Class 12

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 5 Bureaucracy (Civil Services) Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 5 Bureaucracy (Civil Services)

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define Bureaucracy. Write main characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Or
Define Bureaucracy. Describe main characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Or
Explain the main characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Or
Explain any six characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has been derived from French word ‘Bureau’ which means desk or writing table. Hence bureaucracy means ‘Desk Government.’ The meaning of this word has been changing with the passage of time. This word is widely misinterpreted and it is used to mean arbitrariness, wastefulness, officiousness and regimentation. In the words of John A. Weig, “Through distortion and caricature, the term bureaucracy has come to imply bungling, arbitrariness, wastefulness, officiousness and regimentation.”

In spite of the distorted meaning of bureaucracy, it has assumed importance in democracy and in a welfare state. This word is used to the maximum to prove the effect of public services. Generally in all the modern states the functions of the government are carried out by those officials who possess administrative ability and understanding of administrative problems. This body of officials is called bureaucracy. Different definitions of bureaucracy are as follows:

1. According to Willoughby, “It is to describe any personnel system of administration composed of a hierarchy of sections, divisions, bureaus and departments.” In a narrow meaning “A body of public servants organised in a hierarchical system which stands outside the sphere of effective public control.”

2. According to Marshall E. Dimock, “Bureaucracy means specialisation of hierarchies and long lines of communication.”

3. According to Max Weber, “A system of administration characterized by expertness, impartiality and the absence of humanity.”

4. According to Joshi, “Bureaucracy is a system of government where power is concentrated into the hands of civil servants.”

5. According to Gladden, “The term Bureaucracy means a regulated administrative system organised as a series of interrelated offices.”

6. According to Paul Appleby, “It is a professional class of technically skilled persons who are organised in an hierarchical way and serve the state in an impartial manner.”

Characteristics of Bureaucracy:
Important characteristics of bureaucracy are as follows:
1. Logical division of functions:
The whole administration is divided on the basis of its duties. The administration is logically divided in hierarchies and system is established.

2. Technical Specialisation:
Technical specialisation is an important feature of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy originated only because of technical specialization. An employee is trained in a particular art and gains proficiency by doing the same work repeatedly and so he becomes a specialist in his field.

3. Hierarchical Principle: All the employees are bound by ‘unity of command’ and bureaucracy is divided in hierarchies.

4. The Legal Framework:
The employees in bureaucracy work in a legal framework and so they become strict and harsh. The administrative laws, rules and decisions are in written form.

5. Political Neutrality:
In bureaucracy, an employee’s personal and political views hold no value. A bureaucrat has to remain neutral from political view point. They are neither the members of any political party nor they are connected with any of them. The Government may be of any political party, but the bureaucrats have to serve the administration according to their ability.

6. Merit System: Bureaucracy is based on merit system. The employees are selected on the basis of their ability.

7. Permanent Post: The posts of Civil Services are permanent. The employees remain in service till the age of retirement.

Question 2.
Write an essay on the recruitment of Civil Servants.
Answer:
The success and efficiency of administration depends on Civil Servants. An able administration can’t be imagined without proficient employees. But it is very difficult to have honest, capable and hardworking employees. That is why proper recruitment has become a problem in almost all the countries. Recruitment doesn’t merely mean the filling up of vacant posts, but it is a process through which able individuals are attracted towards the vacant posts. Broadly speaking, the recruitment of Civil Servants can be divided into two parts Negative and Positive.

The aim of negative recruitment is to keep clever and incapable persons away from government posts. The recruiting authority formulates such laws that only able individuals get the chance to become its candidates. The aim of positive recruitment is to attract suitable and capable persons for various Government posts.

Every Government tries its best to appoint proficient persons against administrative posts. But several questions regarding recruitment arise such as who should be authorised for recruitment ? Whether the employees should be recruited from outside or inside the office ? What should be the qualifications to fill different posts ? How should the ability of the candidates be determined ?

The administrative officials are selected on merit basis in most of the countries and their selection is completed through four methods mentioned below:
1. Individual decision of the appointing official:
This process leaves the responsibility to determine the ability of candidates on appointing authority. The candidate appears before the appointing official who gathers every information about the candidate through questions and mutual conversation. Thus a suitable candidate is recruited.

2. Testimonials of ability and character:
The ability of the candidates is sufficiently judged from their testimonials. These testimonials are related to Lheir education, character, sports, cultural activities etc.

3. Record of previous experience:
The candidates’ records of previous experience reflect their ability for the appointment against administrative posts.

4. Examinations:
The most popular method to judge the ability of candidates is examination system. There are two types of Examinations to select candidates Competitive Examination and Examination without competition. Competitive Examination has double purpose firstly, it finds out a candidate with minimum required qualification for the post and secondly to ascertain his mental condition from the angle of ability. Non-competitive examination ascertains candidate’s minimum qualification fixed for the post. It is quite obvious that competitive examination should be adopted to select best candidates.

The administrative officials in England are appointed through competitive examination. Interview is essential after the written test. Union Public Service Commission and State Service Commissions have been set up in India to recruit government officials.

Question 3.
Describe main differences between Political Executive and Permanent Executive.
Or
Write down the meaning of Political Executive and Permanent Executive and explain in detail the differences between the two.
Answer:
Executive has two parts-Political Executive and Permanent Executive. Political Executive includes President, Ministers, Parliamentary Secretary and they are elected through a definite process and for a definite period. Permanent Executive consists of civil servants, administrative officials and employees and they are retired at a fixed age. Following are the differences between Political Executive and Permanent Executive:

1. Difference between the appointments of the two:
The appointment or selection of Political Executive is in the hands of electorates. In Parliamentary form of government, the party with majority votes in the lower house of Parliament is called upon to elect its leader. The leader of the party is installed as a Prime Minister who forms his Cabinet. England and India have this system.

Permanent Executive is called Administrative Service or Civil Service. Competitive Examinations are held to test the ability of candidates. They have to get through written tests and interview. Thereafter a list of successful candidates is prepared to impart training.
Distinction between the two on Political Basis. Political Executive is completely mixed with political parties as it is elected on political basis. Political executive views all the problems from political angle.

On the contrary, civil servant doesn’t take part in politics. Government officials remain indifferent to party politics. They can neither become the members of political parties nor can they contest Parliamentary and Assembly elections.

Question 4.
Explain the verbal meaning of word ‘Bureaucracy’. Explain its role/functions from four aspects in democracy.
Or
What is the role of bureaucracy in Modern Welfare State?
Answer:
Bureaucracy has been derived from French word ‘Bureau’ which means desk or writing table. Hence bureaucracy means ‘Desk Government.’ The meaning of this word has been changing with the passage of time. This word is widely misinterpreted and it is used to mean arbitrariness, wastefulness, officiousness and regimentation. In the words of John A. Weig, “Through distortion and caricature, the term bureaucracy has come to imply bungling, arbitrariness, wastefulness, officiousness and regimentation.”

In spite of the distorted meaning of bureaucracy, it has assumed importance in democracy and in a welfare state. This word is used to the maximum to prove the effect of public services. Generally in all the modern states the functions of the government are carried out by those officials who possess administrative ability and understanding of administrative problems. This body of officials is called bureaucracy. Different definitions of bureaucracy are as follows:

1. According to Willoughby, “It is to describe any personnel system of administration composed of a hierarchy of sections, divisions, bureaus and departments.” In a narrow meaning “A body of public servants organised in a hierarchical system which stands outside the sphere of effective public control.”

2. According to Marshall E. Dimock, “Bureaucracy means specialisation of hierarchies and long lines of communication.”

3. According to Max Weber, “A system of administration characterized by expertness, impartiality and the absence of humanity.”

4. According to Joshi, “Bureaucracy is a system of government where power is concentrated into the hands of civil servants.”

5. According to Gladden, “The term Bureaucracy means a regulated administrative system organised as a series of interrelated offices.”

6. According to Paul Appleby, “It is a professional class of technically skilled persons who are organised in an hierarchical way and serve the state in an impartial manner.”

Characteristics of Bureaucracy:
Important characteristics of bureaucracy are as follows:
1. Logical division of functions:
The whole administration is divided on the basis of its duties. The administration is logically divided in hierarchies and system is established.

2. Technical Specialisation:
Technical specialisation is an important feature of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy originated only because of technical specialization. An employee is trained in a particular art and gains proficiency by doing the same work repeatedly and so he becomes a specialist in his field.

3. Hierarchical Principle: All the employees are bound by ‘unity of command’ and bureaucracy is divided in hierarchies.

4. The Legal Framework:
The employees in bureaucracy work in a legal framework and so they become strict and harsh. The administrative laws, rules and decisions are in written form.

5. Political Neutrality:
In bureaucracy, an employee’s personal and political views hold no value. A bureaucrat has to remain neutral from political view point. They are neither the members of any political party nor they are connected with any of them. The Government may be of any political party, but the bureaucrats have to serve the administration according to their ability.

6. Merit System: Bureaucracy is based on merit system. The employees are selected on the basis of their ability.

7. Permanent Post: The posts of Civil Services are permanent. The employees remain in service till the age of retirement.

Role/Functions of Bureaucracy:
The influence of bureaucracy on administration has increased a lot. It is difficult to run administration without bureaucracy. Bureaucracy has become vital because modern State is a welfare state and its functions are so vast that they can’t be handled by Ministers alone. The Ministers need civil servants to perform these functions. The role of Bureaucracy can be studied under following heads:

1. Administrative Functions or Role:
Administrative function is the key function of bureaucracy. A minister formulates a policy but the responsibility of implementing the same falls on bureaucracy. Even a good policy can prove worthless in case it is not implemented effectively.

2. To Influence the Policy:
Though policies are framed by political executive, yet bureaucracy contributes a lot to policy-formation on the basis of their ability. The Civil Servants provide statistics to Ministers at the time of framing a policy.

3. Advisory Functions or Role:
Bureaucracy plays a vital role in advising Political Executive. Since the Ministers possess no technical knowledge of their departments, they depend on the Civil Servants to run administration.

4. Legislative Functions or Role:
Bureaucracy plays an important role in making legislation. In countries like India and England having Parliamentary form of Governments, most of the bills are presented by Ministers in Parliament. The outlines of these bills are prepared by Permanent employees. The Civil Servants propose various laws to solve social, economic and political problems.

5. Financial Functions or Role:
Bureaucracy plays a significant role even in financial sphere. Parliament passes a budget every year and the budget is presented by Finance Minister in a Parliamentary system. Though Cabinet forms a policy related to budget, yet its outlines are prepared by bureaucracy. The collection of taxes, expenditure according to budget and other functions related to it are performed by bureaucracy.

6. Co-ordination:
Efficiency of an administration depends upon co-ordination among different departments. This desired co-ordination is established by Civil Servants.

7. Judicial Functions or Role:
Some important judicial functions are performed by Administrative Tribunals. It is so because of the increased number of Administrative Laws and Administrative Adjudication. Thus an administrator not only runs administration, but performs judicial functions also.

8. Public Relation Functions:
Bureaucracy establishes relations with public in various ways to make their policies successful with their co-operation.

9. Stability in Foreign Relations:
The role of bureaucracy in foreign relations is of great importance as it brings stability in foreign relations and policies. Thus bureaucracy has become all the more influential in modern Welfare State. A state has to perform many functions for Public Welfare and the success of these depends upon the efficiency of bureaucracy.

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of word Bureaucracy.
Or
Explain the etymological meaning of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has been derived from the French word ‘Bureau’ which means desk or writing table. Hence bureaucracy means ‘Desk Government’. This word is used in these days to prove the effect of public services. The functions of the government are carried out by those officials who possess administrative ability and understanding of administrative problems. This body of officials is called bureaucracy.

• According to Marshall E. Dimock, “Bureaucracy means specialisation of hierarchies and long lines of communication.”
• According to Max Weber, “A system of administration characterized by expertness, impartiality and the absence of inhumanity.”
• According to Joshi, “Bureaucracy is a system of government where power is concentrated into the hands of civil servants.”

Question 2.
Write four major characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has the following characteristics:

• Fixed tenure: The posts of civil servants are permanent. The employees remain in office till the age of retirement. The change in government does not affect the tenure of civil servants.
• Political Neutrality: In bureaucracy, an employee’s personal and political view holds no value. The bureaucrats have to remain neutral from political viewpoint.
• Merit System: Bureaucracy is based on merit system. The employees are selected on the basis of their ability.
• Permanent Posts: The posts of civil services are permanent.

Question 3.
Mention four defects of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
The three main defects of bureaucracy are:

1. Red Tapism:
Bureaucracy indulges in red tapism. It causes delay in decision making by adopting a rigid attitude toward the application of all rules and regulations according to which the decisions have to be taken.

2. Unresponsive to People’s Demands: Bureaucracy ignores the needs and demands of the people.

3. Conservatism:
Bureaucracy has been a source of conservatism. Bureaucracy believes in traditional ways of administration and it mostly favours status quo in administration. Bureaucracy opposes progressive policies.

4. Bureaucracy is considered as an elite class in the society.

Question 4.
What do you understand by Recruitment?
Answer:
For a layman recruitment is something like picking up persons for filling up jobs lying vacant in some office. Technically speaking, recruitment is not only making appointments but selecting proper and suitable candidates for particular jobs. According to L.D. White, “Recruitment means specific steps taken to attract suitable candidates to apply for examination.”

Question 5.
Write down the three methods of Recruitment.
Answer:
There are two methods of recruitment:
1. Recruitment from within:
Recruitment from within means that recruitment to high post should be made from within the department or from those employees who are already in service. In this method employees get higher post by promotion.

2. Recruitment from without:
Recruitment from without means that recruitment should be made openly. In this method recruitment is done on the basis of merit and any person who is eligible for the post can apply for recruitment. This method is also known as direct method of recruitment.

3. Mixed Method:
These two methods are not mutually exclusive and all governments use both these methods. However, direct recruitment should be the rule at lower level and recruitment to class 1 should be made through competitive examination.

Question 6.
Write four differences between Political Executive and Permanent Executive.
Or
Distinguish between Political and Permanent Executive.
Answer:
Following are the main differences between Political Executive and Permanent Executive:
1. Difference between the appointments of the two:
In the democratic countries the political executive is elected directly or indirectly on the basis of adult franchise. On the other hand, permanent executive or civil servants are appointed on the basis of merit. Competitive examinations are held to test the ability of candidates.

2. Distinction between the two on Political Basis:
Political Executive is completely mixed with political parties as it is elected on political basis. Political executive views all the problems from political angle.
On the contrary, civil servants don’t take part in politics. Government officials remain indifferent to party politics. They can neither become the members of political parties nor can they contest Parliamentary and Assembly elections.

3. Difference on the basis of Term:
Political executive undergoes a change according to the change in politics. On the other hand, civil servants remain in office till a definite age. Administrative services are not affected by change in political executive. Civil servants retire at a fixed age.

4. Political executive owes responsibility to parliament and people for all its actions whereas it is not so in the case of permanent executive.

Question 7.
Write down four merits of good Bureaucracy.
Answer:
A good bureaucracy has the following qualities:
1. Ability: The civil servants should be able and experienced.

2. Public Interest:
The civil servants should take care of public interest. They should always attach more importance to national interest than personal interest.

3. Impartial:
The most important trait of a good civil service is that it should be impartial. It should not be connected with a particular party. It should remain aloof from all political activities.

4. Bureaucrats should be honest and selfless.

Question 8.
Bureaucracy is known as ‘the backbone of Administration’. Why?
Or
What is the importance of Bureaucracy in Democracy?
Answer:
The importance of civil services is increasing day by day in modern democratic states. Bureaucracy or civil servants are the eyes, ears, hands and brains of public administration. It has rightly been remarked as the backbone of the administration. We can prove this with the help of following logics:

• The civil servants provide continuity to public administration.
• The role of civil servants in foreign relations is of great importance as it brings stability in foreign relations and policies.
• The civil servants act as a link between the government and the people.
• The civil servants provide expert knowledge to ministers.

Question 9.
What is the meaning of permanent executive?
Answer:
Executive has two parts political executive and permanent executive. The part of the executive which holds office on the basis of its education or qualifications is called the permanent executive. Permanent executive consists of civil servants, administrative officials and employees and they are selected on the basis of merit system. The civil servants retire at a fixed age and they work under the supervision and direction of political executive.

Question 10.
Mention any four functions of Political Executive.
Or
Explain the role of Political Executive in a democratic state.
Answer:
Following are the main functions of political executive in a democratic state:
1. Administrative Function:
The main function of the political executive is , maintenance of law and order. The political executive enforces the laws enacted by the legislature and maintains peace in the state. The executive is to see that all the laws are properly obeyed and respected and those who break the laws are punished.

2. Formulation of Policies:
Formulation of policies is an important function of the political executive. Executive decides the internal and external policies of the nation and runs the administration on the basis of that policy.

3. Powers of Appointment and Removal:
Political executive makes many appointments. In India, Judges of the Supreme Court, High Courts, Ambassadors, Advocate General, Members of the Union Public Service Commission, Members of the Finance Commission etc. are appointed by the President. Political executive also enjoys the power to remove top officials of the administration.

4. Functions Regarding Foreign Relations:
Political executive determines the foreign policy of the country. Political executive also decides the relations with other countries. For this purpose political executive makes various international agreements and treaties.

Question 11.
Write four functions of good Bureaucracy.
Or
Write any four functions of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Without bureaucracy it is not possible to run the administration. The main functions of bureaucracy are as given below:
1. Administrative Function or Role:
Administrative function is the key function of bureaucracy. A minister formulates a policy but the responsibility of implementing the same falls on bureaucracy. Even a good policy can prove worthless in case it is not implemented effectively.

2. To Influence the Policy:
Though policies are framed by political executive, yet bureaucracy contributes a lot to policy formation on the basis of their ability. The civil servants provide statistics to Ministers at the time of framing policy.

3. Advisory Functions or Role:
Bureaucracy plays a vital role in advising political executive. Since the Ministers possess no technical knowledge of their departments, they depend upon the civil servants to run the administration.

4. The civil servents propose various laws to solve social, economic and political problems.

Question 12.
Explain the spoil system as a method of recruitment of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
The spoil system as a method of recruitment has been in practice for a long time in U.S.A. and some other countries some time ago. By this system recruitment of civil servants goes on political basis. After general elections, the government which comes into existence starts recruiting those persons who helped at the time of elections. The supporters of defeated party immediately resign from their posts. The newly formed government appoints her supporters on those posts. In this method the tenure of the civil servants goes with the term of the government. This method of recruitment is very defective because the base of recruitment is political and not the ability.

Question 13.
What do you mean by Political Executive? Enumerate its four functions.
Or
What do you mean by Political Executive?
Answer:
Political executive includes President, Ministers and Parliamentary Secretaries. They are elected through a definite process and for a definite period. Political executive is elected purely on political basis. Political executive is responsible for all its actions to the Parliament and the people.

Functions of Political Executive.
Following are the main functions of political executive in a democratic state:
1. Administrative Function:
The main function of the political executive is , maintenance of law and order. The political executive enforces the laws enacted by the legislature and maintains peace in the state. The executive is to see that all the laws are properly obeyed and respected and those who break the laws are punished.

2. Formulation of Policies:
Formulation of policies is an important function of the political executive. Executive decides the internal and external policies of the nation and runs the administration on the basis of that policy.

3. Powers of Appointment and Removal:
Political executive makes many appointments. In India, Judges of the Supreme Court, High Courts, Ambassadors, Advocate General, Members of the Union Public Service Commission, Members of the Finance Commission etc. are appointed by the President. Political executive also enjoys the power to remove top officials of the administration.

4. Functions Regarding Foreign Relations:
Political executive determines the foreign policy of the country. Political executive also decides the relations with other countries. For this purpose political executive makes various international agreements and treaties.

Question 14.
What is the meaning of Hierarchical organisation of Bureaucracy?
Answer:
Hierarchy means the control of higher authority over his subordinates. When many people work in an organisation it is necessary it stipulates who will issue instructions and to whom. As a result of this process, the organisation is divided into many levels. Every level is responsible to its higher level and acts upon the instruction of its higher level. According to White, “To fix the relation between the highest to lowest employee; is essential in an organisation. According to Pfiffner, “By Hierarchy principle we mean the connection of Authority and Power with their immediate superiors and juniors in such a way that the Head is small and base is expanded.”

Question 15.
Write down four characteristics of Political Executive.
Answer:
Following are the main characteristics of Political Executive:

1. Appointment by the Electorate:
The appointment or selection of political executive is in the hands of electorate. In parliamentary form of government, the party with majority votes in the lower house of Parliament is called upon to elect its leader. The leader of the party is installed as the Prime Minister who forms his Cabinet.

2. Appointment on Political Basis:
Political executive is completely mixed with political parties as it is elected on political basis. Political executive views all the problems from political angle.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the meaning of word Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has been derived from the French word ‘Bureau’ which means desk or writing table. Hence bureaucracy means ‘Desk Government’. The functions of the government are carried out by those officials who possess administrative ability and understanding of administrative problems. This body of officials is called bureaucracy.

Question 2.
Mention any two definitions of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
1. According to Marshall E. Dimock, “Bureaucracy means specialisation of hierarchies and long lines of communication.”
2. According to Max Weber, “A system of administration characterized by expertness, impartiality and the absence of inhumanity.”

Question 3.
Mention any two major characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has the following characteristics:
1. Fixed tenure:
The posts of civil servants are permanent. The employees remain in office till the age of retirement. The change in government does not affect the tenure of civil servants.

2. Political Neutrality:
In bureaucracy, an employee’s personal and political view holds no value. The bureaucrats have to remain neutral from political viewpoint.

Question 4.
Mention two defects of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Following are the three main defects of bureaucracy:
1. Red Tapism. Bureaucracy indulges in red tapism:
It causes delay in decision making by adopting a rigid attitude toward the application of all rules and regulations according to which the decisions have to be taken.

2. Unresponsive to People’s Demands: Bureaucracy ignores the needs and demands of the people.

Question 5.
What do you understand by Recruitment?
Answer:
For a layman recruitment is something like picking up persons for filling up jobs lying vacant in some office. Technically speaking, recruitment is not only making appointments but selecting proper and suitable candidates for particular jobs.

Question 6.
Distinguish between Political and Permanent Executive.
Answer:
1. Difference between the appointments of the two. In the democratic countries the political executive is elected directly or indirectly on the basis of adult franchise. On the other hand, permanent executive or civil servants are appointed on the basis of merit.

2. Distinction between the two on Political Basis. Political Executive is completely mixed with political parties as it is elected on political basis.On the contrary, civil servants don’t take part in politics.

