just like Physical solidarity of man. Because of their specialized functions Hand, Feet, Nose, Ear, Eye etc. have different existence as independent parts of body but their function is possible in that condition when they are united with each other. Hand cannot work until or unless it is not joined with body. In other words, there is unity or solidarity between different parts of body but that is dependent upon mutual dependence. With the increase of population, needs also increase. For the growing demands of people division of labour and specialization take place and with that organic solidarity can be seen in modern societies.

3. Contractual Solidarity. After analysing mechanical and organic solidarity Durkheim has also written about one more solidarity which is known as Contractual Solidarity. According to Durkheim, the process of division of labour gives birth to contractual relationships. People of a group are getting the services of each other on the basis of mutual contracts and mutually they are cooperating with each other. It is right that in modern societies people are establishing cooperation and solidarity on the basis of contracts. But the function of division’of labour is not to give birth to contractual solidarity. According to him, contractual solidarity is individual fact, but it is regulated by society.

Social Evolution. Durkheim has explained social evolution on the basis of development of division of labour. He was of the view that the social evolution from primitive society to modern society should be called as result of continuously increasing division of labour. The changes which came in the social life of primitive societies which were easy and based on equalities, all those can be found in the explanation of process of division of labour. In other words, according to Durkheim, the development of division of labour is social evolution.

Causes and Conditions:

Second part of book ‘Division of Labour in Society’ is related with causes, conditions and results and these are given below :
Causes of Division of Labour. Durkheim has explained division of labour on Sociological basis. He has found the causes of division of labour in the conditions of social life and in the social needs produced from them. From this point of view, he had divided the cause of division of labour in two parts :

  • Primary Causes
  • Secondary Causes,

In Primary causes Durkheim has taken the cause of increase of population and its result. To Secondary reasons he has divided them in two parts and these are increasing unclarity of General consciousness and the decreasing influence of Ancestors. Now we explain them in detail :

(1) Increase in the size and density of Population. According to Durkheim, the increase in size and density of population is the central and Primary reason of division of labour. He says that the increase of population has two aspects—increase in size of population and increase in density of population. These both aspects give birth to division of labour. With the increase in population old primitive societies are disintegrating and new mixed societies are coming into being. Population started to concentrate in few centres. The density of population he has divided in two parts :

  • Material Density. From physical point of view concentration of people at one place is material density.
  • Moral Density. Because of material density relations of the people are increasing with which actions and reactions are increasing. To the complexity coming out of increased mutual relations and inter-relations Durkheim gives the name of dynamic or moral Density.

(2) Unclarity of Collective Consciousness. In secondary reasons of division of labour he has given first place to unclarity of collective consciousness. In equality based societies, collective consciousness is quite strong because of which members of societies cannot be motivated by individual or personal point of view. Collective feelings are showing them the way. Durkheim was of the view that division of labour and individual specialization is possible in that condition when instead of collective point of view, individual point of view will develop and when individual consciousness suppresses collective consciousness. So according to him the development of division of labour will be slow and difficult if collective consciousness is strong and definite. If this collective consciouness will be loose enough then the’ division of labour will move with quite a good speed.

(3) Ancestral reasons and division of labour. The second cause of division of labour according to Durkheim is the decreasing influence of ancestral influence. How much more influence these ancestral qualities can exert on man that much less chances will be there for change. In other words for the development of division of labour it is must that we should not give importance to ancestral qualities. The development of division of labour is possible only if there will be differences in the nature and behaviour of the people.

The result of classifying people on the base of their ancestral qualities and binding them with their ancestors is that man has not been able to develop his special qualities and does not change. In this way it is an obstacle in the distribution of division of labour. He was of view that with the passage of time ancestral binding will become so weak and their ancestral qualities will also become weak. So slowly and slowly different qualities of people will develop and then division of labour will also develop. In this way we have seen that Durkheim was of the view that increase of population, unclarity of collective consciousness and decreasing influence of ancestral qualities are the causes of division of labour.