Question 7.
Mention any two merits of good Bureaucracy.
Answer:
A good bureaucracy has the following qualities:

• Ability: The civil servants should be able and experienced.
• Public Interest: The civil servants should take care of public interest. They should always attach more importance to national interest than personal interest.

Question 8.
What is the importance of Bureaucracy in Democracy?
Answer:

• The civil servants provide continuity to public administration.
• The role of civil servants in foreign relations is of great importance as it brings stability in foreign relations and policies.

Question 9.
What is the meaning of permanent executive?
Answer:
Executive has two parts-political executive and permanent executive. The part of the executive which holds office on the basis of its education or qualifications is called the permanent executive. Permanent executive consists of civil servants, administrative officials and employees and they are selected on the basis of merit system.

Question 10.
Write down any two functions of Political Executive.
Answer:
1. Administrative Function:
The main function of the political executive is maintenance of law and order. The political executive enforces the laws enacted by the legislature and maintains peace in the state. The executive is to see that all the laws are properly obeyed and respected and those who break the laws are punished.

2. Formulation of Policies:
Formulation of policies is an important function of the political executive. Executive decides the internal and external policies of the nation and runs the administration on the basis of that policy.

Question 11.
Write any two functions of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
1. Administrative Function or Role:
Administrative function is the key function of bureaucracy. A minister formulates a policy but the responsibility of implementing the same falls on bureaucracy. Even a good policy can prove worthless in case it is not implemented effectively.

2. To Influence the Policy:
Though policies are framed by political executive, yet bureaucracy contributes a lot to policy formation on the basis of their ability.

Question 12.
What do you mean by Political Executive?
Answer:
Political executive includes President, Ministers and Parliamentary Secretaries. They are elected through a definite process and for a definite period. Political executive is elected purely on political basis. Political executive is responsible for all its actions to the Parliament and the people.

Question 13.
Write down two merits of Direct recruitment of Bureaucracy.
Answer:

• Democratic: It upholds the democratic principle.
• Wider field: It provides wider field of recruitment.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
From which language the word “Bureaucracy” has been derived?
Answer:
Latin Language.

Question 2.
Explain the meaning of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy is that form of administration wherein the tasks of administration are performed by those civil and administrative officials who sit in chair and work on the table.

Question 3.
Who developed the Concept of Bureaucracy?
Answer:
Max Weber developed the concept of bureaucracy.

Question 4.
Write any one definition of bureaucracy.
Answer:
According to Paul H. Appleby, “Bureaucracy is a professional class of technically skilled persons who are organised in an hierarchical way and serve the state in an impartial manner.”

Question 5.
Mention any one characteristic of bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy is organised on hierarchical basis.

Question 6.
Mention any one function of bureaucracy.
Answer:
To cooperate with the ministers.

Question 7.
Explain the meaning of Political Executive.
Answer:
Political Executive is directly or indirectly elected by the people. No specific educational or technical qualification is fixed for the Political Executive.

Question 8.
“Civil Service is a professional body of officials permanent, hard and skilled.” Who said it?
Answer:
Finer.

Question 9.
Which mode of recruitment is regarded as ‘Spoil System’ for Bureaucracy?
Answer:
Recruitment based on Politics is regarded as ‘Spoil System’ for Bureaucracy.

Question 10.
Write the meaning of Permanent Executive.
Answer:
Permanent Executive is another name for administrative services or administrative officials.

Question 11.
Mention any one difference between Political Executive and Permanent Executive.
Answer:
The base of Political Executive is political whereas political impartiality is the main characteristic of Permanent Executive.

Question 12.
Write any one attribute of good bureaucracy.
Answer:
It should be appointed on the basis of merit.

Question 13.
Write any one merit of direct recruitment of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
It is based on Democratic method.

Fill in The Blanks

1. The word ‘Bureaucracy’ has been derived from ………………………. language.
Answer:
Latin

2. ………………………. developed the concept of bureaucracy.
Answer:
Max Weber

3. In ………………………. the principle of merit was adopted in England.
Answer:
1857

4. In India in ………………………. merit was made the basis of recruitment.
Answer:
1853

5. Bureaucracy is organised on ………………………. basis.
Answer:
hierarchical.

True Or False Statement

1. Bureaucracy has been derived from Greek language.
Answer:
False

2. David Easton developed the concept of bureaucracy.
Answer:
False

3. Bureaucracy is organised on hierachical basis.
Answer:
True.

4. Permanent executive is another name for administrative services.
Answer:
True.

5. In India in 1909 merit was made the basis of recruitment.
Answer:
False

6. Political executive is directly or indirectly elected by the people.
Answer:
True.

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
The word ‘Bureaucracy’ is derived from which language?
(a) English
(b) Latin
(c) French
(d) Greek.
Answer:
(c) French

Question 2.
In French language, what is the meaning of word ‘Bureau’?
(a) Government
(b) Political Parties
(c) State
(d) Desk.
Answer:
(d) Desk.

Question 3.
To whom Bureaucracy gives advice?
(a) Parliament
(b) Political Parties
(c) Ministers
(d) Judiciary.
Answer:
(c) Ministers

Question 4.
Who acts as a link between Public and Government?
(a) Parliament
(5) Religious leaders
(c) Judiciary
(d) Government Officials.
Answer:
(d) Government Officials.

Question 5.
In which of the following countries is committed Bureaucracy?
(a) England
(b) Switzerland
(c) China
(d) U.S.A.
Answer:
(c) China

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 4 Political Ideas of Mahatma Gandhi Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 4 Political Ideas of Mahatma Gandhi

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Describe Political Ideas of Gandhiji in detail.
Or
Explain briefly the Political Ideology of Mahatma Gandhi.
Answer:
Gandhiji’s great contribution lies in the fact that he enunciated his whole political philosophy in the religious background. His philosophy has a sound religious background. Roman Rolland writes, “To understand Gandhiji’s activities it should be realised that his doctrine is like a huge edifice composed of two different floors. Below is the solid ground work of the basic foundation of religion. On this vast and unshakable foundation is based his political and social campaign.”

Gandhism is not a set of doctrine or dogma rules or regulations, injunctions or inhibitions, but it is a way of life. It indicates a new attitude or restates an old one towards life’s issues and offers ancient solution for modern problems. There is no ism in Gandhi. Ism means a distinctive doctrine. Gandhiji never claimed finality for his opinions. He was always experimenting with truth. In 1936 Gandhiji observed.

“There is no such thing as Gandhism and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the central truth to our daily life and problems. The opinions I have found and conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow I have nothing to teach the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as the hills. All I have done is to try experiments in both on as vast a scale as I could do. In doing so I have sometimes erred and learnt by my error well all my philosophy, if it may be called by that pretentious name, is contained in what I have said. You will not call it Gandhism, there is no, ‘ism’ about it.”

Following are the main political ideas of Gandhiji:
1. Spiritualisation of Politics:
Gandhiji’s political ideas were influenced by religion. Gandhiji had full faith in religion. He was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. Gandhiji was fully convinced that no civilization can endure for a long time unless it has adopted the higher values of life which are essentially spiritual in character. Gandhiji was a devotee of God. He said that all the religions are equal. The religion of each nation is as good as the religion of any other nation. He used to say, ‘God is Truth and Truth is God.’ Therefore to realize God we must realize truth and stick to truth under all circumstances.

The search of truth is the search of God. Regarding religion Gandhiji said, “It is permanent element in human nature which counts no cost too great in order to find full expression and which leaves the soul restless until it has found itself, knows its Maker, and appreciates the true correspondence between maker and itself.”

2. Faith in Truth:
Gandhiji was a great devotee of truth. He used to say, “God is Truth and Truth is God.” Therefore, to realize God we must realize truth and stick to truth under all circumstances. The search of truth is the search of God. The search of truth is a part of the very nature of man.

3. Faith in Ahimsa or Non-violence:
Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence. Gandhiji defines non-violence as avoiding injury to anything on earth in thought, word or deed. To him Ahimsa was the highest religion. Gandhiji called Ahimsa as a spiritual or divine power. “Cowardice and Ahimsa do not go together any more than water and fire. Cowardice is worse than violence A coward is less than man. He does not deserve to be a member of society of men and women. Non-violence is no negative force. It is a force which is more positive than electricity and more powerful than ether The highest violence can be met by the highest non-violence.”

However, Gandhiji recognised that absolute Ahimsa being a perfect stage is the attribute of God alone. Non-violence is an effort to abandon the violence that is inevitable in life. The religion of Ahimsa consists in allowing others the maximum of inconvenience to us, even at the risk of life.

4. Gandhian Technique:
Gandhiji favoured the use of non-violent methods for changing the present social structure. He was of the opinion that noble aims can be attained by noble meAnswer: He said that first of all the individual should try to discover truth and he should discover it by making use of non¬violent meAnswer: It is not enough that the ends we follow should be moral and good, it is equally important that the means we use for their achievement should also be good and moral.

According to Gandhiji, there is no wall of separation between means and ends. Good means are indispensable for the realization of a noble end. To quote Gandhiji “As the means so the end.” So Gandhiji believed that “If one takes care of the means the end will take care of itself.” Hence his repeated insistence that our means must be as pure as our end. Mahatma Gandhi attached great importance to the purity of meAnswer: He said that good means must be adopted for good ends because in the long run even the means will have their effect on the end. Bad means will poison the good end. He advocated the method of Satyagraha for facing all the evils.

5. Satyagraha:
The idea and practice of Satyagraha constitutes the heart and the soul of Gandhism and is Gandhiji’s unique and distinctive contribution. According to him even a mighty empire could be shaken through Satyagraha and non-violence. Gandhiji defines Satyagraha as the soul force. Literally Satyagraha means holding on to truth or insistence on truth. It is the vindication of truth, not by the infliction of suffering on the opponent but by self-suffering.

Satyagraha is not passive resistance but it is a moral weapon based on superiority of our soul-force over physical force. Satyagraha can be defined as action based on truth, love and non-violence. It completely eschews untruth and violence in every form. It means the exercise of the purest soul force against all injustice, oppression and exploitation. Suffering and truth are attributes of soul-force. In wider sense Satyagraha includes all constructive, reforming activities and all acts of service. It is a weapon of the strongest and the bravest. Non-co-operation, Hartals and strikes, Picketing, Social boycott, Hunger strike, Civil disobedience, Hijrat etc. are forms of Satyagraha.

6. State is Means and Individual is an End:
Gandhism regards state as a means and individual as an end. State originated for the sake of man and state is an instrument for the welfare of individual. Gandhiji wanted the state to be a ‘Service State’. Whenever the state abuses its authority the people should non-violently resist its authority.

7. Stateless Society:
Gandhiji said that his main aim was to establish an ideal society or Ram Rajya. Gandhiji said that the state represents force and violence and therefore, he wanted to establish such a society where the need of the state is not felt. In an ideal society the people would not require large armies and police forces to keep law and order but the people of their own accord would respect the laws of the society and work for the general welfare.

8. Panchayati Raj:
Gandhiji believed in the decentralization of authority and he advocated the establishment of Panchayati Raj. He held that the village Panchayats should be powerful and an effective unit of democracy. Village Panchayat should have an adequate power to control and serve the villages. He wanted the village Panchayats to be free from official interference and control. The Panchayats should also be free from the influence of the party system.

9. Democratic System:
Gandhism supported the democratic system of government and called it an ideal type of government. He had a deep faith in democracy. He wanted to establish social and economic equality in society. Gandhiji wanted the government to be elected by the people but at the same time he wanted that only those persons should have the right to vote who earn their bread by their own labour. He was of the opinion that fundamental rights should be granted to all.

10. Sphere of State activity:
Gandhiji considered the State as a necessary immoral institution. He said that the State should perform minimum functions. The state should enjoy only limited power. A powerful state is a horrible state. He regarded self-government as maximum vote freedom from government control. Like Thoreau, Gandhiji too held that, “that government is best which governs the least.’ The State should not interfere in the activities of the individual. He said that the existing system of law and justice is defective. Justice should be administered through the Panchayat.

In an ideal society there is no need of police, military and judiciary. Gandhiji said, “I look upon an increase in the power of the State with the greatest fear, because although while apparently doing good by minimising exploitation it does the greatest harm to mankind by destroying individual liberty which lies at the root of all progress.”

11. Secular State:
In the ideal society nobody will be discriminated against on the basis of caste, creed, colour, religion and blood. He favoured the idea of a Secular State. He was of the opinion that even if all the people in the State have the same religion the State should not interfere in the religion of the people. He was of the opinion that religion is a personal affair of the individual and the State should practise neutrality in this respect. No religion should be given special privileges by the State.

12. Economic Views:
Gandhiji preached that the rich should only use so much of their riches as is necessary for carrying on their day-to-day life and treat the rest of their wealth as a trust of the people held by them and use the same for general welfare. He was of the opinion that the employer and the employee were the partners in an enterprise for the common good. He was against hostile attitude on the part of either. Gandhiji said that Trusteeship is a non-violent method of solving the problems of richness in society. According to this principle the rich should not consider themselves the owners of wealth but as the trustees of society. For the wealth in their hands, they should justify the ‘trust’ given to them by the society. They should spend it in the way in which the interests of the society are best promoted.

13. More importance to duties:
Gandhism attached more importance to duties than to rights. According to Gandhiji the right to perform one’s duties was the only right that was worth living for and dying for. To quote Gandhiji, ‘The true source of right is duty.”

14. Gandhism opposed the principle of majority:
Gandhiji believed in democracy but he opposed the principle of majority. According to Gandhiji majority should run the government with the cooperation of the minorities. Majority should respect the views of minorities.

15. No Conflict between Nationalism and Internationalism:
In Gandhism there is no conflict between nationalism and internationalism. According to Gandhiji, “It is impossible for one to be an internationalist without being a nationalist.” Gandhiji did not believe in the isolation of one country from the rest of the world. He never ignored the higher interests of humanity but at the same time he felt that his first duty was to serve the people of India. If there is any conflict between nationalism and internationalism it is because of the fact that we are selfish and regard the interest of our own nation as supreme. Nationalism in Gandhian concept does not mean just a sentiment of hatred for others. It means love for the people of one’s own country and love for the people of other countries also.

16. Rights and Duties:
Gandhiji wholly agrees with the significance of rights both in the life of a man and in the life of a nation but he believes that the rights and duties are inseparable and must go hand in hand. But Gandhism attached more importance to duties than to rights. Gandhiji held that the right to perform one’s duty was the only right that was worth living for and dying for. Rights accrue only to those persons who were willing to serve the state to which they belong. In Gandhiji’s own words, “The true source of right is duty. If we discharge our duties, rights will not be far to seek.

If leaving duties unperformed, we run after rights, they will escape us like a will-o-the wisp. The more we pursue them, farther they will fly.” Conclusion. The ideas of Gandhiji exercised great influence not only in India but in other countries also, but his ideas also came under criticism. Many of his ideas are not practical. His ideal state is indeed pleasant and attractive but it is not possible to put it into practice.

Question 2.
Describe the methods of Satyagraha of Mahatma Gandhi Ji.
Or
Write down Gandhiji’s views about Satyagraha.
Answer:
The concept of Satyagraha is heart and soul of Gandhism. For Gandhiji Satyagraha is an attempt to introduce religion into politics. Truth for Gandhi is God. Thus, a satyagrahi is a man of God. To put it more correctly, Satyagraha is bringing “God into Politics.”

Meaning Of Satyagraha:
Literally ‘Satyagraha’ means ‘holding on to truth’ or ‘insistence on truth’ or ‘firmness on truth’. It is ‘agraha’ or moral presssure for the sake of truth. It is a technique of resisting all that is evil, unjust, impure or untrue by love, self-suffering, self-purification and appealing to the divine spirit in the soul of the oppponent. Gandhi calls it as a love force’ or soul force.’

Satyagraha is a way of life and a satyagrahi is to live a life of truth. Truth and Ahimsa are the two guiding-principles of a Satyagrahi. In this sense Jesus Christ, Satyawadi Harish Chandra, Prahlada and Socrates can be called true satyagrahis.

1. Satyagraha as a Political Method:
Gandhi used Satyagraha as a political method to fight against British imperialism. It is a method of resisting evil through soul-force or non-violence. It is a way of fighting by the means of non-violence. Gandhi calls satyagraha as an all-sided sword; for “it can be used anyhow, it blesses him who uses it and him against whom it is used.”

2. Satyagraha means an appeal to morality and reason:
Primarily, Satyagraha is a case of appealing to the reason and conscience of the opponent by inviting suffering on oneself. The objective is to change the heart of the opponent and make him one’s willing friend. It is based on the idea that moral appeal to the heart and conscience is more effective than an appeal based on the threat of bodily pain or violence.

3. Satyagraha is different from Passive Resistance:
According to Gandhi, Satyagraha is different from Passive Resistance as a positive and negative thing. Passive Resistance is a negative thing, it is a weapon of the weak and does not exclude the use of force or violence, whereas Satyagraha is a positive thing, it is a weapon of the strong and excludes the use of violence in any shape of form. Satyagraha emphasises inner purity and it can be practised at all levels domestic, social and political, while passive resistance is mainly applied at the political level.

4. Satyagraha is different from strike:
Sometimes Satyagraha is explained in terms of strike. But the reality is that Gandhi was never in favour of strikes. Strike and Satyagraha are not identical.
Strike is narrow in its objective and based on the selfish motives of an individual or a group of persons. But Satyagraha is a moral weapon, it aims at changing the heart of the opponent. Besides, strike consists of coercion, force, sabotage and stresses. But satyagraha on the other hand has it two assumptions truth and non-violence. Strike is based on opportunism and it has material gains in view but Satyagraha expels both.

Some Essential Conditions of Satyagraha
Gandhiji laid the following conditions for Satyagraha :
1. There can be no satyagraha for an ‘unjust cause’. By its defintion satyagraha is a commitment to ‘upholding of truth’.
2. Satyagraha excludes the use of violence in any shape or form, whether in thought, speech or deed. A satyagrahi must be non-violent in relation to others.
3. A satyagrahi must have the capacity or willingness to suffer. One who does not have the capacity of suffering, should not attempt satyagraha.
4. No satyagraha should be launched without disciplined satyagrahis.
5. A satyagrahi must have courage and patience, initiative and resourcefulness, a spirit of research and readiness to take risks.
6. Satyagraha cannot be launched for personal gains but for social good. The aim of a satyagrahi should be the service of mankind.
7. A satyagrahi must have an unshakable faith in God.
8. A satyagrahi should treat his opponent as a member of his family.
9. A satyagrahi should be ready to make honourable agreement or compromise with the opponent.

Different Forms or Methods of Satyagraha:
According to Gandhiji, satyagraha can take different forms like non-co-operation, fasting, civil disobedience, hijrat, picketing strike etc. They may also be called as various techniques or methods of satyagraha.

1. Non-Co-operation:
Non-co-operation means withdrawing co-operation to the government. When the government becomes corrupt and it fails to perform its duties towards the people, then, according to Gandhi, people should withdraw their support from the government. The students should boycott the schools and colleges ; lawyers should boycott the courts, people should refuse to accept titles, to serve army and the police and to pay taxes. But, non-co-operation must exclude the use of violence of any type. It must be based on love and not on hatred. It should not lead to anarchy, disorder, violence and ill-will.

2. Civil Disobedience:
Civil Disobedience is an extreme type of non-cooperation. It means mass resistance on non-violent basis when all negotiations and constitutional methods have failed. It is called civil disobedience because it is non-violent resistance by the people who are ordinarily law-abiding citizens of the state. On the part of the people, civil- disobedience demands—a disciplined group action, unlimited capacity for suffering and strict obedience to leaders.

3. Fasting:
Fasting is the last weapon for a satyagrahi. It should be undertaken as the last resort. It should be in the nature of prayer for purity and strength and power from God. It is a method to be used to awaken the sleeping conscience of the wrong doer.

4. Strike:
Strike or hartal is another method of Satyagraha. The workers should organise themselves in every industry to fight against injustice of any type. But according to Gandhi there are three essentials of strike. Firstly, strike should not be frequent, otherwise it would cease to be effective. Secondly, strike should be voluntry. Workers should not be forced to participate in it. Thirdly, it should be peaceful and non-violent.

5. Hijrat:
Hijrat implies voluntary exile from the permanent place of residence. It means that a person who does not have power to become a Satyagrahi, should leave the place.

6. Picketing:
It is a method of moral persuasion. By way of picketing in front of the house or shops, the owners can be persuaded to change their views.

Conclusion:
By developing the concept of satyagraha in various forms, Gandhi has shown the ways to overcome violence by non-violence. It is a substitute for brute force with moral force. Here, Gandhian approach is mainly psychological. According to him, the most effective way of winning an enemy is to allow the opponent’s anger spend itself, bum itself out. By resisting him one only feeds his anger, whereas by suffering silently we compel him to review his actions.

Question 3.
Explain the main features of Gandhiji’s Ideal State.
Or
Write down the features of Mahatma Gandhiji’s Ideal State.
Or
Write down the characteristics of the Ideal State of GandhiJi.
Ans:
As a philosophical anarchist Gandhi rejects the state as such. He regards the existing state as an evil on ethical, moral and economic grounds. In his words, “State represents violence in a concentrated and organised form. The individual has a soul but the state is a soul-less machine….”
Like Marx, Gandhi imagines an Ideal Society without state and class struggle. He imagines a society in which there is no place for state, police, army, machines, violence and power. According to Gandhi, “the existing State damages the moral
values of individual action It uses force, works for the rich and influential only.” So, for Gandhi’s modern state is an evil. He wants to replace it with an ideal state or Ram Rajya.

Ideal State:
The ‘Ideal State’ of Gandhi is the state of ‘enlightened anarchy’ where social life becomes so perfect as to be self-regulated. In such a state everyone is his own ruler. He rules himself in such a manner that he is never a hindrance to his neighbour.” In Gandhian ideal state, therefore, “there is no political power, there is no state”. It is a “state of statelessness.”

In short, Gandhian Ideal State or Ideal Society will have the following features.
1. Village as a Unit of Ideal State:
The ideal state will, according to Gandhi, be a federation of more or less self-sufficing and self-governing village communities. It will be an ideal society based on the principles of non-violence and peaceful co-existence. The individuals, continuously aware of Spiritual Eeality will live a life of simplicity and renunciation. In this ideal society there will be no need for police or military force. Every village will be governed by Panchayat having full powers.

2. Organisation on the Principle of Decentralisation:
Instead of centralisation there will be decentralisation. This decentralisation will be of two types, (i) Economic and (ii) Political. From political decentralisation, Gandhi means that the state authority shall be reduced to the minimum, and maximum authority shall be given to the village communities. In the economic sphere, the decentralisation would imply the abolition of large scale industry and establishment of cottage and small scale industry.