3. Consequences of Division of Labour:

After giving primary and secondary factors of division of labour Durkheim gives us the results or consequences which come out of development of division of labour. We should keep in mind that ‘Functions’ and. ‘Consequences’ are two different words. So many facts which just seem like functions of this, are actually consequences of this. He has given a number of consequences of division of labour and some of these are given below :

1. Functional independence and specialization. Durkheim has differentiated between physical division of labour and Social division of labour and has given consequences of social division of labour. According to him, its one result is this that, the way in which work will be divided in that some way the independence of doing work and mobility also increases. Because of division of labour man keeps his special qualities in special function. So according to him, the result of development of division of labour is that the functions of humans become independent from their physical features. In other words human’s structural qualities are not influencing its functional nature.

2. Development of civilization. In the early part of the first part of his book he clarifies that development of civilization is not the function of division of labour because division of labour is a moral fact and all aspects of civilization-industrial, scientific and intellectual aspects don’t have any relation with moral development.

He has given development of civilization as a result of division of labour. He was of the view that the increase in size and density of population makes the development of civilization compulsory. Division of labour arid civilization both develop side by side but division of labour develops first and then because of its result civilization develops. So in this way he was of the view that civilization is not the aim and function of division of labour but it is its compulsory result-.

3. Social development. Development is the result of change. Division of labour gives birth to change. Change is a continuous process in society, so development is also a continuous process in society. According to him, the main result of this change is division of labour. Because of division of labour changes come and with change development comes. In this way social development is the result of division of labour. He said that the main reason of development is society. We change because society changes. Development will stop if the movement of society will be stopped but from scientific point of view it is not possible. So according to him, development is the result of social life.

4. Social Change and Individual Change. Durkheim has also explained social change on the basis of division of labour.The change which happens in individual is the result of changes in society. He was of the view that the main reason of changes of society is the change of size, distribution and density of population which does division of labour in humans are all individual changes. It happens due to result of these social changes.

5. Origin of new groups and interdependence. According to him, one of the results of division of labour is the development of social interest of persons engaged in special functions. For the security of their special interests new groups will be formed. In this way how much more division of labour is there that much more interdependence will be there. Interdependence gives birth to cooperation and division of labour makes compulsory the process of cooperation in social life.

6. Individual Ideology. He was of the view that because of division of labour individual ideology develops. Now there is less control of collective consciousness. Individual independence and specialization gives birth to individual ideology. So in the end because of division of labour individual ideology came into being.

7. Restitutive Laws and Moral Pressure. According to Durkheim, division of labour changes the law system. Because of division of labour mutual relations increase and because of functional relations and complexity, the importance of personal contract reduces. To keep a balance between contractual relations of humans restitutive laws develop. On one side division of labour promotes individualism and on other side it makes moral awareness related to social welfare and social behaviour of the people. According to Durkheim’s views individualism is not the result of human’s wish but is a compulsory result of social circumstances coming out of division of labour.

8. Organic Social Solidarity. To establish the organic solidarity is the function of division of labour. Therefore the end of function is result. That’s why we can take it in the consequences of division of labour.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is Liberty? Explain the negative and positive aspect of Liberty.
Answer:
Liberty is essential for the development of the personality of the individual. Montesquieu remarked that no other word left so indelible an impression on the mind of the individual as the word liberty. It has indeed been a magic word in history which has inspired millions to revolt. Even today the battle-field of freedom is not silent.

Wherever individuals suffer from injustice, they invoke the name of liberty. Everybody has the feeling that his personality cannot develop without the enjoyment of liberty and, therefore, every individual wants to enjoy maximum degree of liberty. The term liberty is derived from the Latin word ‘liber’ which means ‘free’. In other words, liberty means freedom to do whatever a man likes to do. Liberty is understood in two different ways negative aspect of liberty and positive aspect of liberty.

1. Negative aspect of Liberty:
The negative aspect of liberty means absolute freedom of the individual or i,t means that the individual has the freedom to do anything. Absence of all restraints is the meaning of negative liberty. According to J.S. Mill, liberty means absence of all restraints. J.S. Mill divided man’s sphere of activity into ‘self-regarding’ and ‘other- regarding’ and state interference is justified only in other regarding activities in case his action amounts to an intervention into the domain of the freedom of his fellow-beings.

2. Positive aspect of Liberty:
Real liberty has a positive connotation. It does not mean the absence of restrictions. On the other hand, true liberty exists only when every citizen enjoys the opportunity for self-realization and the State maintains those rights and opportunities which help the citizens to develop all that is best in them. “The true test of liberty lies in the extent to which the law of the land helps the citizen to develop all that is good in him.”

The positive aspect of liberty includes the right of man to do or enjoy something that is worth enjoying. Laski says, ‘Liberty is the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.” In brief it means, the enjoyment of certain important rights such as freedom of life, freedom of thought and freedom of worship, etc.

Now-a-days liberty cannot be accepted in the absolute form. Liberty can be accepted in its positive aspect. An individual is allowed to do all those things which do not do any harm to others and which are essential for the development of his personality. So many writers have defined liberty and the most important deinitions are given as ahead:

(i) According to Prof. Seeley, “Liberty is the opposite of over-government.” Prof. Seeley is of the opinion that true liberty lies in the existence of a right type of government. The individual cannot enjoy liberty under absolute rule.

(ii) According to Gettell, ‘Liberty is the positive power of doing and enjoying those things which are worthy of enjoyment and work.”

(iii) According to G.D.H. Cole, “No external restrictions should be imposed on those functions of the individual which are essential for the development of his personality.” He further says, ‘Liberty is the freedom of the individual to express without external hindrance of his personality.”

(iv) According to McKechnie, “Freedom is not the absence of all restraints, but rather the substitution of rational ones for the irrational.”

(v) According to T.H. Green, “Freedom consists in a positive power or capacity of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying.”

(vi) According to Laski, “I mean by liberty the absence of restraints upon the existence of those social conditions which in modern civilisation are the necessary guarantees of individual happiness.” Laski further says, “By liberty is meant the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.”

On the basis of above given definitions we can say that liberty does not mean absence of all restrictions because unrestrained or unrestricted liberty cannot be given to anybody in society. It means that no unjust restrictions be imposed on the liberty of the individual because they hamper the growth of individual’s personality.

Liberty means power to do anything that does not injure others. It does not mean licence. Some restraints are ‘ necessary for the healthy social life and liberty implies freedom of thought and action within those restraints which are necessary for the larger good of society.

There should be no undue restraints on the individual’s freedom of action. Normally the State should – allow its citizens to five freely, have freedom of speech and expression, of thought, freedom of worship, etc.
From liberty we understand the following things:

  • Liberty does not mean absence of all restrictions.
  • Liberty means absence of unjust and tyrannical restrictions.
  • Liberty means legal, moral and resonable restrictions on the functions of man.
  • Liberty is an essential condition for the development of individual personality.
  • Liberty means the rights of the individual to do things-which are not harmful to others.
  • All the individuals are entitled to liberty equally.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Question 2.
Discuss the kinds of Liberty.
Answer:
The term ‘Liberty’ conveys a wide range of ideas, and one can speak of different types of liberty. R.M. Maclver observes in his The Modem State (1950): ‘Liberty itself is not one but manifold. There are many forms of liberty: liberty of thought and of its expression, liberty of action in hundred external spheres, civil liberty, economic liberty and so forth, each of these again having many divisions, such as in the economic field, the liberties of contract and of competition.” To have a clear idea of liberty as understood in various capacities, it is necessary to examine the different types of liberty.

1. Natural Liberty:
As generally understood, natural liberty implies complete freedom for a man to do what he pleases. It is another name for the liberty of the woods that is also known by the name of licence. Natural liberty existed in the State of Nature which existed before the birth of Society. Contractualists like Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau speak in terms of a State of Nature in which there were no restraints. In his social contract theory, Rousseau stated that man enjoyed true liberty only in the State of Nature.