3. Minimum Functions of the Government:
Gandhi does not favour more functions of the government. According to him, that government is best which governs the least. Individual should look after his own welfare. Speaking of his ideal society, he said in 1931: “Ideal Society is the state of enlightened anarchy. In such a state everyone is his own ruler ” There is no political power because there is no state. But the ideal is never fully realised in life. Hence, the classical statement of Thoreaun that “that Government is best which governs the least,” is correct regarding functions of government.

4. A Non-violent State:
Gandhian ideal state will be a non-violent state. The word non-violent state was used by Gandhi himself in ‘Harijan’ where he wrote in 1940, ‘The ideal non-violent state will be an ordered anarchy.” It will be a purest form of democracy based on non-violence. It will be a federation of satyagrahi village communities.

5. Role of Non-possession, Bread-labour and Swadeshi:
Gandhi lays stress on non-possession, bread-labour and swadeshi. The first two imply voluntary poverty, village industries and common people owning the means of production and having the capacity to resist injustice. Swadeshi means self-dependency and the use of local-made goods.

6. Role of Machines, Doctors, Courts etc:
Gandhi is not against machinery as such but he is against centralised mass production and profit motive. Centralised production leads to concentration of power and exploitation. Hence, according to Gandhi, in ideal state there will be no place for heavy transport, courts, lawyers, the modern system of medicines and big cities. Village Panchayats will administer justice. There will be no mass production of drugs. Gandhi advocated Indian yogic exercises for mental, moral and physical health.

7. Relations between Individual and Society:
To Gandhi society is just like a family and the relations between individual and society is one of close interdependence. Hence, in Gandhian ideal state there will be total harmony between individual and the state. Both will work for each other. However, Gandhi gives more importance to individual. In his philosophy individual comes first.

8. Role of Dharma:
In Gandhian ideal state ‘Dharma’ will play a very important role. But, ‘Dharma’ according to Gandhi, is identified with ‘righteousness’ or justice. The function of Dharma will be to hold together harmoniously the social order and to act as a guide to individual conscience.

9. Spiritualised Democracy:
Gandhian ideal state will be a spiritualised democratic state. The principle of equality will be applied in every sphere of society. The law of‘Varna’ and the ideals of bread-labour and non-possession will bring about complete social and economic equality. There will be no exploitation of one class by the other. Everybody will be his own master. Corruption and hypocricy will be minimised. The qualification for voters would be neither property nor position but manual work.

10. Role of Secularism:
Gandhian ideal state will be a secular state. There will be no religion known to be a ‘state-religion’. Everyone living in the state shall be allowed to adopt, practise and propagate religion of his / her choice.

11. Sticking to the ancestral profession:
In ideal state each one shall stick to the profession of his ancestors unless there were very strong reasons for a change. In this way the experience and knowledge shall pass from one generation to the other.

12. Unnecessary wealth not allowed:
In his ideal state, Gandhi felt that everyone will keep only what was required by him for his day to day life. No one would be allowed to keep unnecessary wealth or surplus goods. The rich would be persuaded to have only what was their minimum basic necessity and distribute rest of the wealth among the poor and the needy.

13. Emphasis on Duties:
In ideal state greater importance will be given to the duties. Everybody will do his ‘Karma’ or duty sincerely. The spirit of social service will govern people’s actions. The performance of duties will lead to automatic availability of rights for all.

Conclusion:
Thus we find that Gandhian non-violent ideal state would rest on principle of decentralisation, socialism, trusteeship, varna-system, bread labour and individual freedom with social restraints. It will be an ideal state where police will consist of non-violent soldiers and where prisons will be centres of reformation. It will be a federation of self-governing satyagrahi village communities.

No doubt, Gandhi himself knew that this ‘ideal state’ will always remain an ideal unrealised and unrealisable. He said, ‘But the ideal is never fully realised in life.” The ideal of‘Ram Rajya’ or non-violent state is unrealisable because of human imperfection. But it still shows the direction of our destination and the efforts to this direction must not cease.
Dr. Majumdar writes, “The supreme achievement of Mahatma Gandhi in the field of political thought has been the substitution of the ideal of legal state by that of moral state. He has placed before the world the idea of replacing force and violence by the technique of persuasion through truth and non-violence.”

Question 4.
Write a note on Gandhiji’s views about Ahimsa.
Or
Write down Gandhiji’s views about Non-Violence.
Answer:
Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence. Gandhiji defines non-violence as avoiding injury to anything on earth in thought, word or deed. To him Ahimsa was the highest religion. Gandhiji called Ahimsa as a spiritual or divine power. “Cowardice and Ahimsa do not go together any more than water and fire.

Cowardice is worse than violence A coward is less than man. He does not deserve to be a member of society of men and women. Non-violence is no negative force. It is a force which is more positive than electricity and more powerful than ether The highest violence can be met by the highest non-violence.” However, Gandhiji recognised that absolute Ahimsa being a perfect stage is the attribute of God alone. Non-violence is an effort to abandon the violence that is inevitable in life. The religion of Ahimsa consists in allowing others the maximum of inconvenience to us, even at the risk of life.

Requisites for Ahimsa. According to Gandhiji following are the main requisites of Ahimsa :
1. Truth:
Truth is the fundamental basis of Non-violence. According to Gandhiji not only God is truth but truth is also God. Non-violence is the natural consequence of truth. Gandhiji says that he had a great regard for truth from his childhood. He thinks that wherever there is violence, untruth will creep in. Gandhiji says that truth and Non-violence are like the two sides of an unstamped coin.

2. Love:
Love is the basic requisite for Ahimsa Gandhiji says , “It is no Non-violence if we merely love those that love us. It is Non-violence only when we love those that hate us.”

3. Inner Purity: Inner purity is very essential for a true Satyagrahi. A Satyagrahi must have self-discipline, selfless civility etc.

4. Fearlessness:
Fearlessness is equally important as inner-purity, love and truth. The Satyagrahi must, therefore, be open and fearless, prepared cheerfully to suffer the consequences of his resistance and disobedience to what he considers as unjust and unlawful authority.

5. Fast:
Fast is an internal part of Non-violence. According to Gandhiji, fast should be in the nature of prayer or purity and strength and power from God.

6. Non-Possession: Gandhiji lays stress on non-possession.

7. Perseverance: Perseverance is another essential requisite of Ahimsa.

Relevance of Non-violence:
It is said that Gandhiji’s idea that injustice can be removed through truth, Non-violence and purity of means is too idealistic to be put into practice. But those who make this criticism forget that by these means Gandhiji achieved a great measure of success in the movements he led in South Africa and in India. Gandhiji did not believe that the practice of Non-violence in the political field was beyond the capacity of man. He says.

“The first condition of Non-violence is justice all round in every department of life. Perhaps, it is too much to expect of human nature Non-violence has no cause for fear. The votary of Ahimsa has only one fear, that is of God.” If violence, war and crooked diplomacy are to be avoided, Gandhiji’s way seems to be the only way. If nations do not adopt Gandhiji’s method of Non-violence to remove injustice or resolve international disputes, there is no escape from hate, violence and war.

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Who was Mahatma Gandhi?
Answer:
Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi was born at Porbandar (Gujarat) on October 2, 1869. He went to England for higher studies in his 18th year. In 1891 Gandhiji returned to India as a full-fledged barrister. He entered politics just by chance and continued to dominate India National Movement from 1919 to 1947 and this period is called ‘Gandhi Era. He was a philosopher, a reformer and a great teacher. He is remembered as the Father of the Nation.

Question 2.
Explain in detail about Mahatma Gandhi’s views on Non-violence.
Or
Write down Gandhi’s views on Non-violence.
Answer:
Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence. Gandhiji defines non-violence as avoiding injury to anything on earth in thought, word or deed. To him, Ahimsa was the highest religion. Gandhiji called Ahimsa a spiritual or divine power. “Cowardice and Ahimsa do not go together any more than water and fire.” However, Gandhiji recognised that absolute Ahimsa being a perfect stage is the attribute of God alone. Non-violence is an’effort to abandon the violence that is inevitable in life. The religion of Ahimsa consists in allowing others the maximum of inconvenience to us, even at the risk of life.

According to Gandhiji, “Truth, love, fasting, inner purity, true devotion, selflessness etc. are the bases of non-violence. Gandhiji regards non-violence as an instrument or means to discover the truth.” In the words of Gandhiji, “Truth is my religion, and non-violence is its instrument.”

Question 3.
By which of the great persons Gandhiji was influenced?
Answer:
Gandhiji was influenced by the following great persons :

• John Ruskin: John Ruskin’s ‘Unto the Last’ had a great influence on Gandhiji. Gandhiji learnt three lessons from this book.
• Tolstoy: Tolstoy’s famous book ‘Kingdom of God is Within you’ left an enormous influence on Gandhiji. This book made him believer of Ahimsa.
• Gopal Krishan Gokhale: Mahatma Gandhi considered Gopal Krishan Gokhale as his ‘political guru’ and his liberal views had considerable influence on him.
• Henry David Thoreau also influenced Gandhiji.

Question 4.
Write down the names of Religious books which influenced Gandhiji’s life.
Answer:
Gandhiji was influenced by the following religious books :
1. Bhagwad Gita:
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by Bhagwad Gita. He learnt from the Gita that a man should do his duty regardless of the results or rewards.

2. Bible:
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by the Bible. The whole life he remembered these statements-‘Overcome evil by good’, ‘Love your enemy’, etc.

3. Influence of Koran: Gandhiji was also influenced by The Koran.

Question 5.
Express your views about Gandhiji’s outlook on religion and politics.
Or
Describe the basic views of Gandhiji on the relationship of politics and religion.
Answer:
Gandhiji’s political ideas were greatly influenced by religion. He was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. They subserve religion. Politics bereft of religion is a death trap because it kills the soul. Gandhiji was fully convinced that no civilization can endure for a long time unless it has adopted the higher values of life which are essentially spiritual in character. Gandhiji was a devotee of God. He had an unswerving and undying faith in God. Gandhiji said that all the religions are equal.

Question 6.
Mention four principles of Gandhism.
Answer:
1. Gandhism is based on Religion:
Gandhiji was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. Religion teaches a lesson of truth, non-violence and love.

2. Faith in Truth: Gandhiji used to say, ‘God is Truth and Truth is God.’ The search of truth is the search of God.

3. State is means and individual is an end.

4. Non-violence and Satyagraha:
Non-violence and satyagraha are the main principles of Gandhiji. Gandhiji called Ahimsa a spiritual or divine power. Satyagraha is the heart and soul of Gandhism. Satyagraha means holding on to truth or insistence on truth.

Question 7.
What does Gandhiji mean by ‘Satyagraha’? Write the names of methods for Satyagraha.
Answer:
Satyagraha:
The idea and practice of Satyagraha constitutes the heart and the soul of Gandhism and is Gandhiji’s unique and distinctive contribution. Gandhiji defines Satyagraha as the soul force. Literally Satyagraha means holding on to truth or insistence on truth. It is the vindication of truth, not by the infliction of suffering on the opponent but by self-suffering. Satyagraha is not passive resistance but it is a moral weapon based on superiority of our soul force over physical force. It is a weapon of the strongest and the bravest. Non-cooperation, hartals and strikes, picketing, social boycott, hunger strike, civil disobedience, hijrat etc. are forms of Satyagraha.

Methods for Satyagraha:
According to Gandhiji, the different forms of Satyagraha are non-co-operation, strike, boycott, picketing, civil disobedience, hijrat or migration and fasting.
1. Non-co-operation:
Gandhiji pointed out that oppression and exploitation become feasible only by the co-operation of the oppressed or the people. If the people refuse to co-operate with the government or unjust system, the latter could not function and was bound to come to an end. With complete and non-violent non-co-operation every power could be bent. Non-co-operation takes three different forms, namely, stoppage of work, boycott and picketing.

2. Strike:
This is another form of Satyagraha. To Gandhiji, strike was voluntary, purificatory suffering undertaken to convert the erring opponent. He did not believe in the theory of class-war.

3. Civil Disobedience:
This was to be resorted to when agreements, negotiations, petitions and even non-co-operation prove ineffective. Civil disobedience is thus the logical conclusion, the last stage, the most drastic form of non-co-operation.

4. Fasting: Fasting is also an important method of Satyagraha.

Question 8.
Write down the methods of Satyagraha given by Gandhiji.
Answer:
According to Gandhiji, the different forms of Satyagraha are non-co-operation, strike, boycott, picketing, civil disobedience, hijrat or migration and fasting.
1. Non-co-operation:
Gandhiji pointed out that oppression and exploitation become feasible only by the co-operation of the oppressed or the people. If the people refuse to co-operate with the government or unjust system, the latter could not function and was bound to come to an end. With complete and non-violent non-co-operation every power could be bent. Non-co-operation takes three different forms, namely, stoppage of work, boycott and picketing.

2. Strike:
This is another form of Satyagraha. To Gandhiji, strike was voluntary, purificatory suffering undertaken to convert the erring opponent. He did not believe in the theory of class-war.

3. Civil Disobedience:
This was to be resorted to when agreements, negotiations, petitions and even non-co-operation prove ineffective. Civil disobedience is thus the logical conclusion, the last stage, the most drastic form of non-co-operation.

4. Fasting: Fasting is also an important method of Satyagraha.

Question 9.
Explain Gandhiji’s views about state.
Answer:
Gandhiji was opposed to the state on ethical, historical and economic grounds. The compulsive nature of the state authority takes away the moral value of the individual. He said that the state commands and whatever is commanded can have no moral value. Individual action can be moral only if it is voluntary. According to Gandhiji,

“The state represents violence in concentrated and organised form. The individual has a soul but the state is a soulless machine. It can never be weaned from violence to which it owes its very existence.” Gandhiji was thus opposed to the activities of the state. He wanted a stateless democratic state where social life was self-regulated.

Question 10.
Describe Gandhiji’s Trusteeship System. (P.B. Sample Paper. 2019)
Answer:
Gandhiji advocates a new principle which is technically known as his concept of trusteeship. It means that he wants that the moneyed people should regard their properties, may be land or industry, as a trust to be used for the welfare of the people. He wanted that the propertied men should regard themselves as trustees of the people. He wanted to introduce this principle of trusteeship on the basis of persuasion of the party concerned and not through coercion. He once said, “I would not dispose moneyed people by force but would invite their co-operation in the process of conversion to state ownership.”

Question 11.
What does ‘Hizrat’ mean according to Gandhiji?
Or
According to Gandhiji, what does ‘Hijrat’ mean?
Answer:
Hijrat is one form of Satyagraha. The word ‘Hijrat’ was first used when Prophet Mohammad, the founder of Islam, migrated from Mecca to Medina. Hijrat means voluntary exile from the permanent place of residence. Gandhiji favoured Hijrat when people can’t live in their homes or homelands without loss of self¬respect and when they can’t resist oppression non-violently. He recommended this method to the peasants of Bardoli in 1928 and in 1939, to the people of Junagarh, Vithalgarh and Limbidi.

Question 12.
Describe the concept of ‘Ideal State’ of Mahatma Gandhi.
Answer:
Gandhiji considered the present state as a necessary immoral institution. Gandhiji was not in favour of present state and in place of it he wanted to establish an ideal state. Following are the main characteristics of the Ideal State of Gandhiji:
1. Democratic System:
Gandhiji supported democratic form of government and called it an ideal type of government for his ideal state.

2. Secular State:
In ideal state nobody will be discriminated against on the bases of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood. He favoured the idea of secular state.

3. Panchayati Raj:
Gandhiji believed in decentralization of authority and he advocated the establishment of Panchayati Raj. Gandhiji was in favour of giving maximum powers to the Panchayats.

4. Gandhian ideal state will be a spiritualised democratic state.

Question 13.
Why is Gandhiji called the Father of the Nation?
Answer:
Gandhiji was a man of high spirits. He was famous not only in India but also all over the world. He played a very important role in National Movement. He uprooted the British rule from India without any bloodshed. India got freedom under his leadership. Gandhiji dedicated his life for Indian people. Even after the independence of India he accepted no post. Gandhiji presented the example of sacrifice and dedication never seen in the history of the world. He has rightly been called the Father of the Nation.

Question 14.
Write Gandhiji’s view about Democracy.
Answer:
Gandhism supported the democratic system of government and called it an ideal type of government. He had a deep faith in democracy. He wanted to establish social and economic equality in society. Gandhiji wanted the government to be elected by the people but at the same time he wanted that only those persons should have the right to vote who earn their bread by their own labour. He was of the opinion that fundamental rights should be granted to all.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
What do you know about Mahatma Gandhi?
Answer:
Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi was born at Porbandar (Gujarat) on October 2,1869. He entered politics just by chance and continued to dominate Indian National Movement from 1919 to 1947 and this period is called ‘Gandhi Era.

Question 2.
Write down Gandhiji’s view about non-violence.
Answer:
Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence. Gandhiji defines non-violence as avoiding injury to anything on earth in thought, word or deed. To him, Ahimsa was the highest religion. Gandhiji called Ahimsa a spiritual or divine power. “Cowardice and Ahimsa do not go together any more than water and fire.”

Question 3.
By which of the great persons Gandhiji was influenced?
Answer:
Gandhiji was influenced by following great persons:
1. John Ruskin:
John Ruskin’s ‘Unto the Last’ had a great influence on Gandhiji. Gandhiji learnt three lessons from this book.

2. Gopal Krishan Gokhale:
Mahatma Gandhi considered Gopal Krishan Gokhale as his ‘political guru’ and his liberal views had considerable influence on him.

Question 4.
Write down the names of any two religious books which influenced Gandhiji’s life.
Answer:
Gandhiji was influenced by following religious books:
1. Bhagwad Gita:
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by Bhagwad Gita. He learnt from the Gita that a man should do his duty regardless of the results or rewards.

2. Bible:
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by the Bible. The whole life he remembered these statements-‘Overcome evil by good’, ‘Love your enemy’, etc.

Question 5.
Write about factors that influenced the life of Gandhiji.
Answer:
1. The Gita had a great influence on the life of Gandhiji. Gandhi was predominantly a man of action. The Gita made him one. He was a Karma Yogi.

2. Jainism had perceptibly coloured Gandhiji’s thoughts and shaped his actions.

3. Buddhist influence was also great.

Question 6.
Describe the basic views of Gandhiji on the relationship of politics and religion.
Answer:
Gandhiji’s political ideas were greatly influenced by religion. He was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. They subserve religion. Politics bereft of religion is a death trap because it kills the soul. Gandhiji was fully convinced that no civilization can endure for a long time unless it has adopted the higher values of life which are essentially spiritual in character.

Question 7.
Write down any two principles of Gandhism.
Answer:

• Gandhism is based on Religion: Gandhiji was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. Religion teaches a lesson of truth, non-violence and love.
• Faith in Truth: Gandhiji used to say, ‘God is truth and truth is God.’ The search of truth is the search of God.

Question 8.
Describe Gandhiji’s concepts of Satyagraha.
Answer:
Gandhiji defines Satyagraha as the soul force. Literally Satyagraha means holding on to truth or insistence on truth. It is the vindication of truth, not by the infliction of suffering on the opponent but by self-suffering. Satyagraha is not passive resistance but it is a moral weapon based on superiority of our soul force over physical force. It is a weapon of the strongest and the bravest.

Question 9.
Explain briefly any two techniques of Satyagraha enunciated by Gandhi.
Answer:
1. Non-co-operation:
Gandhiji pointed out that oppression and exploitation become non-feasible only by the non-co-operation of the oppressed people.

2. Strike:
This is another form of Satyagraha. To Gandhiji, strike was voluntary, purificatory suffering undertaken to convert the erring opponent. He did not believe in the theory of class-war.

Question 10.
Write Gandhiji’s views about ends and meAnswer:
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi believed and advocated that our means must be consistent with our ends. It is not enough that the ends we follow should be moral and good. It is equally important that the means we use for their achievement should also be good and moral. According to Gandhiji, there is no wall of separation between means and ends. We should not only take care of ends but also take care of the meAnswer:

Question 11.
Discuss Gandhiji’s views about state.
Answer:
Gandhiji was opposed to the state on ethical, historical and economic grounds. The compulsive nature of the state authority takes away the moral value of the individual. He said that the state commands and whatever is commanded can have no moral value. Individual action can be moral only if it is voluntary. Gandhiji was thus opposed to the activities of the state. He wanted a stateless democratic state where social life was self-regulated.

Question 12.
What is Trusteeship system?
Answer:
Gandhiji advocates a new principle which is technically known as his concept of trusteeship. It means that he wants that the moneyed people should regard their properties, may be land or industry, as a trust to be used for the welfare of the people.

Question 13.
What do you mean by Hijrat?
Answer:
Hijrat means voluntary exile from the permanent place of residence. Gandhiji favoured Hijrat when people can’t live in their homes or homelands without loss of self-respect and when they can’t resist oppression non-violently.

Question 14.
Mention the two features of Gandhiji’s Ideal State.
Answer:

• Democratic System: Gandhiji supported democratic form of government and called it an ideal type of government for his ideal state.
• Secular State: In ideal state nobody will be discriminated against on the basis of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood. He favoured the idea of secular state.

Question 15.
Why is Gandhiji called the Father of the Nation?
Answer:
Gandhiji played a very important role in National Movement. He uprooted the British rule from India without any bloodshed. India got freedom under his leadership. Gandhiji dedicated his life for Indian people. Even after the independence of India he accepted no post. He has rightly been called the Father of the Nation.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Mention full name of Gandhiji.
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi’s full name is Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhi.

Question 2.
When was Mahatma Gandhi born?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi was born on 2nd October 1869.

Question 3.
Where was Gandhiji born?
Answer:
Gandhiji was bom at Porbunder in Kathiawar.

Question 4.
By whom was Gandhiji influenced?
Answer:
Gandhiji was deeply influenced by the Gita, Buddhism, Jainism and the Bible. Among the scholars, he was influenced by John Ruskin,
Henry David Thoreau and Tolstoy.

Question 5.
Write down the nature of present state according to Gandhiji.
Answer:
Gandhiji considered the present state to be based on force and violence. He supported that it should be ended.

Question 6.
Write down one feature of Gandhiji’s ideal state.
Answer:
The ideal society or the stateless democracy will be a federation of self- governed and satyagrahi villages.

Question 7.
Who gave the title ‘Mahatma’ to Gandhiji?
Answer:
Rabindranath Tagore had first of all called Gandhiji as Mahatma. After this, Gandhiji was called as Mahatma Gandhi.

Question 8.
What did Gandhiji mean by Civil Disobedience?
Answer:
Civil disobedience means the breach of immoral statutory enactment. It included even non-payment of taxes.