Some other writers also hold that natural liberty is the liberty that existed in the State of Nature. But it must be remembered that the State of Nature was pre-social and pre-political and it is difficult to visualise liberty that existed in the pre-social period of history. It must be governed by the law of the jungle and liberty must have implied “Might is Right” Prof. Gettell has rightly said: “In a State of Nature, each person would possess natural might, but not natural right.”

But natural liberty is no liberty. If every one is in the State of Nature begins to act as he wishes; there will be confusion and chaos. The strong alone will enjoy certain things and the weak will perish. Liberty of this unrestricted character is, therefore, not possible in the society. Thus with the emergence of society and state, and with the rise of several restraints, natural liberty had to end. Liberty can be enjoyed only in a society.

2. Moral Liberty:
Moral Liberty is of great importance in the life of an individual. Moral liberty means freedom to do things according to the dictates of one’s conscience. The ideas of Green, Kant and Bosanquet have supported the idea of Moral Liberty. Moral liberty is not at all concerned with the State. It is concerned with the individual’s own self.

3. Civil Liberty:
Civil liberty is the liberty which a man enjoys in a State or civil society and it consists of the rights and privileges which the State creates and protects for its subjects. It implies the right of each to do as he chooses within the limits set down by law. It may involve protection from interference at the hands of the government.

Civil liberty in the main, consists of freeedom of conscience and belief, freedom of, opinion, freedom of action, freedom of movement and equality in the eye of the law. Lord Bryce says that “Civil liberty has a positive as well as a negative side. It imparts activity, it implies the spontaneous exercise of the powers of willing and doing.” Civil liberty is of immense value to the individual and association in a State.

4. Economic Liberty:
Another sphere in which liberty is demanded and its importance increasingly recognised is the economic sphere. In fact, without economic liberty there can be no political nor true civil liberty.

Economic liberty means security of one’s daily bread and reasonable opportunities for earning it. The individual must be made free from the constant fear of ’unemployment and insufficiency and must be safeguarded against the wants of tomorrow.

Economic liberty consists in the individual’s right to work and to a minimum wage, the right to leisure by the regulation of hours of work in fields, factories and mines, the right to form unions and the right to provision against old age, sickness, unemployment, accidents and also maternity benefits. Democracy can be real only if it rests on economic as well as political liberty.

5. Political Liberty:
Political liberty is considered synonymous with democracy. By political liberty is meant the right of the people to share in the administration of the State. It consists of

  • the right to vote
  • right to be elected to various legislative bodies in the State
  • the right to hold political office and
  • the right to make constructive criticism of the government policy. Political liberty thus can exist in democracies.

6. National Liberty:
The term liberty is applied to nations as well as to individuals. A nation or people is said to be free when it has a government of its own choice and when it is not subject to any foreign control.
National liberty exists where the State is a National State, that is, where the community is independent and sovereign. The individual can have little liberty, civil, political or economic unless there is national liberty. India attained national liberty in 1947. In the recent past Bangla Desh attained national liberty with the help of Indian forces. National liberty is more important than all other types of liberty.

7. International Liberty:
The ideal of international liberty covers the world as a whole. It implies renunciation of war, limitation on the production of armaments, abandoment of the use of force and peaceful settlement of disputes. It also desires adequate curbs on the strength of military force so that it may not crush the liberties of the local people or of the people of any other country.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Question 3.
Describe the main safeguards for the maintenance of Liberty.
Or
‘Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.’ In the light of this statement discuss the main safeguards of liberty.
Answer:
Liberty has its importance for every individual. It is regarded as very precious by all people of the world. If the citizens do not enjoy any liberty, they will not be able to develop their faculties. If their actions, movements and speeches are interferred with at every step by a tyrannical authority, life is not worth-living.

Hence many attempts have been made in every country to safeguard the liberty of the individual citizens. Liberty cannot exist under a dictatorship. If the citizens have full liberty of speech and action, the dictator will soon find that his will or power will be questioned and opposed by the enlightened conscience of the citizens. Hence dictators have been forced to curtail the liberty of the subjects in order to retain their power. There was no liberty in Nazi Germany. Liberty will be secured only in a democracy where the sovereign power resides in the masses.

Generally, following safeguards are included in constitution for the protection of liberty:
1. Democracy:
In democracy the people can share the character of the Government as they like because political power lies in their hands. The people are masters of Government. They enjoy full opportunity for safeguarding their rights and liberties. Democracy is a Government of the people, by the people and for the people.

The Government is run according to the wishes of the people and nothing can be done which is against public interest. In no other form of Government the people can enjoy this much liberty. Democracy and liberty are very closely related to each other, therefore, democratic Government should be established for guarding liberty.

2. Declaration of Fundamental Rights:
Another safeguard that is adopted is to include a bill of Fundamental Rights in the constitution. According to this Bill of Rights, the citizens are guaranteed the enjoyment of their rights, free from all interference. In the modern age the constitutions are generally written and rigid and if there is a declaration of fundamental rights in the constitutions, it will serve quite a good purpose. Moreover, the Government cannot violate the right so easily. This way liberty is safeguarded by the constitution and the judiciary.

3. Independent Judiciary:
There should be independent, impartial and honest judiciary for safeguarding liberty. For the protection of rights and liberties of the individuals and for equal justice between man and man and between individuals and Government competent and an independent judiciary is a great necessity. Most of the modern States have made their judiciary thoroughly honest and impartial so that liberty for the people may be fully protected.

4. Rule of Law:
This expression means the equality of all persons before law. Law makes no distinction between the rich and the poor, the high and the low. The rule of law is the most vital principle that guarantees full liberty to the individual and prevents the executive from becoming high-handed and unjust. Rule of law means equal justice for all, no one can be tried by special courts, no one can be punished except for a breach of law and no one can plead the orders of superiors as justification for disobeying the law.

5. Equal Rights:
For safeguarding liberty it is quite essential that all the citizens be given equal rights. No individual or a section of people be given special privileges. Everybody should be equal in the eyes of law. Nobody should be discriminated against on the basis of colour, creed, religion and caste. The same law should apply to all the persons, may he be Prime Minister Or an ordinary person.

6. Economic Equality:
Economic condition of an individual essentially influences his political condition. Liberty has no meaning for a poor person. An individual can enjoy political liberty only if he is free from economic worries. As long as there is great economic inequality there can be no liberty for those who are economically depressed. In an economically divided state, it shall only be liberty of the rich or the poor. Though perfect economic equality is not possible yet the idea is that there should be as little economic inequality as possible.

7. Separation of Powers:
The ‘separation of powers’ is also regarded as one of the most important safeguards of liberty. It is held that if the three branches of government in a State legislature, executive and judiciary are separated from one another and one does not interfere with the other, individual liberty is better safeguarded. If one part of government tends to oppress the people, its actions will be checked by other parts. If the executive encroaches upon the liberty of any citizen, he can appeal to the judiciary or the legislature which will check the executive and protect his liberty.

8. Decentralization of Powers:
Prof. Laski says, “The more wide spread the distribution of power in the State, the more decentralized its character, the more likely are men to be jealous for freedom.” Instead of centralization there should be decentralization of powers. This greatly helps in the promotion of individual liberty. Bryce is of the opinion that local self- government institutions should be established for promoting the spirit of individual liberty among the people.

9. Free and Honest Press:
Democracy is considered the most important condition of liberty. But democracy also depends upon certain other conditions for the attainment of its objectives. Free and honest press plays an important role in making democracy a success. In the modem age the people come to know about all the happenings in the world only through newspapers and journals.

If the news published in the newspapers is not impartial and free from pressure then the people cannot remain well informed about the developemnts in their country as in other countries of the world. Laski has very correctly remarked, “A people without reliable news is sooner or later a people without the basis of freedom.”

10. Political Education:
For safeguarding liberty the people should be politically educated. Political education makes people conscious about their rights and liberties. The people who have political education can well understand and discuss the problems of their State. The people who are politically awakened will not tolerate any interference in their liberty.