Question 9.
What did Gandhiji mean by Hijrat?
Answer:
Hijrat implies voluntary exile from the permanent place of residence. It means that a person who does not have power to become a Satyagrahi, should leave the place.

Question 10.
Write two Religious Books which influenced the life of Mahatma Gandhiji.
Answer:
1. Bhagwad Gita
2. Bible

Question 11.
Who called Mahatma Gandhiji as ‘Father of Nation’?
Answer:
Subhash Chander Bose.

Question 12.
Write two methods of Satyagraha of Mahatma Gandhiji.
Answer:
1. Non-Cooperation
2. Civil Disobedience.

Fill in The Blanks

1. …………… was Gandhi’s political teacher.
Answer:
Sh. Gopal Krishan Gokhle

2. Gandhiji regards state as a means and individual as an …………… .
Answer:
end

3. Gandhiji believed in the decentralization of …………… .
Answer:
authority

4. Gandhiji considered the state as an organisation of …………… and …………… .
Answer:
violence, force

5. According to Gandhiji, “It is impossible for one to be internationalist without being a …………… .
Answer:
nationalist.

True Or False Statement

1. Gandhism is based on religion.
Answer:
True

2. Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence.
Answer:
True

3. Gandhiji gives no importance to duties.
Answer:
False.

4. Gandhiji defined Satyagraha as the soul force.
Answer:
True

5. Gandhiji said the state should perform maximum function.
Answer:
False.

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Which of the following influenced the life of Gandhiji?
(a) Bhagwad Gita
(b) John Ruskin
(c) Jainism
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Question 2.
Which of the following is basic principle of Gandhism?
(a) Faith in Non-violence
(b) Satyagraha
(c) Faith in Truth
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Question 3.
Which of the following is not a technique of Satyagraha?
(a) Strike
(b) Non-Cooperation
(c) Violence and War
(d) Civil disobedience.
Answer:
(c) Violence and War

Question 4.
Who said, “We should not only take care of ends but also take care of the means.”?
(a) Gandhiji
(b) Machiavelli
(c) Hobbes
(d) Karl Marx.
Answer:
(a) Gandhiji

Question 5.
Which of the following was a great worshipper of non-violence?
(a) Machiavelli
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Gandhiji
(d) Lenin.
Answer:
(c) Gandhiji

Question 6.
‘My Experiments with Truth’ is written by:
(a) Aristotle
(b) Gandhiji
(c) J.S. Mill
(d) Lenin.
Answer:
(b) Gandhiji

Question 7.
Who said, “God is Truth and Truth is God.”?
(a) Karl Marx
(b) Gandhiji
(c) Machiavelli
(d) Dr. Ambedkar.
Answer:
(b) Gandhiji

Question 8.
According to whom means and ends are inseparable and should be equally true?
(a) Machiavelli
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Gandhiji
(d) Lenin.
Answer:
(c) Gandhiji

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 1 Political System Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 1 Political System

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define Political System. Write main characteristics of Political System.
Or
Describe the words Political and System separately and also write any three features of Political System.
Or
Define Political System and explain its four characteristics.
Answer:
Introduction:
Among the new concepts and trends of political analysis, the concept of political system occupies a pre-eminent place. It has revolutionised modern political science. The behavioural revolution in political science begins and ends with an over-emphasis on the concept of political system. It was Talcott Parsons, a sociologist who by writing his book ‘Social System’ popularised this concept in sociology. In political science this concept is associated with the names of David Easton, Gabriel Almond and several others of their camp. The concept has been borrowed from natural science in social sciences. Before understanding the concept of political system, it is essential to know the meaning of ‘Political’ and ‘System’.

What is Political:
The word ‘Political’ reflects power or authority. All these interactions involved in the struggle for power are ‘Political’. Any association becomes Political when its rule or decisions are obeyed by its members with the use or threat of physical force. According to Max Weber, “An association should be called political if and in so far as the enforcement of its order is carried out continually within a given territorial area by the application or threat of physical force.” Political includes all these which include power, influence, control or authority to a significant extent.

Meaning of the term ‘System’:
According to Oxford Dictionary, “A system is a complete whole, a set of connected things or parts, organised body of material or immaterial things.”
The word ‘system’ has been used and defined differently by different writers belonging to different disciplines. Ludivin van Bertallanfy describes system as a “set of elements standing in interaction.” Collin Cherry says that a system “is a whole which is compounded of many parts-an ensemble of attitudes.”
According to Gabriel A. Almond a system means a “particular set of properties in interaction A system has three characteristics:
1. comprehensiveness,
2. interdependence and
3. existence of boundaries.”

According to A. Hall and A. Fagen, “System is a set of objects together with relations between the objects and between their attitudes.”

Definitions of a Political System:
There are several definitions of the term ‘Political System.’ Max Weber says that a political system is a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. Kaplan and Lasswell consider the shaping and sharing of power as the main concern of political system with the help of threatened or actual use of severe deprivation for non-confirmity. Robert A. Dahl defines political system as “any persistent pattern of human relationships that involves to a significant extent power, rule or authority.”

Gabriel A. Almond expands “political system” to mean “that system of interaction to be found in all independent societies which performs the functions of interaction and adaptation (both internally and vis-a-vis other societies) by means of employment or threat of employment of more or less.” More briefly speaking, the political system is, “the legitimate order maintaining or transforming system within society”.

The use of the phrase “more or less’ by Almond, enables us to include totalitarian systems in which the legitimacy may be in doubt, revolutionary system in which the basics of legitimacy may be in process of change ; and non-western systems in which there may be more than one legitimate system. Physical compulsion distinguishes one political system from another. All inputs into the political system are in some way related to claim for the employment of legitimate compulsion. All the ‘outputs’ are related to the exercise of such legitimate compulsion.

Thus three things emerge out of Almond’s definition of political system:

• That a political system is a concrete whole influencing and in turn influenced by the environments,
• interactions take place not between individuals but between roles adopted by them, and
• the political system is an open system engaged in continuous communication with entities and systems beyond its own boundaries.

Thus all three characteristics of a system are found in Almond’s definition of political system:

• political system is comprehensive in the sense that it includes all the interactions-inputs as well as outputs;
• it is interdependent in the sense that various sub-sets of political systems are so closely associated with each other that a change in one sub-set produces a change in all the sub-sets; and
• there is a boundary or demarcation between one political system and another.

A political system not only includes formal governmental structures; like Executive, Legislative, Judiciary and other administrative agencies, but it includes traditional and informal structures; like kinship, caste, group, anomic groups e.g., demonstrations, violent incidents and murders, etc. So the scope of Political System is very large.

Question 2.
Describe the main characteristics of Political System.
Or
Write down the main components of Political System.
Answer:
According to Almond, a political system has three main properties of comprehensiveness, interdependence and boundaries and it has essential characteristics-Universality-of Political System, Universality of political structure, Universality of political functions, multifunctionality of political structure and culturally mixed character of the political system.

1. Comprehensiveness:
According to Almond, political system includes all the interactions-inputs as well as outputs,-that affect the use of political coercion. In other words, according to Almond, political system is not only concerned with the mere structures based on constitutional and legal foundations as parliaments, courts and bureaucracies or with informal organisations like political parties and pressure groups and means of communications, but it is concerned with all the structures in their political aspects, including undifferentiated structures like kinship and lineage, status and caste groups, religious and cultural bodies, as well as anomic phenomenon like violent riots and street demonstrations.

2. Interdependence:
According to Almond, political system also includes the political aspects of various sub-systems. Interdependence of various sub-systems is one of the most important elements of the political system. For example, the changes in the means of communications have transformed the electoral process, the characteristics of political parties, the legislature and the executive.

3. Existence of Boundaries:
It implies that there are points where the political system ends and other systems begin. The boudaries between society and polity differ from one political system to another. But the boundaries of a political system change from time to time. Besides the three properties of political system, Almond has also mentioned five characteristics of the political system:

(i) Universality of Political Systems:
According to Almond, all political systems whether primitive or modern or whether developing and developed, have political structures, i.e., they have a legitimate pattern of interaction by means of which internal and external order is maintained.

(ii) Universality of Political Structure:
According to Almond, all political systems have same structures that perform same functions though with varying degree of frequency. The articulative, aggregative and communicative functions may be performed diffusely within the society or intermittently through the kinship or lineage structure. An adequate analysis of a political system must locate and characterise all of these functions and not simply those performed by the specialised political structure.

(iii) Universality of Political Functions:
According to Almond, the approach of the student of comparative Politics should not be ‘structure-bound,’ rather it should be ‘function-bound’. According to Almond, every political system must perform the following functions:

(a) Input Functions.
Input category includes:

• Political Socialisation and- Recruitment,
• Interest articulation,
• Interest aggregation, and
• Political communication.

(b) Output Functions.Output category includes:

• Rule-making.
• Rule-application and
• Rule-adjudication.

4. Multifunctionality of Political Structure:
According to Almond, all political structure irrespective of the degree of specialisation in point of time or space, is multifunctional. Multi-functionality of Political Structure means that a political structure performs not one type of functions but many types of functions. For example, courts not only adjudicate, they also legislate. Similarly Legislatures not only legislate but they also perform administrative functions.

5. Culturally Mixed Character of Political Systems:
According to Almond, all political systems are mixed in the cultural sense. No political system is quite modern or western in the same sense as no individual is fully mature or emancipated from the ties and diffuse dependence.

Characteristics of Political System in Dahl’s View
Robert Dahl has mentioned in his book ‘Modern Political Analysis’ eight characteristics of Political system. But before discussing the characteristics Robert Dahl has said, “Remember these similarities are not a part of the definition of a political system. They are regularities-empirical regularities one might say- that one can expect to find in any large political system.”

1. Uneven Control of Political Resources:
According to a report of Dahl, “Control over political resources is distributed unevenly”. A political resource is a means by which one person can influence the behaviour of other persons. Political resources include money, information, food, the threat of force, job, friendship, social standing, the right to make laws, votes, and a great variety of other things. According to Dahl, there are four reasons why control over political resources is unevenly distributed in virtually all societies.

(i) Some specialization, of functions exists in every society:
Because of this specialization, everyone cannot have an equal control over resources. A foreign minister or a secretary of state knows better about the foreign affairs than ordinary citizens, because he (foreign minister) specializes in that sphere.

(ii) Because of inherited difference, people do not have control over resources.

(iii) Citizens differ in their objectives. Some have no interest in politics, others have too much of interest. Not everyone is equally motivated to go into politics, to become a leader, or to acquire the resources that help the leader gain influence over others.

(iv) Finally, some differences in incentives and goals are usually encouraged in societies in order to equip individuals for different specialities. If everyone wanted to be a full-time warrior, who would bear and rear the children? But differences in motivations are likely to lead to differences in resources-for example to greater military powers for warriors than others.

2. The Quest of Political Influence:
In almost every political system there are some members who seek to gain influence over the policies, rules and decisions enforced by the government-i.e. political influence. People seek political influence not necessarily for its own sake, but because control over the government helps them to achieve one or more of their goals. Control over the government is such an obvious and familiar way of furthering one’s goals or values that it is hard to imagine a political system in which no one sought power.

3. Unequal Distribution of Political Influence:
There is an unequal distribution of Political Influence among the adult members of a society. These with more political resources have large capacity to influence than others. The unequal distribution of Political influence is not modern in its origin ; it has always existed in our societies. Uneven control of political resources and the difference in purpose for which these resources are utilised, are a few factors responsible for this unequal distribution of Political Influence. Aristotle distinguished between master and slave, husband and wife.

Rousseau accepted property as the basis of inequality. Marx and Engels also accept almost similar basis. David Truman inl951 said, “Writers of the most diverse Political views and using the most widely variant methods of observation have called attention to the existence in almost all groups of an active minority identified by such condemnatory terms as ‘oligarchy’ and ‘old guard’ or such approving ones as public spirited citizens and civic leaders.” Thus these, with a larger amount of political influence, are known to be the leaders in a Political System.

4. Resolution of Conflicting aims:
The members of a Political System generally have conflicting aims. These aims are, of course, considered by the Govt, yet it does not mean that Government always interferes in these conflicting aims and activities of individual members. State interferes only when the use of power becomes imminent. A Government, for example, interferes in a dispute between the workers and owners of a mill or any other concern, when it endangers the National economy.

5. The Acquisition of Legitimacy:
While solving the conflicts in a Political System, rulers always take care of this thing that the means used for settlement should be based on moral principles and not on fear, violence or any other immoral consideration. Leaders in a Political System always try to establish legitimacy of their actions. This is particularly so in a democratic system.

6. Development of an Ideology:
The rulers in a political system essentially develop an ideology to prove the legitimacy of their acts. This ideology can be socialistic, democratic or any other, but it is not essential that every individual member of the system knows or understands that ideology.

7. Influence of other Political Systems:
Every Political System is influenced by other Political Systems. No Political system in modem age can develop in complete isolation. Each State has to regulate its system on the basis of international law, international treaties, agreements and international institutions.

8. The Inevitability of Change:
All political systems undergo change. From time immemorial political observers have pointed out the mutability of political systems. In the entire history of political institutions, no political system has been immutable. But it is important to note that characteristics of political systems, given by Dahl, are not the theoretical basis of political system. In other words from theory point of view it is not essential that characteristics must be available in every political system. But as far as the political form of political system is concerned almost all these characteristics are available in a political system.

Question 3.
Describe the meaning of ‘Political System’ and also explain its ‘input functions’.
Or
Write input and output functions of Political System.
Answer:
According to Shaw and Pierce, “The study of Politics needs some analytical tool which can help to describe and explain ‘Political’ activity. The term ‘system’ is a useful one for organizing one’s knowledge about many social objects. Employing the concept of system with its accompanying properties, is one way in which the characteristics and boundaries of the ‘Politician’ can be abstracted for study.” In this way after including the concept of ‘System’ in politics by modem political scholars, concept of political system has become a central point of study in political science.

The term ‘Political System’ reflects a new way of looking at political phenomena which was covered in old texts under such terms as ‘government’, ‘nation’ or ‘state’. Political system, however, denotes not only change of nomenclature but something much more. It includes not only new names for old things, but also some new terms to refer to activities and processes which were not formerly recognised as being parts or aspects of politics. The order of terms-state, government, nation-are limited by legal and institutional meanings. They referred to only the formal government institutions such as legislature, executive and judiciary.

But Political System includes not only governmental institutions such as legislature, court and administrative agencies, but all structures in their political aspects. Among these are traditional structures such as kinship ties and caste groupings, anomic phenomena such as assassinations, riots and demonstrations; as well as formal organisations like parties, interest groups and media of communication.”

Functions of Political Systems:
According to Almond, Political Systems perform two types of functions-Input functions and Output functions. Below, we discuss these briefly:
Input Functions:
Input functions are performed by non-governmental sub-systems society, and general environment. Almond has suggested four input functions of a Political System.
1. Political Socialization and Recruitment
2. Interest Articulation
3. Interest Aggregation
4. Political Communication.

1. Political Socialization and Recruitment:
In one’s childhood, one has no interest in politics. A child is generally ignorant about politics, but gradually when he grows up, he starts understanding the political conceptions and then finally he starts playing a role also in the political system. This is the process of socialization.

According to Almond and Powell, ‘Political Socialization is the process through which political cultures are maintained or changed.” So the process of political socialization can be utilised for both bringing a change as well as for maintaining status-quo. It is a continuous process. Political Parties and Pressure Groups, which are the main agencies of political socialization, are involved in making the people conscious about their values and in attracting their attention towards their values. The process of socialization has its special importance in a democratic system.

The process of socialization, in a system, is supplemented by Recruitment. Roles and actors in a system keep on changing. Rulers, officials, leaders all change in a system. New ones replace the older ones. Defining Recruitment, Almond and Powell write, “We use the term Political to refer to the functions by means of which the roles of political systems are filled. ” There can be both generalized or specialized recruitment.

2. Interest Articulation:
In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a system. According to Almond and Powell, “The process by which individuals and groups make demands upon the political decision makers, we call, interest articulation. ” Different individuals and groups present their demands or articulate their interests before those who have the right to make decisions.

It is an important process in the political system, because unless the groups or individuals present their demands before the rulers, no policy can be formulated and their demands cannot be met. If the groups or individuals in a system are not allowed to present their demands or interests, it may lead to violent activities. Interests, in a political system, can be articulated by way of petitions, suggestions, addresses, statements, demonstrations or even violent means. Students and labour groups adopt the techinque of strikes etc. The democratic system provides proper means for interest articulation to the people.

3. Interest Aggregation:
In no political system different laws of the interests of different groups can be created. A common policy is formulated for the interests of almost all the groups. The process of combining the interests of various groups is known as Interest Aggregation. According to Almond and Powell. “The functions of converting demands into general policy alternatives is called interest aggregation. ” There are two ways to perform this function.

First by co-ordinating the interests of various nature and second by the recruitment of those who have faith in one national policy. An individual wants a particular thing to be done on the basis of his interests. Interest groups aggregate the interests of various sub-groups and make a demand. Political Parties on the basis of various demands made by different groups, prepare a policy. This is a continuous process in a political system.

4. Political Communication:
Political Communication is the most important function of a Political System. It is through this process that other functions are performed. Everybody, whether a citizen or an official, has to depend upon information, because all activities in a system are to be regulated on the basis of information. That is why in a democratic system there is too much of emphasis on the freedom of press, speech and expression, whereas it is crushed or controlled in a totalitarian system. Means of communication have a definite impact on a Political System. Without communication, Interest articulation is not possible.

The freedom and autonomy of the communication system has been recognized in modern developed societies. On the basis of the structure of the communication system, we can compare the political systems with each other. According to Almond and Powell, “The analysis and comparison of the performance of political communication is one of the most interesting and useful means of examining different political systems. ” In a comparative study we look at communication from four angles, namely,

• Homogeneity
• Mobility
• Volume
• Direction.

Output Functions:
The output functions of a Political System are similar to those of the administrative activities of a State. Almond himself has accepted that they are similar to the traditional government functions. But still they should be described not as government functions, but as output functions of a political system. Almond has suggested three main output functions:
1. Rule Making,
2. Rule Application,
3. Rule Adjudication.
Let us know about these briefly.

1. Rule Making:
There must be certain rules in the society to regulate the relationships between the individuals. In a political system the rule-making function is performed by the Legislature and its allied agencies. The use of the term ‘rule-making’ in place of ‘law-making’ has been justified by Almond on the ground that the term ‘law-making’ reflects a particular structure and a definite process, whereas rule-making is a much more diffused process in which all political systems are involved. Almond and Powell believe that constitutionalism demands that, “rules must be made in certain ways and by specific institutions and with certain kinds of limitations.”

2. Rule Application:
The function of the political system is not only to make rules, but also to apply them. If rules are not properly implemented the whole purpose of rule-making is lost and the desired results then cannot be expected. In a political system ‘Rule application’ is the responsibility of bureaucracy. Even the judicial decisions are implemented by the civil servants. Sometime this function is performed by the rule-making department also.

But in a developed political system the two functions are performed by separate departments. According to Almond, “The presence of differentiated and well developed structures for rule application greatly expand the capability of a political system to manipulate its environment. ”

3. Rule Adjudication:
Whenever a rule is created, the fear of its violation is always present. Now, he who violates these rules, must be punished. That is why almost every rule contains in itself the punishment for those, who violate it. But before such a punishment is given to any individual it must be established that he had actually violated the rule of the land. This is the function of courts or the judiciary or in modem terminology, the Rule Adjudication department.

This department peforms another function and that is the interpretation of laws. In an ideal political system this department is kept independent of all controls so that judges work impartially, independently and fearlessly. An analysis of all these functions of a political system presents models, Almond and Coleman have described five such models:

• The Model democracy-Japan, India and Israel.
• The Tutelary democracy-Ghana, Nigeria. In their model Legislature and Judiciary are comparatively weaker than Executive.
• The Modernizing Oligarchy-Myanmar (Burma), Turkey and Sudan. In such a model the democratic constitution remains suspended. Authority is vested in either Bureaucracy or in Armed Forces.
• The Totalitarian Oligarchy-Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. This is called Guardian-Bureaucracy.
• The Traditional Oligarchy-Kuwait, Saudi Arab. Recruitment in this model is on the basis of kinship.

Question 4.
Explain David Easton’s Concept of Political System.
Or
Discuss the functions of Political System with reference to the views of David Easton.
Answer:
General System’s theory is concerned with all types of systems whereas the System’s theory covers only the political system. Oran Young is of the opinion that System Theory is a product of General System Theory. But Spiro believes that System Theory was present before the General Systems Theory came into existence.

System Analysis:
David Easton was the first Political Scientist to adopt the system analysis in Politics, in 1965, in his books, ‘A Framework of Political Analysis’ and ‘A System Analysis of Political Life.’ He gave a new interpretation, which is of great importance for us today.

Meaning of Political System according to Easton:
Political system differs from General Systems. It is ominpresent and is found everywhere, may be that it exists in different forms.

Defining Political System, Easton has said that “Political System is that system of interaction in any society through which binding and authoritative allocations of value are made and implemented.” He has further said that, “the idea of Political System proves to be an appropriate and indeed unavoidable starting point in research. Although, there is often uncertainty about the unity of Political Science as a discipline, most students of Political Science do feel quite instinctively that research into political aspects of life does differ from enquire into any other, sufficiently, so to constitute a separate intellect enterprise.”

Easton’s analysis of Political System is without any boundaries. For him, the scope of Political System is very large. It includes all types of formal and informal actions and interactions, structures and values. Political System is a sub-system of social system and it can, therefore be analysed. It is affected by all other systems and sub-systems. It adopts inputs and produces output.

Inputs and Outputs in a Political System:

Easton has described two types of inputs in a political system:
1. Demand and 2. Support.

Demand:
Easton has explained demand by saying “A demand is an expression of opinion that an authoritative allocation with regard to a particular subject-matter should or should not be made by those responsible for doing so.”
Demand can be of many types, for example, demand for fixed working hours, demand for public security, demand for franchise, demand for information or for sending messages etc. Support can also be of many types, for example, materialistic support like, paying taxes, joining armed forces, financial help during emergency. Similarly, another support can be to obey the laws and help in their execution. Yet, another support can be to use right to vote and to participate in the political activities.

Input Support:
According to Easton, no demand can be satisfied without support, but the related problems are-how much support, and from where and which members of political system? One will get support if others are satisfied by his actions or activities or interests. Every political system will have to get the support of environments, if it is to survive. The support can be in the form of actions which are supportive or it can be to a specific political object.

lt can also be an over all support to the political community, to a particular structure or political authorities, holding power at a given time. He was also of the view that the support could be for all things or for any one of them. But at the same time, it cannot be taken for granted that support once obtained will continue for ever. The support can also increase or decline, according to certain developments. But such a situation will arise only when a political system has failed to deliver the goods.
Easton believed that input in a Political System is like the raw material which when supplemented by support takes the form of outputs.