11. Well-knit Party System:
Well-knit party system is most essential for safeguarding liberty. In England there is neither separation of powers nor a comprehensive bill of rights. There, the organised political parties, in a permanent state of tension, mutually restraining one another, ensure the continuous popular enjoyment of liberty.

The opposition parties keep a strict watch on the working of the government. The sword of criticism must always hang on the head of the government. The mere existence of political parties is not essential rather the parties should be well-organized and should be based on sound and healthy grounds.

12. Eternal Vigilance:
Prof. Laski says, “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.” The most important safeguard of liberty is enlightened and vigilant public opinion. Individual liberty is best protected when citizens are conscious about their rights and freedom. It is, therefore, said, “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and those who are trained to that vigilance become the conscious guardians of liberty.” They must be active and vigilant and be prepared to stand up to defend their rights, if they find they are in danger.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Give the meaning of Liberty.
Answer:
The term liberty has been derived from the Latin word ‘Liber’ which means free or absence of restraints. But in a true sense Liberty does not mean absence of all kinds of restraints. Absence of all restraints is the meaning of negative liberty but true Liberty exists only when every citizen enjoys the opportunity for self-realization and the state maintains those rights and opportunities which help the citizens to develop all that is best in them. The true test of liberty lies in the extent to which the law of the land help the citizen to develop all that is good in him. Liberty includes the right of the men to do or enjoy something that is worth enjoying.

Question 2.
Define the term Liberty.
Answer:
1. According to Laski, “I mean by liberty the absence of restraints upon the existence of those social conditions which in modem civilisation are the necessary guarantees of individial happiness.” Laski further says, “ By liberty is meant the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be then- best selves.”

2. According to T.H. Green, “Freedom consists in a positive power or capacity of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying.”

3. According to Gettell, “Liberty is the positive power of doing and enjoying those things which are worthy of enjoyment and work.” .

4. According to Mekechnie, “Liberty is not the absence of all restraints, but rather the substitution of rational ones for the irrational.”

Question 3.
Explain four types of Equality.
Answer:
Four types of Equality are as follows:

  • Civil Equality: Civil Equality means that every one in the state enjoys the same status in the sphere of private law.
  • Social Equality: Social equality means that no distinction is made in the social status of the people on the ground of their riches, race, class or caste.
  • Political Equality: Politcal equality means that all the citizens should be treated equal in political sphere.
  • Economic Equality: Economic equality means that there should be minimum inequaltiy in the society and everyone should have equal opportunities to develop his natural faculties and power.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Question 4.
Explain-the negative and positive aspect of liberty.
Answer:
Liberty is understood in two different ways negative and positive aspects of liberty. The negative aspect of liberty means absolute freedom of the Individual. Absence of the restraints is the meaning of negative liberty. But true liberty does not mean the absence of restrictions.

True liberty exists only when every citizen enjoys the opportunity for self-realization and the state maintains those rights and opportunity which help the citizens to develop all that is best in them. The positive aspect of liberty includes the rights of the man to do or enjoy something that is worth enjoying. In brief it means the enjoyment of certain important rights such as freedom of life, freedom of thought and freedom of worship, etc.

Question 5.
Explain the meaning of Political Liberty.
Answer:
Political Liberty is considered synonymous with democracy. By political liberty is meant the right of the people to share in the administration of the State. According to Barker, “If a man is free to advocate his thoughts, and to associate himself with others for their common advocacy, he must be free to advocate personal thoughts of his own about the affairs to the Commonwealth and not only so, but also to form or join political parties by which such or similar thoughts are generally advocated.”

It consists of 1. the right to vote, 2. the right to be elected to various legislative bodies in State 3. the right to hold political office and 4. the right to make constructive criticism of the government policy. Political liberty thus can exist in democracies.

Question 6.
Describe any two pre-conditions which are essenstial for an individual to enjoy liberty. *
Answer:
1. Independent Judiciary. There should be independent impartial and honest judiciary for safeguarding liberty. For the protection of rights and liberties of the individuals and for equal justice between man and man, between individuals and government, a competent and an independent judiciary is a great necessity.

2. Rule of Law. The rule of law is the most vital principle that guarantees full liberty to the individual and prevents the executive from becoming high handed and unjust. Rule of law means equal justice for all, no one can be tried by special courts and no one can be punished except for a breach of law.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Question 7.
What is National Liberty?
Answer:
The term liberty is applied to nations as well as to individuals. A nation or people is said to be free when it has a government of its own choice and when it is not subject to any foreign control.
National liberty exist where the State is a National State, that is, where the community is independent and sovereign. The individual can have little liberty, civil, political or economic unless there is national liberty. India attained national liberty in 1947. In the recent past Bangla Desh attained national liberty with the help of Indian forces. National liberty is more important than all other types of liberty.

Question 8.
Political liberty in the absence of Economic equality is meaningless. Explain.
Answer:
According to Laski, “ Political liberty, in the absence of economic equality is held to be a mere myth.” A multi-millionaire and a street beggar, in a formal sense, have the same political rights. But political rights are useless for a starving man. Right use of vote by a poor man is impossible. The poor man may sell his vote to a rich candidate. A poor man cannot afford to spend money on contesting an election. Moreover, political parties are controlled by the rich because the rich people finance the political parties. Press and platform are also under control of the rich. Thus in the absence of economic equality political power tends to become the handmaid of economic power.

Question 9.
Is liberty absolute? Explain.
Answer:
Supporters of negative liberty believe that liberty is absolute and unrestricted. But in practice liberty can never be absolute and unrestricted. True liberty does not mean the absence of restrictions. It is not possible for all persons in society and state to enjoy liberty in the absolute sense. Absolute and unrestricted liberty would mean ‘might is right’ and there will be the law of the jungle.

The utmost freedom of action that each and every individual can enjoy upon like terms at the same time is to be completely unrestrained in his actions in so far as they do not interfere with the like freedom of his fellows. There is not a single country in the world where people enjoy absolute and unrestricted liberty. Thus liberty cannot be absolute and unrestricted. Herbert Spencer rightly observes : “Every man is free to do that which he wills provided he infringes not the equal freedom of any other man.”

Question 10.
“Eternal Vigilance is the price of Liberty”- Laski. Discuss the Statement.
Answer:
Prof. Laski says, “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.” The most important safeguard of liberty is enlightened and vigilant public opinion. Individual liberty is best protected if the citizens of the State are patriotic and vigilant.

Indolent and indifferent citizens cannot enjoy the fruit of liberty. It is, therefore, said, “ Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and those who are trained to that vigilance become the conscious guardians of liberty.” They must be active and vigilant and be prepared to stand up to defend their rights, if they find they are in danger.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of Liberty.
Answer:
The term liberty has been derived from the Latin word “Liber’ which means free or absence of restraints. But in a true sense Liberty does not mean absence of all kinds of restraints. Absence of all restraints is the meaning of negative liberty but true Liberty exists only when every citizen enjoys the opportunity for self-realization and the state maintains those rights and opportunities which help the citizens to develop all that is best in them.

Question 2.
Define the term Liberty.
Answer:
1. According to Laski, “I mean by liberty the absence of restraints upon the existence of those social conditions which in modern civilisation are the necessary guarantees of individial happiness.” Laski further says, “ By liberty is meant the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.”

2. According to T.H. Green, “Freedom consists in a positive power or capacity of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying.”

Question 3.
Mention various types of liberty.
Answer:

  1. Names of four types of liberty are:
  2. Natural Liberty,
  3. Civil Liberty,
  4. Political Liberty and
  5. Economic Liberty.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Question 4.
Explain two types of Equality.
Answer:
Four types of Equality are as follows:

  1. Civil Equality. Civil Equality means that every one in the state enjoys the same status in the sphere of private law.
  2. Social Equality. Social equality means that no distinction is made in the social status of the people on the ground of their riches, race, class or caste.

Question 5.
Explain any two pre-conditions which are essential for an individual to enjoy liberty.
Answer:

  • Independent Judiciary. There should be independent impartial and honest judiciary for safeguarding liberty.
  • Rule of Law. The rule of law is the most vital principle that guarantees full liberty to the individual and prevents the executive from becoming high handed and unjust.