Outputs of Political System:
Demands and supports are inputs of a political system, but along with inputs, there are also some outputs. A political system might be having excellent public support, it might also have lofty ideals to achieve and the society on the whole might even extend co-operation to it, but it will survive only when it gives its output, namely how far the system has proved to society useful or what has it given to the society. According to Easton, “Outputs not only help to influence events in the broader sense of which the system is a part, but also in doing so they help to determine each succeeding round of inputs that finds its way into the political system.” Outputs are of three types according to Easton, viz.

1. Tax or personal service,
2. Regulated behaviour and
3. Distribution of general services or opportunities

Easton also tried to establish a relationship between the Political System and the Environment. Environment creates demands and the conversion process converts them into decisions or policies. Support originates out of the satisfaction about the decisions taken or policies made. This process continues in a political system till the system bears the strains and stresses in forms of demands. When this situation reaches a critical stage and the strains and stresses become unbearable for a political system, the system collapses.

Following are the main premises of input-output process, as described by David Easton:
1. System,
2. Environment,
3. Response and
4. Feedback.
1. System: System has, already, been defined in the beginning of this part of the chapter.

2. Environment:
Political System is a set of interactions. It converts inputs into outputs. Just as every conversion has the impact of a particular type of
environment, similarly, the conversion of inputs into outputs depends upon political environment. According to Eatson, Political Environment is of two types,
(i) Extra Societal
(ii) Intra Societal.
The Extra Societal environment means international environment which includes groups, cultural and economic systems. The Intra Societal environment includes structural, social and other circumstances which are influential in the society.

3. Response:
Political System allocates values in the society. Environment influences the Political System in this regard and puts all types of strains and stresses on the Political System. The success or failure of a Political System depends upon the reaction of the system about their strains and stresses. These stresses constitute the inputs and only few of these are converted into outputs. How far an environment system faces these inputs, is the response of the Political System. For this purpose, Political System articulates four types of rules:

1. Communicative Rules, which regulate the conversion process.
2. Cultural Rules, through which political system determines cultural values.
3. Communicatory Instruments, through which the political system increases the possibility of its control over output.

They include Press, Radio and T.V. etc.
4. Reductionist Reactions or Aggregation, through which the possibility of demands is reduced as is done by unification etc.

Apart from Demands, the other input in the environment is the political support. Support can be of three types:

• Overt or Covert
• Positive or Negative
• General and Widespread or Particular or special.

Levels of Support:
There are three levels of support; namely:

• Political community
• Regime
• Authorities.
  

Support, according to Easton, can be towards three types of special things:
1. Towards political community which is based on labour division,

2. Towards the basic values of Political System and

3. Towards Political Authorities.

4. Feedback:
Feedback means to take back to the system in shape of inputs, the impact and result of the outputs. This brings continuity in the System. According to Easton, the Feedback is the process of combining the results of outputs with inputs and establishing a cyclic relationship between inputs and outputs. Feedback can be of two types:

• The Negative Feedback: This is related to the information relating to the system and defective rule making.
• Objective Alerting Feedback is related to the purpose and direction of political system.

Flow Model:
Easton found certain defects in the Equilibrium analysis of Almond and presented his input and output analysis as Flow Model. He tried to prove that the Political Analysis depends upon the capacity of the system.

Question 5.
Write main differences between state and political system.
Answer:
Modern political concepts vastly differ from traditional Political concepts. The writers of traditional Political Science considered State, its main subject whereas the modern writers regard Political System in place of State, its primary subject.

State, in ancient time, was regarded the main subject of Political Science. So Prof. Garner opined, “Political System begins and ends with the State.” Like Garner, writers like Bluntschli, Gettell, Garies, Gilchrist, Lord Acton etc. considered State the central point of Political Science. But the modern writers don’t agree with this traditional viewpoint. For them, Political System instead of State, is the main subject of Political Science.

They are of the view that to confine the scope of Political Science to State only, is to destroy its practical utility. These main writers are Almond and Powell, Charles Merriam, Harold Lasswell, David Easton, Stephen, L. Wasby. According to Almond and Powell, a vast structure is needed to make Political Science more effective and system analysis can provide this structure. State and Political System differ from each other, but it is essential to explain the meaning of ‘State’ and ‘Political System’ before pointing out main distinction between the two.

Meaning of State:
In the words of Prof. Gilchrist, “The State exists where a number of people brought on a definite territory are unified under a Government which in internal matter is the organ for expressing their sovereignty and in external matter is independent of other Governments.” This definition clearly points out that population, definite territory, Government and Sovereignty are the four main elements without which a State cannot be established. If any of these four elements is missing, State can’t be founded.

Meaning of Political System:
According to Almond and Powell, “When we speak of Political System, we include all the interactions which affect the use of threat or use of Legitimate Physical force. The Political System includes not only Governmental institutions such as legislatures, courts and administrative agencies, but all structures in their political aspects. Among these are traditional structures such as kinship ties and caste grouping; and anomic phenomena such as assassinations, riots and demonstrations; as well as formal organisations like parties, interest groups and media of communications.

In this way, Political System includes all the formal and informal institutions, groups and organisations which affect political life in one way or the other, besides Governmental organisations. The Political System is not only concerned with the formulation of laws and their implementation but also to get them obeyed forcibly.

Differences between State and Political System:
Following are the main differences between State and Political System

1. State has four essential elements whereas Political System has many:
The main difference between the State and Political System is that the State has four essential elements whereas Political System has many. Population, definite territory, Government and sovereignty are the four essential elements of the State. The existence of State can’t be even imagined in the absence of a single element.

But Political System has numerous elements instead of certain elements, such as, exploration of Political effects, attainment of legitimacy, influence of other subjects and Political Systems and the study of reactions. It is difficult to determine the elements of Political System since it is not a combination of particular elements but of the mutual interactions of different roles.

2. State deals with legal and institutional structure but Political System deals with the processes:
State is concerned with legal and institutional structure whereas the Political system deals with processes. Many writers presented models related to these processes which deal with Political System.

3. Scope of Political System is wider than that of State:
The scope of Political System is wider than that of State. State is mainly concerned with formal institutions whereas Political System includes processes, whether formal or informal. The boundaries of Political System are the widest ones as they are practical and based on scientific policies. According to Almond and Powell, “The Political System includes not only governmental institutions, such as legislature, courts and. administrative agencies, but all structures in these Political aspects.” The concept of Political System is wider than the concept of State.

4. Sovereignty is the main feature of State while legitimate physical coercive force is the main feature of Political System:
Internal and external sovereignty is the most important feature of State. State is omnipotent and all the citizens and institutions have to obey its orders. But the concept of sovereignty holds no importance in Political System. Modern political writers don’t believe that any Political System is free from internal and external influences. They accept the view that Political System is certainly affected by intra-societal and extra-societal environment.

Along with it, the importance of external sovereignty has lessened in the modern international age. The Political System of every country is affected by the Political Systems of other countries. Modern Political Scientists use the expression ‘Legitimate physical coercive force’ in place of Internal sovereignty. In fact, according to their view point, Political System has power to legitimate coercive force.

5. State is a traditional concept while Political System is a modern one:
State is a traditional concept and generally the concepts like State, nation, Government, Constitution, laws, sovereignty have been used in traditional Politics. But the use of the word ‘State’ and other concepts connected with it have lessened nowadays. If a writer, in modern age, uses the word ‘State’ in place of Political System, he is called traditional.

6. Political System implies the existence of interdependent parts, while the concept of State is devoid of such character:
According to Almond and Powell, “A system implies the interdependence of parts and a boundary between it and environment. By interdependence, we mean that when the characteristics of one part in a system change, all other parts and the system as a whole are affected.”

The Governmental institutions i.e. legislature, judiciary and executive , political parties, welfare groups etc. are considered parts of a Political System. When any part of it undergoes a significant change, the whole system is affected. No such characteristic is present in the concept of State.

7. Boundaries of State fixed whereas it is not possible to restrict the boundaries of the Political System:
The State has fixed boundaries. So it is possible to estimate the beginning and end of the boundaries. But Political Systems can’t be restricted in boundaries. The boundaries of Political System are the boundaries of its processes. These boundaries are liable to change.

8. States are the same everywhere, but Political Systems are different. States are the same at every place:
Whether the States are big or small, their four elements-Population, definite territory, Government and sovereignty are essential. The four elements are found in the States of India, England, Japan, China, Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma) and Russia. But the forms of Political System are different in various States.

9. State is Permanent while political system is dynamic:
State is permanent whereas the Political System is dynamic. State comes to an end when it is deprived of sovereignty. But the state is re-established by regaining sovereignty. Political System is dynamic and it goes on changing according to time and circumstances.

10. The concept of Political System involves the process of conversion of inputs into outputs while the concept of State deals with some specific functions:
The process of conversion of inputs into outputs is the important characteristic of Political System. David Easton is of the view that Political System is another name of the process of conversion of outputs into inputs which is related to political decisions. This process always continues in a political system. To fulfill the aim, Political System has to perform rule-making functions, rule-application functions and rule- adjudication functions. But the State has to perform particular functions. Political writers have divided the functions of the State into two categories:
(i) Compulsory functions and
(ii) Optional functions.
Some aspects of cultural, religious, moral and social life are considered beyond the jurisdiction of State. But no aspect of life, if its any part is related to politics, can be segregated from Political System.

11. Concept of Political System is more analytical than State:
State is a descriptive view-it can be explained but not analysed. But contrary to it Political system is an analytical concept. The existence of State is only in the minds of individuals and can’t be found in real life.

12. Political System is a better means of bringing integration and adaptation than the State:
Another difference between the State and political system is that Political System is a better means of bringing integration and adaptation to the state. According to Almond and Powell, “The Political System is that System of interactions to be found in all dependent societies while performing the functions of integration and adaptations.”

13. Political Socialisation and Political Culture have special importance in Political System, not for the State.

Conclusion:
In the end, we can say that State is a traditional concept whereas Political System is a modern concept. The scope of Political System is wider than that of State.

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Write down the meaning of Political System. Or Which system is called Political System?
Answer:
The term political system consists of 1. Political 2. System. The word ‘Political’ reflects power or authority. The word ‘System’ is used for a set of clear interactions which have definite boundaries. According to Oxford Dictionary, ‘A system is a complete whole, a set of connected things or parts, organised body of material or immaterial things.’ Political System includes not only formal governmental structure but it also includes traditional and informal structures like kinship, caste, group, etc. Political System is related to the proper use of power. A political system is actually that which includes all legal, formal, informal, social and political elements in a society.

Question 2.
Define Political System.
Answer:

• According to Max Weber, “A political system is a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.”
• Robert A. Dahl defines political system as, “Any persistent pattern of human relationship that involves to a significant extent power, rule or authority.”
• According to Almond and Powell, “When we speak of political system, we include all interactions which affect the use of threat of legitimate coercion.”

Question 3.
Describe the functions of Political System.
Answer:
According to Almond, Political System performs two types of functions-Input functions and Output functions.
1. Input functions:
Input functions are performed by non-governmental sub-systems, society and general environment. Almond suggested four input functions of a Political System:

• Political Socialization and Recruitment.
• Interest Articulation.
• Interest Aggregation.
• Political Communication.

2. Output functions. Almond has suggested three main output functions:

• Rule Making.
• Rule Application.
• Rule Adjudication.

Question 4.
Write any four differences between State and Political System Or Distinguish between State and Political System.
Answer:
Following are the main differences between State and Political System:
1. State has four essential elements whereas Political System has many. Population, definite Territory, Government and Sovereignty are the four essential elements of the state. But Political System has numerous elements.

2. Sovereignty is the main feature of State while legitimate physical coercive force is the main feature of Political System.

3. State is permanent while Political System is dynamic.

4. States are the same everywhere, but Political Systems are different. States are the same at every place whether the States are big or small. Their four elements Population, definite territory, Government and sovereignty are essentials. But the forms of Political System are different in various States.

Question 5.
What are boundaries of a Political System?
Answer:
Each political system has boundaries which separate it from economic, social and cultural systems. Almond defines boundaries as ‘points where one political system ends and the other political system begins’. The boundaries between society and polity differ from one political system to another. The boundaries of the political system are not territorial boundaries ; these boundaries relate to human relationships and their activities. But the boundaries of a political system change from time to time.

Question 6.
Describe input functions of Political System. Or Write down the input functions of Political System.
Answer:
Almond has suggested four input functions of a Political System:
1. Political Socialization and Recruitment:
According to Almond and Powell, “Political socialization is the process through which political cultures are maintained or changed.” So the process of political socialization can be utilised for both bringing a change as well as for maintaining status-quo. The process of socialization in a system is supplemented by Recruitment.

2. Interest Articulation: In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a System.

3. Interest Aggregation:
In no political system different laws for the interests of different groups can be created. A common policy is formulated for the interests of almost all the groups.

4. Political Communication: Political communication is the most important function of a Political System.

Question 7.
Write three output functions of Political System.
Answer:
Almond has suggested three main output functions:
1. Rule Making:
There must be certain rules in the society to regulate the relationships between the individuals. In a political system the rule making function is performed by the legislature and its allied agencies.

2. Rule Application: The function of the political system is not only making rules, but also to apply them.

3. Rule Adjudication:
Whenever a rule is created, the fear of its violation is always present. Now, he who violates these rules, must be punished. This is the function of courts or the judiciary or in modern terminology, the Rule Adjudication department.

Question 8.
What is the meaning of the word ‘Political’?
Answer:
The word ‘Political’ reflects power or authority. All the interactions involved in the struggle for power are ‘Political’. Any association becomes ‘Political’ when its rules or decisions are obeyed by its members with the use of threat or physical force. According to Max Weber, “An association should be called political if and in so far as the enforcement of its order is carried out continually within a given territorial area by the application of threat or physical force.” Political includes power, influence, control or authority to a significant extent.

Question 9.
What do you mean by the term System?
Answer:
According to Oxford Dictionary, “A system is a complete whole, a set of connected things or parts, organised body of material or immaterial things.” The word system has been used and defined differently by different writers belonging to different disciplines. Ludwin Van Bertall Anfy describes system as a “Set of elements standing in interaction.”

Collin Cherry says that a system, “is a whole which is compound of many parts-an ensemble of attitudes.” According to Gabriel A. Almond ,“A system implies the interdependence of parts and a boundary between it and environment.” By environment, we mean that when the characteristics of one part in a system change, all other parts and the system as a whole are affected. The main characteristics of a system are:

1. Comprehensiveness
2. Interdependence
3. Existence of boundaries
4. Existence of sub-system
5. Wholeness etc.

Question 10.
What is Interest Aggregation? Who performs this function?
Answer:
In no political system different laws for the interests of different groups can be created. A common policy is formulated for the interests of almost all the groups. The process of combining the interests of various groups is known as Interest Aggregation. According to Almond and Powell, “The functions of converting demands into general policy alternative is called interest aggregation.”

There are two ways to perform this function First by coordinating the interests of various natures and second by the recruitment of those who have faith in the one national policy. An individual wants a particular thing to be done on the basis of his interests. Interest groups aggregate the interests of various groups to make a demand.

Question 11.
What is Feedback-Loop Mechanism? Or Describe the Process of ‘Feedback-Loop’ of David Easton. Or What do you mean by Feedback Loop mechanism?
Answer:
The concept of Feedback-Loop Mechanism in Political System is given by David Easton. He says that political system is a process to convert inputs into outputs and there is a close relationship between inputs and outputs. The decisions which are made by political system in a form of outputs once again take form of raw material for inputs. This process of providing raw material to a system again and again continues. David Easton called this process Feedback-Loop Mechanism.

Question 12.
Write four main characteristics of Political System.
Answer:
The main characteristics of political system are as follows:
1. Comprehensiveness:
The political system does not include only the governmental structures, but also those formal and informal organizations which take part in one way or other in political process and influence the political authority.

2. Interdependence:
According to Almond, political system also includes the political aspects of various sub-systems. Any change in any sub-system is bound to affect functioning of other sub-systems.

3. Existence of Boundaries:
It implies that there are points where political system ends and other system begins. Each political system has boundaries which separate it from economic, social and cultural system.

4. Universality of Political System
According to Almond, all political systems whether primitive or modern or whether developing or developed, have political structure.

Question 13.
What is Interest Articulation? Or Explain the Interest Articulation function of Political System.
Answer:
In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a system. According to Almond and Powell, “The process by which individuals and groups make demands upon the political decision makers, we call, interest articulation.” Different individuals and groups present their demands or articulate their interests before those who have the right to make decisions. It is an importai?t process in the political system, because unless the groups or individuals do not present their demands before the rulers, no policy can be formulated and their demands cannot be met.

If the groups or individuals in a system are not allowed to present their demands or interests, it may lead to violent activities. Interests, in a political system, can be articulated by way of petitions, suggestions, addresses, statements, demonstrations or even violent means. Students and labour groups adopt the technique of strikes etc. The democratic system provides proper means for interest articulation to the people.

Question 14.
What do you mean by universality of Political Structures?
Answer:
According to Almond, all political systems have same structures that perform same functions though with varying degree of frequency. The articulative, aggregative and communicative functions may be performed diffusely within the society or intermittently through the kinship or lineage structure. An adequate analysis of a political system must locate and characterise all of these functions and not simply those performed by the specialised political structure.

Question 15.
Describe the multifunctionality of Political Structure.
Answer:
According to Almond, all political structures irrespective of the degree of specialization in point of time or space, are multifunctional. Multifunctionality of political structure means that a political structure performs not one type of functions but many types of functions. For example, courts not only adjudicate, they also legislate. Similarly, Legislatures not only legislate but they also perform administrative functions.

Question 16.
What do you mean by Inputs?
Answer:
According to David Easton, input in a political system is like the raw material which when supplemented by support takes the form of outputs. Easton has described two types of inputs in a political system: Demand and Support.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of Political System.
Answer:
The term political system consists of 1. Political 2. System.
The word ‘Political’ reflects power or authority. The word ‘System’ is used for a set of clear interactions which have definite boundaries. Political System is related to the proper use of power. A political system is actually that which includes all legal, formal, informal, social and political elements in a society.

Question 2.
Give two definitions of a Political System.
Answer:

• According to Max Weber, “A political system is a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.”
• Robert A. Dahl defines political system as, “Any persistent pattern of human relationship that involves to a significant extent power, role or authority.”

Question 3.
Mention the functions of Political System.
Answer:
According to Almond, Political System performs two types of functions-Input functions and Output functions.
1. Input functions:
Input functions are performed by non-governmental sub-systems, society and general environment. Almond suggested four input functions of a Political System.

2. Output functions:
Almond has suggested three main output functions:

• Rule Making
• Rule Application
• Rule Adjudication.

Question 4.
Write down two differences between State and Political System.
Answer:
Following are the main differences between State and Political System:

• State has four essential elements whereas Political System has many. Population, definite Territory, Government and Sovereignty are the four essential elements of the state. But Political System has numerous elements.
• Sovereignty is the main feature of State while legitimate physical coercive force is the main feature of Political System.

Question 5.
Write down any two general characteristics of a political system as given by Prof. Robert A Dahl.
Answer:

• Uneven Control of Political Resources. According to Robert A. Dahl, “Control over political resources is distributed unevenly.”
• The Quest for Political Influence. In almost every political system there are some members who seek to gain influence over the policies, rules and decisions enforced by the government i.e. political influence.

Question 6.
Write two input functions of a Political System.
Answer:
Almond has suggested four input functions of a Political System:
1. Political Socialization and Recruitment:
According to Almond and Powell, “Political socialization is the process through which political cultures are maintained or changed.” So the process of political socialization can be utilized for both bringing a change as well as for maintaining status-quo. The process of socialization in a system is supplemented by Recruitment.

2. Interest Articulation. In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a System.

Question 7.
Write down any two output functions of a Political System.
Answer:
Almond has suggested three main output functions:
1. Rule Making:
There must be certain rules in the society to regulate the relationships between the individuals. In a political system the rule making function is performed by the legislature and its allied agencies.

2. Rule Application: The function of the political system is not only making rules, but also to apply them.

Question 8.
What do you mean by Interest Aggregation?
Answer:
The process of combining the interests of various groups is known as Interest Aggregation. According to Almond and Powell, “The functions of converting demands into general policy alternative is called interest aggregation.”

Question 9.
Explain the Feedback-Loop System.
Answer:
The concept of Feedback-Loop Mechanism in Political System is given by David Easton. He says that political system is a process to convert inputs into outputs and there is a close relationship between inputs and outputs. The decisions which are made by political system in a form of outputs once again take form of raw material for inputs. This process of providing raw material to a system again and again continues. David Easton called this process Feedback-Loop Mechanism.

Question 10.
Write two main characteristics of Political System.
Answer:
1. Comprehensiveness:
The political system does not include only the governmental structures, but also those formal and informal organizations which take part in one way or other in political process and influence the political authority.

2. Interdependence:
According to Almond, political system also includes the political aspects of various sub-systems. Any change in any sub-system is bound to affect functioning of other sub-systems.

Question 11.
Explain Interest Articulation.
Answer:
In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a system. According to Almond and Powell, “The process by which individuals and groups make demands upon the political decision makers, we call, interest articulation.”

Question 12.
Who wrote the book “The Political System’ and when?
Answer:
The book ‘The Political System’ was written by David Easton in 1953.

Question 13.
What do you mean by Political Communication?
Answer:
Political Communication is the most important function of a Political System. It is through this process that other functions are performed. Everybody, whether a citizen or an official, has to depend upon information, because all activities in a system are to be regulated on the basis of information. That is why in a democratic system there is too much of emphasis on the freedom of press, speech and expression, whereas it is crushed or controlled in a totalitarian system.

Question 14.
Who is the author of The Process of Government’?
Answer:
Arthur Bentley is the author of ‘The Process of Government’.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of the word ‘Political’ in Political System.
Or
What is meaning of word ‘Politics’ in the Political System?
Answer:
A community or an association is called political if its orders are enforced by the administrative staff through coercion or physical force.

Question 2.
Give the meaning of system.
Answer:
The word ‘System’ is used to indicate a group of interactions.

Question 3.
Write the meaning of Political System.
Answer:
A political system means that persistent pattern of relationships whose conduct involves authority or power.

Question 4.
Write any one definition of Political System.
Answer:
David Easton has said, “Political system is a set of interactions abstracted from the totality of social behaviour, through which authoritative values are allocated for a society.”

Question 5.
Write one feature of Political System.
Answer:
Political system is found in every society.

Question 6.
Write down one output function of the Political System.
Answer:
Rule making is an important output function of a Political System.

Question 7.
Write any one input function performed by a Political System.
Answer:
Political Socialisation and Recruitment.

Question 8.
Mention any one difference between State and Political System.
Answer:
A political system has interdependence of parts but a state does not have any such feature.

Question 9.
What do you mean by Feedback Loop Mechanism? Explain.
Answer:
Feedback means to reprocess the results of the outputs as inputs in the system.

Question 10.
Write the definition of Political System given by Almond and Powell.
Answer:
Almond and Powell has stated, “When we speak of political system, we include all interactions which affect the use or threat of legitimate coercion.”

Question 11.
Who is the writer of famous book ‘The Political System’?
Answer:
David Easton.

Question 12.
Which political thinker used the term “The Political System’ first time?
Answer:
David Easton.

Question 13.
Write any one difference between State and Political System.
Answer:
There are four elements of State, but elements of political system are not fixed.

Question 14.
What is Interest Articulation?
Answer:
In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a system. According to Almond and Powell, “The process by which individuals and groups make demands upon the political decision makers, we call interest articulation. ”

Question 15.
What is Interest Aggregation?
Answer:
The process of combining the interests of various groups is known as Interest Aggregation.

Question 16.
What do you mean by ‘Rule Making Function’?
Answer:
There must be certain rules in the society to regulate the relationships between the individuals. In a political system the rule-making function is performed by the Legislature and its allied agencies.

Question 17.
What is ‘Rule Adjudication Function’?
Answer:
Almost every rule contains in itself the punishment for those, who violate it. But before such a punishment is given to any individual it must be established that he had actually violated the rule of the land. This is the function of courts or the judiciary or in modern terminology, the Rule Adjudication department.

Question 18.
What is ‘Rule Application Function’?
Answer:
In a political system ‘Rule application’ is the responsibility of bureaucracy. Even the judicial decisions are implemented by the civil servants. Sometime this function is performed by the rule-making department also. But in a developed political system the two functions are performed by separate departments.

Question 19.
Write two input demands.
Answer:
1. Demand for the allocation of goods and services.
2. Demand for regulation of behavior.

Fill In The Blanks

1. The concept of Feedback Loop Mechanism is given by ………………… .
Answer:
David Easton

2. ‘The Political System’ of David Easton was published in ………………… .
Answer:
1953

3. Political System is found in every ………………… .
Answer:
society

4. Rule making is an important ……………… function of a Political System.
Answer:
output

5. Political Socialisation and Recruitment is an ……………… function performed by Political System.
Answer:
input.

True Or False Statement

1. Almond Powell is the writer of famous book ‘The Political System’.
Answer:
False

2. David Easton is the writer of famous book The Political System’.
Answer:
True

3. The concept of Political System originated in the 20th century.
Answer:
True

4. There are four elements of Political System.
Answer:
False

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Who is the writer of famous hook The Political System’?
(a) David Easton
(b) Almond
(c) Max Weber
(d) Lasswell.
Answer:
(a) David Easton

Question 2.
The concept of Political System originated in the:
(a) 19th Century
(b) 18th Century
(c) 20th Century
(d) 17th Century.
Answer:
(c) 20th Century

Question 3.
Who gave the concept of Feedback Loop Mechanism?
(a) Almond
(b) David Easton
(c) Lasswell
(d) Max Weber.
Answer:
(b) David Easton

Question 4.
Which of the following is not a feature of Political System?
(a) Political System is found in developed countries.
(b) Political System is found in every society.
(c) Political System has interdependence of parts.
(d) Universality of Political System.
Answer:
(a) Political System is found in developed countries.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 1 Tribal Society Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 1 Tribal Society

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Where do tribals live?
(a) Mountains
(b) Forests
(c) Valleys
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

2. Which of these is the other name given to the tribal people?
(a) Vanvasi
(b) Adam Jati
(c) Scheduled tribes
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

3. What name was given by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to the tribals?
(a) Pahari
(b) Scheduled castes
(c) Adivasi
(d) Vanvasi
Answer:
(b) Scheduled castes

4. What is the percentage of the tribal population in India?
(a) 8.2%
(b) 9.2%
(c) 7.2%
(d) 10.2%
Answer:
(a) 8.2%

5. Which of these is the largest tribe in India?
(a) Santhal
(b) Naga
(c) Bhil
(d) Munda
Answer:
(a) Santhal

6. Who gave the racial classification of tribals?
(a) Majumdar
(b) Madaan
(c) Sir Herbert Risley
(d) Nadeem Hashian
Answer:
(c) Sir Herbert Risley

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Gond tribe is related with ……………. group.
Answer:
Dravid

2. Major occupation of Bhils is ……………….
Answer:
agriculture

3. The custom of bride price prevails among ……………..
Answer:
Santhals

4. Tribals are uprooted from their places due to ……………….
Answer:
Displacement

5. In ………………….. type of family, authority is in the hands of mothers.
Answer:
Matriarchal

True/False:

1. Tribal people do shifting cultivation.
Answer:
True

2. Gond tribe lives in Punjab.
Answer:
False

3. There are seven Indian tribes whose population is one lac or more.
Answer:
True

4. On the basis of authority, there are two types of family.
Answer:
True

5. On the basis of place of living, there are four types of family.
Answer:
True

One Word/One Line Questions Answers:

Question 1.
In which part of India, tribes live more in number?
Answer:
Most of the tribes live in Central and in the north-eastern part of India.

Question 2.
Where do tribals live?
Answer:
Tribals live very much away from our civilization in forests, mountains, and valleys.

Question 3.
What are the other names given to the tribal people?
Answer:
Tribals are known by different names such as Vanyajati, Vanvasi, Pahari, Aadim jati, Janjati, and Scheduled castes.

Question 4.
What name has the Indian Constitution given to the tribes?
Answer:
The Indian Constitution has given them the name of Scheduled tribes.

Question 5.
Who gave the name of Scheduled tribes?
Answer:
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

Question 6.
From where did the word ‘Tribe’ derive?
Answer:
The word ‘Tribe’ is derived from a Latin word ‘Tribuz’ which means ‘one third’.

Question 7.
In which article of the Indian Constitution, the name of Scheduled castes is mentioned?
Answer:
Article 342.

Question 8.
Where do Naga, Khasi and Toda tribes live?
Answer:
Naga tribe lives in Nagaland, Khasi tribe in Assam and Toda tribe in the Nilgiri hills of south India.

Question 9.
Which language do Gond and Bhil people speak?
Answer:
Gonds speak Gondi language and Bhils speak Bhili language.

Question 10.
Which language do Santhal and Munda tribes speak?
Answer:
Santhal tribe speaks Santhali and Munda tribe speaks Mundari language.

Question 11.
What is the percentage of tribal population in India?
Answer:
In 2011, the tribal population constituted 8.2% of the total Indian population.

Question 12.
In which Indian states there is minimum and maximum tribal population?
Answer:
Goa has minimum tribal population and Mizoram has maximum tribal population.

Question 13.
In which Indian Union Territories, there is minimum and maximum tribal population?
Answer:
Lakshdweep has maximum tribal population and Andaman and Nicobar has minimum tribal population.

Question 14.
Name the largest Indian tribe and where does it live?
Answer:
Santhal is the largst Indian tribe and it lives in West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha.

Question 15.
What is the base of division of labour in tribal society?
Answer:
Division of labour in tribal society is based on age and gender.

Question 16.
What type of economy do tribals have?
Answer:
Tribals have subsistence economy and barter system.

Question 17.
Who divided Indian tribes on racial basis?
Answer:
Sir Herbert Risley divided Indian tribes on racial basis.

Question 18.
Give different names of Shifting Cultivation.
Answer:
This is known as Jhuming in India, Milpa in Maxico, Roca in Brazil and Ladang in Malaysia.

Question 19.
Name seven Indian tribes whose population is more than one lac.
Answer:
Gond, Bhil, Santhal, Mina, Oraon, Munda and Khond.

Question 20.
Where does Gond tribe live?
Answer:
Gond tribe lives in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha etc.

Question 21.
Name the language spoken by the Gond tribe.
Answer:
Gona tribe speaks Gondi and Chattisgarhi language.

Question 22.
Where does Bhil tribe live?
Answer:
Bhil tribe lives in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Tripura.

Question 23.
Name the language spoken by Bhil tribe and which is their important festival?
Answer:
Bhil tribe speaks Bhili language and Holi is their important festival.

Question 24.
Where does Santhal tribe live?
Answer:
Santhal tribe lives in Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Odisha.

Question 25.
Name the languages spoken by the Santhals.
Answer:
Santhals speak Santhali, Oriya, Bangla and Hindi of Bihar.

Question 26.
On the basis of authority, how many types of tribes are there?
Answer:
On the basis of authority, there are two types of tribes, patriarchal and matriarchal.

Question 27.
How many types of tribes are there on the basis of place of residence?
Answer:
Four types—patrilocal, matrilocal, bilocal and neolocal.

Question 28.
How many types of tribes are there on the basis of descent?
Answer:
Three types—patrilineal, matrilineal and double descent system.

Question 29.
How many types of marriages are thefe in tribal society?
Answer:
There are nine types of marriages in tribal society.

Question 30.
Which tribes live in Central India?
Answer:
Tribes such as Gonds, Bheel, Santhal, Oraon-etc. live in Central India.

Question 31.
What name was given to the tribals by G.S. Ghurye?
Answer:
G.S. Gurye called tribals as ‘Backward Hindus’.

Question 32.
Name the largest Indian tribe and where do they live?
Answer:
Santhal is the largest Indian tribe and they live’ in West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha.

Question 33.
Give one feature of tribal society.
Answer:
A tribe is a collection of families which live in a common area and has a common name and language.

Question 34.
Name any two Matrilineal tribes.
Answer:
Garo and Khasi are two Matrilineal tribe.

Question 35.
Give one feature of tribal economy.
Answer:
Tribal economy is small in size, subsistence nature and depends upon simple technique.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Which tribes are known as Scheduled tribes?
Answer:
There are many tribes in India which live in different parts of country. Those tribes whose names are written in the Constitution and which have maintained their separate tribal identity, are known as Scheduled tribes.

Question 2.
What is a tribe?
Answer:
Tribe is a social group which lives in a specific geographical area in natural condition, whose members have cultural similarity and have unified social organisation.

Question 3.
What names are given to tribes by different scholars?
Answer:
Normally, tribal people are called as Adivasi but G.S. Ghurye called them Backward Hindus. Mahatma Gandhi called them as Girijan, J.H. Hutton called them as Primitive tribals and in the Indian Constitution, they are referred as Scheduled castes.

Question 4.
According to Article 342 of the Constitution, what are the features of tribes?
Answer:
According to Article 342 of the Constitution, they have the following features :

• Primitive traits
• Geographical isolation
• Distinct culture
• Economically backward
• Shyness of contact with community at large.

Question 5.
Two features of tribal society.
Answer:

• Tribal society lives in a particular geographical area and we can call it as a collection of families.
• Each tribes has its own specific culture, language and religion. They never like to get interfered -by any one.

Question 6.
What is meant by Chieftainship?
Answer:
Each tribe has its own political system whose head is elected on the basis of physical strength, age or experience. Head or Chief has all despotic powers and his decision is final. His decisions are obeyed by all. Thisf system is known as Chieftainship.

Question 7.
What is Subsistence economy?
Answer:
Tribal economy is based on subsistence and their means of production are fishing, collecting, hunting and forest products. They never keep any thihg with them. Whatever they collect, consume it. But from last few decades, their economy is changing.

Question 8.
What type of division of labour is there in tribal society?
Answer:
Division of labour in tribal societies is based on age and gender. There is nothing called specialisation in these societies which exists in the present modern societies. All collectively hunt down the animals and collect the things. Females take care of the houses.

Question 9.
Tell in brief about the Dravidian tribes.
Answer:
This type of tribes are spread from the Ganga valley of West Bengal till Sri Lanka which includes Chennai, Hyderabad, Central India and the region of Chotta Nagpur. They are also known as the original inhabitants of India. They are of dark complexion with black eyes, long head and broad nose.

Question 10.
Explain the tribal classification given by B.K. Roy.
Answer:

• Those tribes which have completely, assimilated in the Hindu society system.
• Those tribes which keep positive orientation towards Hindu social order.
• Those tribes which keep negative orientation towards Hindu social order.
• Those tribe which are indifferent towards Hindu social order.

Question 11.
Patriarchal Tribe.
Answer:
It is that tribe which is controlled by father and whole family obeys his orders. Descent goes through father and son gets father’s property. Father is the head of family and monogamy is there in family. Due to the dominance of father, it is known as Patriarchal tribe.

Question 12.
Matriarchal Tribe.
Answer:
That tribe which is run by mothers and family is run according to mother’s will. Descent goes through mother’s name and property is given to daughter. Mother is head of the family. Due to mother’s dominance, it is known as matriarchal tribe.

Question 13.
Name the issues which tribal societies are facing.
Answer:
Tribal societies are facing two major issues and these are deforestation and displacement. Forests are being cut down because of which their means of livelihood are decreasing. Secondly they are displaced from their original places and are forced to settle in other areas.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Tribe.
Answer:
A tribe is that group of people which lives quite away from our civilization on mountains, forests and valleys and in ancient conditions. This group lives in a specific geographical area which has its own different language, culture and religion. These groups are endogamous groups and obey some rules from the point of views of love, occupation and industry. These people are very much different from our culture, civilization and society. Different tribes are also Vhry much different from each other on many bases like social structure, language, culture etc.

Question 2.
Tribal Society.
Answer:
Tribe is a group of people which lives away from our civilization on mountains, forests and valleys and in ancient conditions. The society which exists in these tribes is known as tribal society. Tribal society is a classless society in which there is no existence of stratification of any type. Most of the population of tribal society lives either on mountain or in forests. These societies are generally self dependent who have control on themselves and these are very much out of control of any one. Tribal society is completely different from rural and urban society from the point of view of social structure and culture.

Question 3.
Two definitions of Tribe.
Answer:

• According to Imperial Gazetteer of India, “A tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a common territory and is not usually endogamous, though originally it might have been so.”
• According to D.N. Majumdar, “A tribe is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, member of which occupy the same territory, speak the same language and observe certain taboos regarding marriage, profession or occupation and have developed a well-assessed system of reciprocity and mutuality of obligation.”

Question 4.
Four characteristics of Tribal Society.
Answer:

• Tribe is a group of many families in which common production is there and they fulfill their needs from that production.
• Tribal people live in one common geographical area and due to living in one geographical area they are different from the other society.
• Every tribe has its common language and different name because of which they are very much different from each other.
• Every tribe has its own different ways of living, religion, language, taboo etc. because of which their culture is also different from each other.

Question 5.
Tribe lives in a common territory. Explain.
Answer:
People of a tribe lives in a common and definite geographical territory. They are very much different and live away from other parts of society due to this common and definite geographical territory. That’s why they are out of the reach of the rest of the society. Because they have their own different culture and they never like the interference of any one in their tribe and that’s why they never likes to keep any type of relation with rest of the society. They have their own different world. They have the community feeling because they live in a common territory.

Question 6.
Tribal Society is a Segmentary Society. How?
Answer:
Every tribal society is different from other society on many basis like ways of eating habits, language, geographical area etc. They are different from each other on many basis and never like to interfere in each other’s matters. They don’t have any type of discrimination with any one and that’s why they are known as Segmentary Societies.

Question 7.
Division of tribes on racial basis.
Answer:
According to Majumdar and Madaan Indian tribes can be divided in three parts on the basis of geographical distribution and these are :

• North Eastern Zone
• Central Zone and
• Southern Zone.

In these three geographical areas we can find the three types of racial elements yet they cannot be strictly divided. These three races are :

• Mangoloid
• Proto-Australoid
• Negrito.

Question 8.
Division of tribes on the geographical basis.
Answer:
Dr. V.S. Guha has divided Indian tribes in three geographical parts and these are :

• North and North Eastern Zone. This area is spread from Leh and up to the Lushai mountains north of Shimla in which the hilly areas of Himachal, eastern Punjab, U.P., Eastern Kashmir, Assam are included. Main tribes in this are Gaddi, Naga, Kuki, Khasi, Tharu, Bhutia etc.
• Central Zone. This area includes the area of south of Ganga and north of Krishna river in which Vindhyanchal, ancient mountains of Satpura are coming. Tribes of Munda, Bhil, Santhal, Ho, Chenchu etc. are included in it.
• Southern Zone. Whole area of south of Krishna river is included in it. Tribes of Pulyan, Malayan, Chenchu, Toda, Kota etc. come in it.

Question 9.
Division of tribes on linguistic basis.
Answer:
Language which exists in India can be divided in four main parts and these are :

• Indo European or Aryan language. Languages of Punjabi, Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati, Orria etc. are coming in it.
• Dravidian languages. Languages of Telugu, Malayalam, Tamil, Kannada etc. come in it.
• Austric languages. Bhunda, Kola etc. languages come in it.
• Tibeto Chinese languages. Many tribes of India use these languages also.

Question 10.
Division of tribes on Economic basis.
Answer:
Indian tribes can be divided in four parts on economic basis and these four parts are :

• Hunters and food gatherers
• Animal rearing tribes
• Agriculturist tribes
• Tribes related with industries.

Question 11.
Two main Matrilineal Tribes in India.
Answer:
Garo tribe and Khasi tribe are the two major matrilineal tribes of India. The meaning of materihneal tribes is by that tribe where not father but the mother have more importance anjf where descent of the family moves with the name of mother. After marriage bridegroom goes to bride’s house to live and property is given to daughter from her mother. This type of system exists in Garo and Khasi tribes.

Question 12.
Polygamy.
Answer:
When a man marries two or more females then this type of marriage is known as polygamy. This type of marriage was sanctioned by society even in ancient times. This type of marriage prevails in many tribes like Toda, Gonds, Naga, Muthuven, Poliyan etc. It is of two types. First is restricted polygamy in which the number of wives are restricted arid person cannot keep more wives than its limit. Second type is unrestricted polygamy in which there is no limit on keeping number of wives. A person can keep as many wives as he wants. There is no such restriction on it.

Question 13.
Polyandry.
Answer:
In this type of marriage one female has many husbands. For example in Mahabhartha, Dropadi had five husbands. In the tribes of Khas, Toda, Kot etc. this custom of marriage prevails. According to Kapadia, “Polyandry is a form of union in which a woman has more than one husband at a time or in. which brothers share a wife or wives in common.” It is also of two types.

• Fraternal Polyandry
• Non-fraternal polyandry.

Question 14.
Fraternal Polyandry.
Answer:
Fraternal Polyandry. According to this type of marriage, .one female has many males and they all are brothers of each other. Elder brother is considered as father of children and younger brother cannot establish relations with their wife without the permission of elder brother. This type of brothers prevails in Khas tribe. If any other brother marries with any other female then his wife is also considered as wife of other brother. If any brother takes birth after the marriage then he is also considered as her husband.

Question 15.
Non-Fraternal Polyandry.
Answer:
Non-Fraternal Polyandry. In this type of marriage all the husbands of a women are not brothers of each other but they live very much away from each other. Female goes to one husband to live for a limited period of time. During that limited period no other husband can establish contact with his wife. At the time of pregnancy, if any husband gives the gift of arrow and bow to his wife then he is considered as the father of the child.

Question 16.
Marriage by Purchase.
Answer:
Marriage by Purchase. This type of marriage exists in many tribes. In this type of marriage, value of the bride is generally given in the form of money or in the form of produce of agriculture. Though a person buys his wife in this type of marriage but it should not be considered as the means of sale and purchase. Actually a person gives compensation to his in-laws for the upbringing of his wife. This type of marriage exists in the tribes of Santhal, Ho, Naga, Munda, Oraon etc..

Question 17.
Marriage by” Exchange.
Answer:
Marriage by Exchange. This type of marriage came into being for the reason to not to give value of the bride. In many tribes the bride’s value is so high that the person is unable to pay that value. That’s why they exchange the females of their family. Person gives his sister or any female of his family in lieu of his wife. This type of marriage also exists in Hindu Society.

Question 18.
Marriage by capture.
Answer:
Marriage by Capture. This type of marriage also prevails in many tribal societies. In earlier times, one rule was there that parents were giving sanctions to the marriage but with the passage of time, views of children are changing. If parents are not giving permission to marry then the boy has no choice but to capture the girl. Afterwards the elders of both families accept their marriage. Higher bride price is also one of the reason of this type of marriage. This type of rharriage prevails in the tribes of Himachal Pradesh and Chhota Nagpur.

Question 19.
Marriage by service.
Answer:
Marriage by Service. This type of marriage is also a form of marriage by purchase. Sometimes poor people are unable to give the bride price but at the same time they also want to marry. That is why boy does some work or job for the parents of the girl. After sometime parents of the girl give permission for their marriage and they establish their new house after their marriage. In Puram and Gond tribe one boy has to work at the girl’s house for three years and he fulfills all the responsibilities of the boy. Father of the girl takes care of his needs of food and living. In some tribes father of the girl gives some money as a loan to boy to pay the bride price and boy slowly gives back that money later on. This type of marriage exists in Munda, Oraon, Bouga, tribes.

Question 20.
Probationary Marriage.
Answer:
Probationary Marriage. The main aim of this type of marriage is to give chance to both boy and girl to understand each other. In this type of marriage boy goes to girl’s house for some time to live. Both boy and girl are free to talk and to meet with each other. If after some time or after probationary period, boy thinks that her nature is good enough for him then they marry with each other. If their nature do not match with each other then the boy gives some money as compensation to the father of the girl and goes back to his house. This type of marriage exists in Kuki tribe.

Question 21.
Anader or Intrusion Marriage.
Answer:
Anader or Intrusion Marriage. In this type of marriage girl takes shelter at boy’s house. If girl wants to marry any body who is not ready to marry with her, then she goes to boy’s house to live. Boy’s family members misbehave with her, she has to face very harsh behaviour. Even they beat her, sometimes do not give her food and even they keep her out of their house. But even then if she wants to marry that boy then the boy has to marry her.

Question 22.
Marriage by Mutual Consent.
Answer:
Marriage by Mutual Consent. Marriage by mutual consent exists in many tribes. Girl runs away from her house with the boy with her own wish. She never comes back to her house until her parents do not give their sanction to their marriage. This type of marriage also exists in our society.

Question 23.
Marriage by trial.
Answer:
Marriage by Trial. In this type of marriage both boy and girl are permitted to live with each othe/ at girl’s house. If they like each other then their elders perform their marriage but if they do not like each other then boy goes back to his house. But he has to give some money as compensation for his expenses during that period to the father of the girl.