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
From which language has the English word ‘Liberty* been derived?
Answer:
The word ‘Liberty1 has been derived from the Latin word Tiber’.

Question 2.
What does the negative conception of liberty mean? .
Answer:
It means complete independence or absence of any kind of restriction.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Question 3.
What does the positive concept of liberty mean?
Answer:
Every individual has the right to do all those works which do not harm other individuals.

Question 4.
Write down a definition of liberty.
Answer:
According to Laski,“Liberty is the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.”

Question 5.
Name supporters of negative aspect of liberty.
Answer:
Locke, Adam Smith, Herbert Spencer and J.S. Mill.

Question 6.
Name supporters of positive aspect of liberty.
Answer:
Kant, Fichte, Green and Laski.

Question 7.
Write down any two kinds of liberty.
Answer:

  1. Natural liberty
  2. Civil Liberty

Question 8.
What do you mean by Natural Liberty?
Answer:
By Natural liberty we mean that liberty which a man enjoyed in the natural state without the emergence of state.

Question 9.
What is Civil Liberty?
Answer:
Civil liberty is that liberty which an individual enjoys because of being a member of organised society.

Question 10.
What is meant by Political Liberty?
Answer:
Political Liberty means that liberty by which a citizen can participate in the governance of the country.

Question 11.
Tell the meaning of Economic Liberty.
Answer:
Economic Liberty means that people must be free to earn their livelihood and they must have adequate means and facilities for it.

Question 12.
What is an Individual Liberty?
Answer:
An individual liberty means that an individual should be free to do all those works which are limited to him and do not harm other individuals in any way.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Question 13.
What is meant by National Liberty?
Answer:
National liberty means that the state should not be in control of any other country. In other words, the state must have an external freedom and it must have sovereignty

Question 14.
Mention any one feature of Liberty.
Answer:
Liberty means the absence of arbitrary, immoral and unjust restrictions.

Question 15.
Is liberty unlimited? Explain.
Answer:
Liberty is possible amidst laws and restrictions. But it must be devoid of unfair and unjust restrictions. .

Question 16.
Name any two means for the protection of liberty.
Answer:
Establishment of Democracy
Declaration of Fundamental Rights.

Fill in the blanks

1. …………… means power to do any thing that does not injure others.
Answer:
Liberty

2. ………….. is the first condition of liberty.
Answer:
Law

3. Liberty is understood in two different ways and positive aspects of liberty.
Answer:
Negative

4. Liberty is not …………. .
Answer:
Absolute

5. Absence of all restrictions is the meaning of …………… liberty.
Answer:
Negative.

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

True or False statement

1. The term liberty is derived from the Latin word Tiber’ which means ‘free’.
Answer:
True

2. Real liberty has a positive connotation.
Answer:
True

3. According to T.H. Green, “Liberty is the opposite of over government.”
Answer:
False

4. There is a close relationship between political liberty and economic liberty.
Answer:
True

5. Natural liberty means freedom to do things according to the dictates of one’s conscience.
Answer:
False

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Liberty of the individual prevails when there is:
(A) No Policeman
(B) No jedge
(C) Democracy
(D) No law.
Answer:
(C) Democracy

Question 2.
Liber means:
(A) Free
(B) No freedom
(C) Limited freedom
(D) None of these.
Answer:
(A) Free

Question 3.
Positive Liberty means:
(A) Liberty to do any thing
(B) Liberty with restraints
(C) Only restraints
(D) None of these.
Answer:
(B) Liberty with restraints

PSEB 11th Class Political Science Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Question 4.
Economic liberty means:
(A) Freedom from illiteracy
(B) Freedom from poverty and want
(C) Freedom from society
(D) Freedom from religion.
Answer:
(B) Freedom from poverty and want

Question 5.
Which one of the following is the safeguard of liberty?
(A) Subordinate judiciary
(B) Centralisation of power
(C) No fundamental Rights
(D) Rule of Law.
Answer:
(D) Rule of Law.