Question 24.
Totem Exogamy.
Answer:
According to the rule of totem exogamy people who worship the same totem, cannot marry with each other. Meaning of totem is that people consider any plant, stone or any animal as their deity and they start to worship that deity. This type of rule exists in the Indian tribal societies where a person marries out of his totem.

Question 25.
Matrilocal Family.
Answer:
This type of family is definitely opposite to Patrilocal family in which girl never leaves her father’s house after marriage but it lives there only. In this, her husband leaves his father’s house and goes to the house of his wife to live. It is known as Matrilocal family. We can find this type of family in Garo and Khasi tribes.

Question 26.
Patrilocal Family.
Answer:
In this type of family, bride leaves her father’s house and goes to the house of her husband to live and establish the family. We can see this type of family very often.

Question 27.
Neolocal Family.
Answer:
This type of family is different from patrilocal family and matrilocal family. In this neither husband nor wife goes to their father’s house to live but they establish their new house at any other place and that’s why it is known as Neolocal family. We can find this type of family in today’s industrial society.

Question 28.
What is Patriarchal Family?
Answer:
As it is clear from the name, power or authority in this type of family is completely in the hands of father. All the functions of the family are controlled by the father. He is also the head of the family. He is being obeyed in every type of minor or major decisions. All the members of the family are under control of the father. In this way family is being run on. the name of the father. Son gets nomenclature of the father and nomenclature of the father is of great importance. We can find this type of family in modern times.

Question 29.
Matriarchal Family.
Answer:
As it is clear from the name, authority or power in the family is in the hands of mother. Relatives of the mother have more rights on the children as compared to relatives of the father. Female is known as the basic ancestor. Legal heir of the property is not the son but is the brother of the mother or son of mother’s sister. Family is run on the name of the mother. It means that children get nomenclature Of the mother. We can find this type of family in some of the tribes of India like Garo’s and Khasi’s.

Question 30.
Bride Price.
Answer:
This type of custom exists in tribal society. In this if any person wants to marry any girl then he has to pay her price to her father because they have spent a lot of money in the process of upbringing of their daughter. Bride price or value of the bride depends upon the economic and social status of the father of the girl. If one person is unable to pay the price of the bride then many persons jointly pay that price. In that case female becomes wife of all those persons.

Question 31.
The Chieftain.
Answer:
The highest position in the ancient political administration is of the chieftain. It can be ancestral or can be obtained in any other way. Sometimes this person is elected by the people. In some tribal societies two chieftains are there—first one is peace chief and second one is the war chief. Peace chief is also the head of the tribal council and who regulates the internal matters of the tribe. It also solves some of the matters related to crime. He is also elected for a limited period of time in many tribes. War chief gives direction at the time of war. This position can be given to any person who has the ability to solve the matters related to war.

Question 32.
Headman.
Answer:
The most ancient position in the political organization of tribal societies is the position of the Headman. Position of Headman is generally ancestral, respected and effective. He takes care of all the matters related to his group and gives direction on every occasion. He also directs at the time of hunting in some tribes. He solves every type of matters and his decision is respected by everyone. Sometimes he becomes despotic but generally he is a democratic administrator.

Question 33.
Tribal Council.
Answer:
The most important part of political administration in tribal societies is the council of elders. It exists in all the tribal societies because one person cannot run the administration in all the tribal societies. Even the despotic ruler needs the help of advisors. In some tribes, this council elects new headman or king after the death of the headman or king. Most of the members of tribal council are the elders of the society. All the decisions in council have been taken with majority. The most important function of the council is to give advice to the chieftain in complex matters. Council is formed on the basis of village, tribe or clan. Representative of every sub-group is generally taken in the council of clan. Other councils are also elected in this way. Council members in many tribes are elected.

Question 34.
Hunters and Food gatherer Tribes.
Answer:
Many tribes are living at the far off places in forests and mountains. Yet most of the tribes have joined the main stream due to means of transport and they also have adopted the occupation of agriculture but still many tribes are there who still spend their life as hunters and food gatherers. They collect roots, fruits, honey etc. and even are hunting smaller animals. Some tribes also exchange many things. In this way they fulfill their needs in the absence of agriculture.

Question 35.
Shifting Agriculture.
Answer:
Shifting agriculture prevails in most of the tribes. In this type of agriculture, tribal people first of all clear the forest by cutting it or keeping it on fire. Then they start cultivating the land. They get very less production due to ancient means of agriculture. When the production from that land becomes very less then they stop cultivating that land and start the same process on any other piece of land. This way of agriculture has been criticised. Tribes of Lohta, Naga, Khasi, Kuki, Saora, Korva etc. used to do this type of agriculture. Very less production is there with this way of agriculture and that’s why their condition is very pitiable.

Question 36.
Pastoralists.
Answer:
Pastoral ecopomy is one of the important parts of tribal economy. Tribal people rear animals for different purposes like to take milk, meat and wool and to carry weight. Pastoral tribes of India live a static and permanent life and are moving according to the season. Tribes of mountainous region move towards plains in the winter season and come back to their areas in summer season. The main pastoral tribe of India is the Gujjar tribe of Himachal Pradesh which rears buffaloes, cows and sheep for business purposes.

Question 37.
Artisans.
Answer:
Generally most of the tribes used to do the work of cultivation but some tribes are there who used to earn their livelihood only through this work. Many tribes used to do this work during their free time to increase their income. Tribes make things out of metal, cotton etc. to earn their livelihood. They also used to make things with bamboo. The work of artisan includes the work of carpenter, utensils, tools etc. These people are also famous to make toys of metal and glass.

Question 38.
Problems related to forests.
Answer:
Tribes generally live in forests and away from the population. They think that forests are their property. They collect things from forests to eat, are cutting wood to sell or are cutting trees to do shifting agriculture. But now laws related to forests have been made and government is giving land to contractors on contract. Contractors of forests do not allow them to cut the wood, to collect anything and even to clear the land for agriculture. In this way they are unable to meet their daily needs.

Question 39.
Reasons for changes in tribal society.
Answer:

• Changes are coming in tribal society under the effect of Christian missionaries.
• They started to move to other places by leaving their own place due to the development of means of transport and communication.
• Now their economy has been changed from subsistence economy to market economy. Now they are doing more production for market.
• Constitution has kept many provisions to uplift the tribes with which their position has been changed.
• Educational institutions has been opened in their areas due to which, these people are getting education.

Long Answer type questions:

Question 1.
Explain in brief about the five Indian tribes whose population is nine lacs or more.
Answer:
1. Mundas. Munda tribe exists generally in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Tripura, West Bengal etc. Around 62% population of Munda tribe lives in Bihar. The main occupation of this tribe is agriculture. It is known as one of the ancient tribes of the country. Little bit of education has been spread in Munda tribe because of which some of its educated members have got the governmental and non governmental jobs,. These people believe in Singbonga god. These people worship the spirits of their ancestors so that the good produce from agriculture can be taken. 19% population of the Munda tribe is educated. Yet their main language is Mundri but they also speak Hindi and the respective language of the state. Their population is around 20 lakh. ”

The main occupation of Munda tribe is agriculture and they earn their livelihood through means of agriculture. Too much illiteracy is there in it yet the 19% people of the total population are educated and some of these are doing governmental and non-governmental jobs. Some seats in government jobs are reserved for them. These people believe in religion to a great extent. They worship the Singbonga god and the spirits of their ancestors so that they could protect them from every .type of problem. ‘

2. Khonds. Khonds tribe generally exists in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal etc. In Andhra Pradesh it is known as ‘Ronds’. It is also one of the ancient tribe and it gave human sacrifice in ancient times. It is very strong from social and religious aspect. Yet they had stopped to give human sacrifice under the effect of British rule but still they believe in the world of spirits. They live a very simple life. They speak ‘Kodhi’ sub language but they know Oriya language. These people live their lives with the help of fruits and roots.’Earlier they were living a nomadic life but now they are living permanently at one place in plains and mountains. Their economic life is based upon forests. They also do agriculture but their means of agriculture are old. Type of marriage which prevails in this tribe is monogamy but some people still favour polygamy.

This tribe generally exists in the Karaput and Kalahandi district of Odisha. Their life is very simple and they live their life with the help of fruits and roots. Earlier this was a nomadic tribe but now they live permanently at different places. Because now they are living permanently at one place, that’s why they’ve started to practice agriculture to earn their livelihood. But their ways of agriculture are old and that’s why they are very hard working.

3. Gonds. The target tribe of the country is ‘Gond’ and it has been believed that this tribe belongs to the Dravid race. Their population in 1991 was 75 lakhs and this tribe generally exists in the states of Madhya pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal etc. These people live with each other at a central place. The 15% of the tribal population belongs to Gond tribe. These people depend upon agriculture and forests. Their main occupation is agriculture. These people also meet their needs by hunting, catching fish and by collecting things from forests. Education is not very common in this tribe because of which their representation in governmental and non-governmental jobs is very less. Their own religion is Gond but some of them became Christians under the effect of Britishers. These people speak ‘Gondi’ language. This tribe is a patriarchal society in which the ownership of the property is given to son after father.

They have their own laws and their own panchayat to solve their problems. These people live heavily at a central place by accepting it a central place. That’s why their population is concentrated near the areas of Narmada Valley, mountains of Satpura and plains of Nagpur. Some of the Gond people became Christians under the effect of Christian Missionaries during the British rule. Their economic life depends upon forests and agriculture. Many Gonds do agriculture but some of them have also started to do farming. These people also catch fishes, are doing hunting and are collecting fruits and roots from forests. They have their own laws and panchayats to solve their problems.

4. Bhils. Second largest tribe of India is Bhil whose population in 1981 was around 53 lakhs. This tribe lives in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra pradesh, Tripura etc. Generally this tribe exists in many districts of Western Madhya pradesh. Their language is ‘Bhili’ sub-language. Their economic life mainly depends upon agriculture. Some people also depend upon forests and collect things from forests. These people also do hunting. Their culture and religion both are ancient in nature. Religion and Magic are inseperable part of their culture. This tribe is an endogamous group in which system is maintained by the Panchayat of the tribe.

Generally many Bhils depend upon agriculture to meet their demands but some of them fulfill their needs by collecting fruits and roots from forests. They also do hunting but their means of hunting and agriculture are very old. They don’t like to get education and that’s why very few people are educated. Because of illiteracy, these poeple are being exploited by the people of main stream. Monogamy exists in this tribe but some people like to do polygamy.

5. Santhals. The third largest tribe of India is Santhal. This tribe exists in Bihar, West Bengal and Odisha. Their language is ‘Santhali’. They also speak the languages of Odisha* Bengali, Hindi etc. except Santhali language. In ancient times, these people were fulfilling their needs by hunting, catching fish and by collecting things from forests. But now they are fulfilling their needs by doing agriculture and the agriculture is the main base of their economy. Their problems have been solved by their own panchayats. The custom of bride price still exists in Santhals and females also have the right to get share in property. These people worship the sun god and even they sacrifice their animals to keep their god happy.

The meaning of .the marriage among these people is not the regulation of sexual relations or to increase family but the meaning of marriage among them is the connectivity of the families. Love marriage also exists in these families. Santhal woman also has the right to take her share in father’s property and she takes her share of property at the time of her marriage. Custom of Bride price is also there. In earlier times they were meeting their needs by collecting things and by doing hunting but with the passage of time this system has been changed. Now they are doing permanent agriculture.

6. Minas. Minas tribe exists in some parts of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Out of total population of Rajasthan, 50% belongs to Minas tribe. It is one of the main five tribes of India. It’s main occupation is agriculture. Owners of the land are different. Conjugal marriages and widow marriages exist in this tribe. This tribe thinks itself as Hindu and is taking the services of Brahmins at many occasions like birth, marriage, death etc.

The level of education is very low in this tribe and in 1981 only 14% of their population was educated. These people speak ‘Khai’ sub-language but they speak different languages in different areas. Generally conjugal marriages are there in this tribe. Widows also have the permission to remarry. They say that they belong to Hindus and are taking services of priests at many occasions. Their main occupation is agriculture. Yet the level of education is very Iqjv but some of them have got governmental jobs after getting education.

7. Oraons. Oraon tribe generally exists in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharastra, West Bengal, Orrisa. These people generally depend upon agriculture but some of them also depend upon forests. People of Oraon tribe worship Sun God. These people also believe in Magic and Mantras. Acceptance of boy and girl both is necessary for marriage. The custom of bride price also exists in this tribe. These people generally speak ‘Kurakh’ language. At the time of illness, Ojha takes care of them and Ojha also performs the functions of priest.

Question 2.
Which types of ways are there in tribal societies for acquiring mates?
Or
Discuss two forms of marriage system of the tribal society.
Or
Write the ways of acquiring mate selection system in tribal society.
Answer:
The institution of marriage prevails equally in all the societies. But the concept of marriage is very much different in Hindu society and tribal society. The aim of marriage in tribes is to enjoy sexual relations, producing children and is by living life with each other but the meaning of marriage in Hindu Society is a religious sacrament. In this way the ways to acquire mate in tribal society are also different. For example, marriage by purchase, marriage by exchange, marriage by capture, marriage by service, probationary marriage, Anader or intrusion marriage, marriage by mutual consent, marriage by trial etc. Their description is given ahead :

1. Marriage by Purchase. This type of marriage exists in many tribes. In this type of marriage, price of the bride is generally given in the form of money or in the form of agricultural produce. Though a person buys his wife in this type of marriage but it should not be considered as the means of sale and purchase. Actually a person gives the compensation to his in-laws for the upbringing of his wife. This type of marriage exists among the Santhal, Ho, Naga, Munda, Oraon tribes.

2. Marriage by Exchange. This type of marriage come into being for the reason not to give value of the bride. In many tribes the bride’s value is so high that the person is unable to pay that value. That’s why they exchange the females of their family. Person gives his sister or any female of his family in lieu of his wife. This type of marriage also exists in Hindu Society.

3. Marriage by Capture. This type of marriage also prevails in many tribal societies. During earlier times, one rule was there that parents were giving sanctions to the marriage but with the passage of time, views of children are changing. If parents do not give permission to marry then the boy has no choice except by capturing the girl. Afterwards the. elders of both families accept their marriage. Higher bride price is also one of the reason of this type of marriage. This type of marriage prevails among the tribes of Himachal Pradesh and Chhota Nagpur.

4. Marriage by Service. This type of marriage is also a form of marriage by purchase. Sometimes poor people are unable to give the bride price but at the same time they also want to marry. That is why boy does some work or job for the parents of the girl. After sometime parents of the girl give permission for their marriage and they establish their new house after their marriage. Among Puram and Gond tribes one boy has to work at the girl’s house for three years and he fulfils all the responsibilities of a son. Father of the girl takes care of his needs of food and living. Among some tribes, father of the girl gives some money as a loan to boy to pay the bride price and boy slowly gives back that money later on. This type of marriage exists among Munda, Oraon, Bonga tribes.

5. Probationary Marriage. The main aim of this type of marriage is to give chance to both boy and girl to understand each other. In this type of marriage boy goes to girl’s house for some time to live. Both boy and girl are free to talk and to meet with each other. If after some time or after probationary period, boy thinks that her nature is good enough for him then they marry with each other. If their nature does not match with each other then the boy gives some money as compensation to father of the girl and goes back to his house. This type of marriage exists in Kuki tribe.

6. Anader or Intrusion Marriage. In this type of marriage girl takes shelter at boy’s house. If girl wants to marry any body who is not ready to marry with her, then she goes to boy’s house to live. Boy’s family members misbehave with her, she needs to face very harsh behaviour. Even they beat her, sometimes do not give her food and even they keep her out of their house. But even then if she wants to marry that boy then the boy has to marry her.

7. Marriage by Mutual Consent. Marriage by mutual consent exists in many tribes. Girl elopes from her house with the boy with her own wish. She never comes back to her house until her parsents give their sanction to their marriage. This type of marriage also exists in our society.

8. Marriage by Trial. In this type of marriage both boy and girl are permitted to live with each other at girl’s house. If they like each other then their elders perform their marriage but if they do not like each other then boy goes back to his house. But he has to give some money as compensation for his expenses during that period to the father of the girl.

Question 3.
What are the main problems of Tribal societies? Suggest the ways to remove them.
Answer:
Tribal society lives away from our culture and civilization in forests, mountains, valleys etc. and it is very much out of our reach. They never interfere in any one’s matters and never like to be interfered by any one. Yet gradually they are coming near to the main stream because of which now gradually we come to know about their problems. They don’t have only one or two problems but have many problems which are given below under different headings.

1. Economic Problems. Tribal people have to face many economic problems which are given below :

1) Problem of Indebtedness. Tribal people are very simple and have certain
ignorance regarding many issues. But money lenders take advantage of their ignorance, poverty and illiteracy. Money lenders give loans to these people during their crisis time and force Jbem to pay interest and actual amount even for the whole life. They have to, pay that interest and they even are unable to pay the interest. Actual amount remains there as it is. They become poor and poorer with this.

2) Problem of Agriculture. Tribal people used to do shifting agriculture and their methods of agriculture are very old. Because of their old methods of agriculture, their production is very low. First of all they clear the forests and then they do agriculture on it. Because of low production, they are unable to earn bread of two times even after a lot of hard work. That’s why they are forced to do labour somewhere else.

3) Land Related Problems. Tribal people used to do shifting agriculture and clear forest by cutting trees. Then they prepare land for agriculture. They think that forest land is their land. But now law related to land has been made and their this right has been taken away from them. Except this they mortgage their land to money lenders and are unable to take advantage from that land.

4) Problems Related to Forests. Tribes generally live in forests and away from the population. They believe that forests are their property. They collect things from forests to eat, cut wood to sell or are cutting trees to do shifting agriculture. But now laws related to forests have been made and government is giving land to contractors on contract. Forest contractors never allow them to cut wood, to collect anything and even to clear the land for agriculture. In this way they are unable to meet their daily needs.

5) If they are doing labour then they are generally given very low wages which is a very big problem for them.

2. Social Problems. Tribal people have to face many social problems which are given below :

1) Prostitution. Tribal people are generally poor. Moneylenders, contractors etc. generally take advantage of their poverty. They give them money and establish illicit sexual relations with their females. Slowly and slowly with this, their females- are moving towards prostitution because of which their sexual problems are increasing day by day.

2) Bride price. According to ancient types of marriage, many Hindu castes were paying bride price. Now tribes are also coming under the influence of Hindu religion because of which they are also demanding bride price. With the passage of time this bride price is increasing day by day. People are unable to pay this much heavy price and now it is very difficult for them to marry their children.

3) Child marriage. Slowly and slowly, now tribes are coming under the influence of Hindu religion. Child marriages very much exist in Hindus yet these are decreasing day by day. But under the effect of Hindu religion, tribal people now marry their children in a very early age because of which many problems are coming to them.

3. Cultural problems. Tribal people now are coming in contact with other cultures and civilizations because of which they are facing many problems. These problems are given below :

1) Language problems. Now tribes are coming in contact with external cultures.
Because of their contact and interaction with other cultures they have learnt languages of other cultures. Now they speak other languages. Their younger generation hardly speaks their own language and in some tribes they have forgotten completely their own language. With the passage of time their own ideals, traditions are losing importance day by day.

2) Cultural differences. It is not necessary that all the tribal people are adopting Hindu religion. Many people are adopting Christian religion or even Buddhism. Different religions are culturally very much different from each other. Its result comes in the form of many cultural problems; With this they even are adopting caste system. Its result is that they are unable to adopt other culture and have left their own culture. With this many cultural problems are coming to them.

4. Educational Problems. Generally tribal people are poor and the main reason of their poverty is their illiteracy. Yet either under the effect of geovernmental education or under the effect of Christiaij missionaries they are getting education and even are getting English education. But with this many problems are coming to them. First is that they are leaving their basic occupations and are moving away from their cultural values. Secondly they are unable to get any job even after getting education and are becoming unemployed. In this way education is also creating problems for them.

5. Problems Related to Health. These tribal people generally live away from the population because of which their health related problems are on the rise. Sometimes if any epidemic spreads in their area then many people die due to unavailability of health facilities. Because of prostitution and illicit sexual relations, many sexual problems also spread among them. Tribal people are working in industries and many problems of industries are spreading in their areas.

No arrangement is there of hospitals, doctors, dispenseries etc. in their areas because of which very less facilities of treatment are there in their areas. Now they are using whisky, opium etc. under the effect of other cultures which also are creating many problems for them but no one is there to cure them or to take care of them.

Ways to Eradicate Problems : If any problem occurs then its solution is also there. In this way if tribal people have many problems then their solutions are also there. If we plan carefully then their problems can also be solved. Some of the solutions of their problems are given below :

• Prostitution in their areas should be stopped so that the morality should not go down. For this they should be given economic help.
• Some laws should be made for them to stop child marriages in their areas.
• Bride price should also be stopped so that the people should be able to marry their children easily and illicit relations could come to a halt.
• These people should be given land for agriculture so that they should leave shifting agriculture and should start permanent agriculture.
• They should be given the training of agriculture by giving them modern means of agriculture, to increase their production output.
• Laws related to forests should be made in such a way that they should be able to take advantage from the forests.
• Some small scale industries should be started in their areas so that they should be able to earn some money from this. They should also be given loans and grants.
• They should also be given education in their own language.
• Schools should also be opened in their areas.
• Hospitals and doctors should also be arranged in tribal areas.

Question 4.
What is Tribal Economy? Explain its nature.
Answer:
Many Sociologists have tried to divide the economic life of humans in’many parts like man as a hunter and food gatherer, pastoral stage, agricultural stage and technological stage. It has been beleived that the economic life of modern humans has been passed through these stages. Man has reached the technological stage after crossing the above mentioned stages. But if we look at the economic system of tribal society then we come to know that it is still at the earliest stage of economic life. It means that it is still in the stage of hunting, of food gathering. Each society tries to fulfil the needs of its members and the needs of the people are always increasing. But the people of tribal society have very limited economic needs. Because their economic needs are limited, that’s why they fulfill their needs from their surroundings. The main feature of tribal economy is personal hard work. It means a person has to work hard himself to fulfil his basic needs. Many sociologists have tried to define tribal economy and their views are given below :

1. According to Lucy Mayor, “Tribal economy is related with those activities with which people systematise their material and non-material atmosphere and choose some out of those uses so that the limited means could be determined to fulfil the opposite objectives.”

2. According to Pidington, “Economic system determines the right of occupation of control, system and distribution of production to fulfil basic needs of the people.”

So from these definitions it is clear that the people of tribal society fulfil their needs and acheive their economic objectives with the help of economy. We cannot understand tribal economy until we are able to understand the simple form of tribal society. All the humans and both the sexes have equal importance in tribal economy and all the persons, young one’s, females, children etc., are engaged in earning their bread. No one is burden on the other person in their economy. If the husband of a woman dies then she also takes part in thq,process of earning bread so that the life of her and her children should move on smoothly. People have very limited needs in tribal economy and they fulfill their basic needs only in their surroundings.

Nature or Features of Tribal Economy. Even though the present civilised society completely depends upon technology and has crossed a very long passage from economic point of view yet tribal economy is still in its early stage. Tribal society depends upon nature. Their main sources of living life are forests, mountains and land. Many sociologists have explained the different stages of economic life of human society. After looking at these stages we can come to know that the economic life of tribal society is still at its first stage. The main features of its nature are given below : ”

• There is lack of technology in tribal society because of which they have to do their work with their hands only. That’s why their economic needs are very limited.
• Economic relations among the people of tribes depend upon exchange of things. Money is not used widely for the exchange of goods.
• Tribal economy is not the result of efforts of one, two or many persons but is the result of efforts of whole group.
• There is no sense of profit in trade of tribal people. Partnership in trade, sense of unity and the sense of fulfillment of their needs is there in tribal economy.
• There is no regular market in their society. Wherever any weekly market prevails in their geographical area, they sell their goods in that market. There is no nature of collection of things and money and there is hardly any sense of competition in their economic system.
• Their society doesn’t have any nature of creating invention because of which they are very much under-developed. Their economic system is static which is based on fulfillment of their basic needs.
• Things, in ancient times, were not produced for sale or collection but were produced only for consumption. In the same way production in tribal society is not for sale but is only for consumption. Yet now it is changing day by day but still production in their society is mainly for consumption.
• Tribal societies don’t have any technology because of which they lack specialization based upon technological ability. Division of labour based on sex exists in their society.
• People, in tribal society, generally believe in spending instead of collecting money.

Question 5.
What are the reasons behind changes in tribal society? Explain.
Answer:
If we compare the tribes of ancient times and modern age then we shall come to know that there are many differences between the both. Tribes in ancient times were living at the far off places like forests, mountains, valleys etc. They had their own language, culture, eating habits, wearing habits etc. They were not interfering in any one’s matters and they never liked to be interfered by any one. Their ways of producing things were very old. They were doing cultivation in the traditional way, collecting fruits and roots from forests, killing the animals to fulfil their needs. In this way they were living very much near to the nature and there was no sign of education in their lives. Religion and clans were of great importance in their lives.

But if we look at the present age tribes then we can say that they are very much different from ancient tribes. Every aspect of their social life has been changed completely. They have adopted the culture of either Hindu or Christian religion and even they have adopted their ways of living life. Now they are coming out of the forests and mountains and are joining the main stream of the country. Now they are not producing only to meet their needs but are producing to sell in the market. Education is spreading in their societies. Influence of religions and clans is decreasing.

Now they are leaving their traditional occupations and are working in the industries of the urban areas. Now they are adopting new occupations. In this way a major change has come in their lives. But here one question arises that how these changes have come in their lives ? What are the reasons that they are leaving their distinctiveness and are joining the main stream of the country? Some of those reasons are given below:

1. Effect of Christian Missionaries. When the Britishers had occupied India then they gave permission to the Christian missionaries to propagate the Christian religion in the country. The Christian missionaries had propagated the Christianity in different parts of the country. Many Indians ^became Christians under their influence. These missionaries also came in contact with tribal people.

When they came in contact with different tribes then they came to know that they have their own religion and they are not under the influence of Hindu or any other Indian religion. That’s why they started to propagate Christianity in their areas. They were lured in many ways. Many facilities like educational centres, health centres etc. were provided to them. In this way tribal people started to adopt Christianity, under their influence, by leaving their own religion. They had to adopt customs and traditions of Christiaity due to this with which many changes came in their fives.

2. Development in means of Transport and Communication. When Britishers came to India they observed that the means of transport here were very old. They also had to face may problems due to this. That’s why they started to develop means of transport and communication in India. First train in India was started by them in 1853 and they also established the post and telegraph department. They also developed means of transport for their own convenience but Indians had more advantages than Britishers. People started to reach very far off place.

They also reached the tribal areas and started to persuade tribal people to join the main stream. Means of transport were developed with a great speed after independence with which tribal people started to reach other tribal people very quickly. They came out of their tribes and started to come in contact with other groups. With this many changes took place in their fives.

3. Market Economy. Their economy in ancient times was subsistence economy. Their needs were very limited and they were producing things only to fulfil their needs. They were collecting fruits and roots from forests and were killing animals to fulfil their needs. There was no tradition of surplus production in their areas. They were hardly aware of the existence of market.

But the way in which they came in contact with other groups and they started to move towards for off places with the means of transport,they came to know about the market economy. They eame to know that the surplus production can be sold into the market. After that they started to produce more with little bit of more hard work and started to sell the surplus production in the market. They started to get money with this , and their life become very easy.. In this way market economy has started to change their lives in a better way.

4. Constitutional Provisions. It is writen in the Indian Constitution that there should be no discriminiation with any one on the basis of religion, colour, caste, creed etc. With these some provisions are kept in the Constitutions that some facilities should be given to scheduled castes, tribes and weaker sections to protect their interests. These facilities include the reservation of some seats for scheduled tribes in educational institutions and governmental jobs.

The Constitution has also given a right to Governers of states that they should make one advisory council related to tribes so that some , rules related to land of tribes could be made and they could be protected from the exploitation of money lenders. Government has also been given special instructions by the Constitution for the development of tribal areas. Every Indian citizen has also been given some fundamental rights so that they could live a happy life. These rights are also given to tribal people. In this way due to these Constitutional provisions, their areas started to develop and changes came in their lives.

5. Governmental Efforts. The condition of tribal people was very bad at the time of Indian independence. That’s why many provisions were kept in the Constitution for their development. So that’s why government started to take steps for their development according to constitutional provisions. Many educational institutions, health centres, hospitals were opened in their areas so that they can get education and can use medical facilities. Social service organizations were given special aids to work in their areas. Many laws were made to protect them from exploitation of money lenders. Special steps were taken to bring them in main stream. In this way these people came in main stream due to governmental efforts and their life started to change.

6. Spread of Modern education. Special emphasis was given to spread education after independence. Many schools, colleges were opened in far off places. They were connected with universities and people were motivated to get education. Provisions were made to reserve seats for the tribals in educational institutions and jobs. Social service institutions are motivating them to get education. In this way due to the efforts of the whole society, they started to get education.

Generally these people take education upto midle level. But those people, who have been able to get higher education, have got governmental jobs due to reservation. They started to get a proper income due to these jobs and their standard of life became high. Their social status becomes higher. Other tribal people also started to get education after looking their higher status. In this way their life started to change due to spread of education.

7. Decreasing Forests. Life of tribal people has also been changed due to reducing area of forests. Economy of tribal people, in earlier times, was based on forests. They were living in forests, cultivating in forests, collecting fruits and roots from forests and were hunting in forests. In this way their whole economic life was dependent upon forests. But population started to increase with the passage of time. Increasing population started a problem of living for them.

Forests were cut down to make houses for the people. Forests started to be reduced to a great extent. Their means of livelihood came to an end. That’s why these people started to come to urban areas in search of work for earning. They started to leave their traditional occupations and started to adopt new occupations with which their life started to change. With this government started to give forests to contractors. Tribal people were cutting wood from the forests and were selling that wood in the market. They were forced not to cut wood by these contractors. So that’s why they started to adopt new occupations instead of their traditional occupations.

In this way we can see that many changes came in the life of tribal people due to many factors like the effect of Christian missionaries, efforts of the government, the constitutional provisions, spread of education etc.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 1 Tribal Society Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Chapter 1 Tribal Society

Sociology Guide for Class 12 PSEB Tribal Society Textbook Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which is the largest tribe in India?
(a) Santhal
(b) Bhil
(c) Munda
(d) Gonds
Answer:
(a) Santhal

2. The word tribe is derived from which word?
(a) Greek
(b) Latin
(c) Greek and Latin
(d) Latin or Greek
Answer:
(B) Latin

3. Which is not Risley’s classification on the basis of race?
(a) Indo Aryan
(b) Hill cultivation
(c) Mongoloid
(d) Scytho Dravidian
Answer:
(b) Hill cultivation

4. Bhil tribe speaks which dialect?
(a) Oriya
(b) Chhattisgarhi
(c) Bhili
(d) Gondi
Answer:
(c) Bhili

5. Which is the cause of environmental degradation?
(a) Housing
(b) Gases
(c) Displacement
(d) Deforestation
Answer:
(b) Gases

6. The act of movement of someone from one position to another is called:
(a) Displacement
(b) Mobility
(c) Land Acquisition
(d) Deforestation
Answer:
(b) Mobility

Fill in the Blanks:

1. The Romans identified tribe as a ………………. unit.
Answer:
Political

2. The Constitution of India has accepted to use the term tribe as ……………….
Answer:
Scheduled caste

3. ………………. and ………………. are the cultural classifications of tribal society.
Answer:
Dravid, Indo-Aryan

4. Shifting cultivation is also called ………………. cultivation.
Answer:
Jhum

5. ………………. and ………………. are the causes responsible for Deforestation.
Answer:
Urbanisation, industrialisation

6. ………………. and ………………. are the two major issues of tribal society.
Answer:
Deforestation, displacement

True/False:

1. India has the second-largest concentration of tribal population.
Answer:
True

2. Dr. G.S. Ghurye called the tribals ‘Girijan’.
Answer:
False

3. The Munda tribe speaks the Mundari dialect.
Answer:
True

4. Tribals have faith in Animism and Totemism.
Answer:
True

5. Deforestation has no influence on climate and biodiversity.
Answer:
False

6. Land acquisition and dam buildings are the causes of Displacement.
Answer:
True

D. Match the Columns:

Column A	Column B
Mundari	Sir, Herbert Risley
Timber Mining	Marriage by Purchase
The Mongoloid Type	Munda
Dam Construction	Deforestation
Bride price paid in cash	Displacement or in-kind

Answer:

Column A	Column B
Mundari	Munda
Timber Mining	Deforestation
The Mongoloid Type	Sir, Herbert Risley
Dam Construction	Displacement or in-kind
Bride price paid in cash	Marriage by Purchase

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is the total percentage of tribals in India?
Answer:
8.2% of the total population in India are tribals.

Question 2.
What is the mixture of the Scythians and the Dravidians called?
Answer:
Schyto-Dravidians.

Question 3.
Name the tribals which are based on hunting, gathering, and fishing called.
Answer:
Forest-hunters.

Question 4.
What are the causes of displacement or deforestation?
Answer:
Land acquisition, dam construction, mining, agriculture, etc.

Question 5.
What is the major effect of Industry, Mining, Dam building, Land acquisition?
Answer:
Displacement.

Question 6.
What do you mean by Tribal society?
Answer:
The society which lives very much away from our society in forests, mountains, etc., and which has its own geographical area, language, culture, and religion.

Question 7.
Which is the largest tribal community in India?
Answer:
Santhal is the largest tribal community in India which mainly lives in West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha.

Question 8.
The word Tribe’ is derived from which word?
Answer:
The word Tribe’ is derived from the Latin word ‘tribuz’ which means ‘one third’.

Question 9.
In the Indian context who referred to tribes as ‘Schedule Tribe’?
Answer:
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar referred to tribes as ‘Schedule Tribe’.

Question 10.
The Bhil tribe speaks which kind of dialect?
Answer:
The Bhil tribe speaks the Bhili dialect.

Question 11.
Who gave a racial classification of the tribal society?
Answer:
It was given by Sir Herbert Risley.

Question 12.
‘Sohrai’ is the harvest festival of which tribe?
Answer:
‘Sohrai’ is the harvest festival of the Santhal tribe.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Write down three characteristics of tribal” society.
Answer:

• Each tribal society lives in a specific geographical area.
• The tribe is a collection of groups who are blood relations with each other.”
• Each tribe has its specific name such as Garo, Khasi, Naga, etc.

Question 2.
What do you mean by Chieftainship?
Answer:
Each tribe has its own political system in which the chief is elected on the basis of age or physical strength. The chief has complete authority and all the members of the tribe accept his decisions. The ultimate authority is in his hands.

Question 3.
What is the Subsistence economy?
Answer:
Tribes have a subsistence economy that depends upon hunting, collecting, fishing, and gathering forest products. There exist a barter system among them. Their economy is not based on profit but they only fulfill their needs.

Question 4.
What do you mean by the Indo-Aryan type tribe?
Answer:
Indo-Aryan-type tribes live in Punjab, Rajasthan, and Kashmir. Physically, they are of good height and hate the fair color. They have black eyes, more hair on the body and face, and a long nose.

Question 5.
What do you mean by Mongoloid tribe?
Answer:
Mongoloid type of tribe exists in the Himalayan region belt especially north-eastern border, Napal and Burma. Their major physical features are broad head, dark complexion with yellowish tinge and less hair on face. They are of short height.

Question 6.
What is the Santhal tribe?
Answer:
Santhal tribe is the largest Indian tribe which lives in Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Odisha. They speak Santhali, Oriya, Bangla and Hindi language. Their major festival is Sohrai and they worship ‘Sun God’. The custom of bride price exists in their society.

Question 7.
What is deforestation?
Answer:
Deforestation is the major cause of environmental degradation. The meaning of deforestation is cutting of trees. Major reason of deforestation is expansion of agriculture, increase in population, development of new technology and most importantly industrialisation.

Question 8.
What do you mean by displacement?
Answer:
The act of uprooting someone from his original place and to settle them at other place is known as displacement. This is one of the major problems of tribal society. It is quite painful for the person to get displaced from his area. Tribals are displaced due to the things found in their areas.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Write a short note on tribal society.
Or
Tribal Society.
Or
What do you mean by tribal society.
Answer:
A tribe is a group of people living very much away from our civilisation in forests, mountains and valleys. They still live in ancient conditions. The society which exists in such groups is known as tribal society. This-is classless society in which no stratification exists. Most of the population of such societies live in forests or in mountains. They are mostly self dependent who control themselves and are beyond any one’s control. Their structure is very much different from the rural and urban societies.

Question 2.
Write the cultural classification of tribal society.
Answer:
Majumdar and Madan has divided tribes on cultural basis :

• Those tribes which are very much away from urban or rural communities which means those tribes which have not yet reached the level of developed communities.
• Such tribes which have been influenced by the rural or urban communities. These tribes are facing many problems due to this influence.
• Such tribes which are in complete contact with the rural or urban culture and that’s why they do not face any problem.

Question 3.
Write the Racial classification of tribal society.
Answer:
Sir Herbert Risley classified tribes on racial basis :

• The Indo-Aryan
• The Dravidian
• The Mongoloid
• The Aryo-Dravidian
• The Mongolo-Dravidian
• The Scytho-Dravidian
• The Turko Iranian.

Question 4.
Write the Linguistic classification of tribal society.
Answer:
Languages which exist in India, can be divided in four parts and these are :

• Indo-European or Aryan Languages. In this part Punjabi, Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati, Oriya languages come.
• Dravidian Laguages. This linguistic family exists in central and southern
  India. In this linguistic family, languages such as Telugu, Malyalam, Tamil, Kannada etc. are included. .
• Austic Languages. Austic linguistic family exists in Central and Eastern India. Languages of Bhunda and Kala come in this linguistic family.
• Tibeto Chinese Languages. Few Indian tribes also use these languages.

Question 5.
Write the integrational classification of tribal society.
Answer:
According to L.P. Vidyarthi and B.K. Rai, they are of four types :

• Tribal Communities. Those tribes who still live at their original place and live their lives in their distinctive pattern.
• Semi Tribal Communities. Those tribes who have more or less settled down in rural areas, started doing agriculture or other related occupations.
• Acculturated Tribal Communities. Such tribal communities who have migrated to urban or semi urban areas and have adopted modern occupations such as working in industries. They have also taken up urban traits.
• Totally Assimilated Tribals. These are those tribal people who have completely adopted Hinduism.

Question 6.
Distinguish between the Gond and the Bhil tribes.
Answer:
Gond Tribe. Gond tribe is one of the largest Indian tribes. It has been believed that they belong to a Dravidian group. They live in many states such as Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, etc. They speak Gondi and Chattisgarhi languages. Their economy is based on agriculture and forests and some of them are still doing Jhum cultivation. Bhil Tribe. It is also one of the largest Indian tribes. It is also known as Bhilala. This tribe lives in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tripura, etc. They speak the Bhili dialect. Their major source of income is agriculture. Holi is their important festival.

Question 7.
Write down the three causes of deforestation.
Answer:

• For Agriculture: Since quite a long time, tribal people are doing agriculture. They clear the forest, cut the trees and do agriculture on that land.
• For Wood: To fulfill the needs of increasing population, trees are cut down and forests are cleared. The wood is used to make homes and furniture.
• Urbanization: The increasing population needs place to live. That’s why urban centres started expanding. So, people cleared forests to make houses.

Question 8.
Write the three causes responsible for displacement.
Answer:

• Land Acquisition: The government needs land to. make roads or national parks and that’s why it occupies other land. People living on that land are displaced.
• Construction of Dam: To stop flood and to make hydroelectricity, government constructs dams. That’s why tribal people are displaced and are forced to settle at some other place.
• Industries: Lot of land was required to start an industry and that’s why government acquires land. So, people gets displaced from their lands.

Question 9.
Write five points of social change in tribal society.
Or
Write three points of social change in tribal society.
Answer:

• Changes are coming in the social structure of tribal society. Their ways of living, eating habits, education, and political life are going through many changes.
• Now tribal people are leaving their traditional occupations to adopt new ones. Now they are doing labor in industries, mines, and other places.
• In the age of globalization, they cannot live in isolation. That’s why they have started leaving their areas to migrate to nearby rural or urban areas.
• They have started integrating into the mainstream of our country and are taking part in the political system of the country.
• The Indian Constitution has given them reservation. They are taking advantage of this and gradually development is taking place among them.

Very Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you mean by tribal society? Discuss its characteristics in detail.
Or
Define Tribal society. Discuss the features of it.
Or
Define Tribal society.
Or
Write a note on Tribal society.
Answer:
There is one civilization in our country Which lives very much away from our civilization in mountains, forests, valleys, etc., and lives in an ancient state. This civilization is known as tribal society. These tribes have been given the name of Scheduled Tribes in the Indian Constitution. A tribal society is a classless society. There is no existence of any type of stratification in these societies. The tribe was considered a very important social group in ancient societies. Most of the population of tribal society live either in mountains or in forests. They live almost in every part of our country.

These societies are generally self-dependent i.e., are controlled by themselves and are away from any type of control. Tribal societies are very much different from the structure and culture of rural and urban societies. We can divide them into three categories and these are :

• hunters, food gatherers, and fish catchers
• people engaged in shifting agriculture and
• people engaged in the permanent type of agriculture.

They are very much different from our culture, civilization, and society.

Definitions of a Tribe:

1. According to Imperial Gazetteer of India, “A Tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a common territory and is not usually endogamous, though originally it might have been so.”

2. According to D.N. Majumdar, “A tribe is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, member of which occupy the same territory, speak the same language and observe certain taboos regarding marriage, profession or occupation and have developed a well-assessed system of reciprocity and mutuality of obligation.”

3. According to Gillin and Gillin, “Any collection of preliterate local groups which occupies a common general territory, speaks a common language and practices a common culture is tribe.”

In this way we can say that the tribes exist in a limited geographical area and live in the form of small groups. Different tribes are very much different and independent from each other on the basis of some of their certain aspects like social structure, language, culture etc. Each tribe has its own language, culture, traditions, eating habits etc. People in these tribes have the sense of unity among themselves because they live with each other in a definite geographical area. It is the collection of group of many families which were endogamous long ago. These days, these tribal people have been given protection by Indian constitution for their development in the form of many facilities like reservation and gradually they are joining the main stream.

Characteristics of a Tribe:

1. Collection of Families. Any tribe is a group of many families which has common produce. They produce things to fulfil the needs of the tribe. They never accumulate things because of which they don’t have any sense of property. That’s why these families have the sense of unity among themselves.

2. Common Geographical Territory. People of a tribe live in a common and definite geographical territory. They are very much different and live away from other parts of society due to their common and definite geographical territory. That’s why they are out of the reach of the rest of society. They have their own different culture and they never like the interference of any one in their tribe. That’s why they never like to keep any type of relation with the rest of society. They have their own different world. They have the community feeling because they live in a common territory.

3. Common Language and Common name. Each tribe has its own different language because of which they are different from each other. Number of tribal languages, in our country, exists according to the number of tribes. Each tribe also has its different name and it is known by that name.

4. Segmentary Society. Each tribal society is different from other society on many basis like ways of eating habits, languages, geographical area etc. They are different from each other on many basis and never like to interfere in each other’s matters. They don’t have any type of discrimination with anyone and that’s why they are known as segmentary societies.

5. Common Culture. Each tribe has different ways of living, religion, language, taboo etc. But these are same in one tribe. In the same way because of these differences, all the members of one tribe have the same culture.

6. Economic Structure. Each tribe has its own land which practices shifting agriculture on it. They just want to fulfil their needs and that’s why their production is also limited. They never accumulate the things because of which they don’t have any sense of property. That’s why there is no class in tribal society. Each member of a tribe has equal rights on all the things and no one is inferior or superior in such society.

7. Mutual Cooperation. Each member of a tribe gives full cooperation to other members of society so that all the needs of a tribe could be fulfilled. If any member of a tribe is being threatened by members of other tribe then the other member of first tribe gives their full cooperation to their friend to fight with the other tribe. It is the duty of headman of every tribe to keep respect of its tribe. Every member of the tribe has to obey the orders of the headman and they give respect to headman due to this. All the members of the tribe become loyal to their tribe.

8. Political Organization. Village, in tribes, is one of the important unit and 10-12 villages form a political organization of a tribe. These organizations form one council and each council has one headman. This headman is generally the eldest person of the council. Each tribal society works under this council and the atmosphere of the council is generally democratic. Each member of the tribe remains loyal to the tribe.

9. Division of labour. Very limited type of division of labour and specialization exists in tribal society. There are many basis of difference among people like age, sex, kinship etc. Except these some functions and roles are important like one headman and one priest. With these one OJHA is also there who gives medicine at the time of illness or any other problem.

10. Stratification. Yet there is no stratification in tribal societies but if it is there then it is very limited because these societies do not have any class system. Just some sort of stratification exists in these societies on»the bases of age, sex or kinship.

In this way on the basis of this discription we can say that a tribe is an endogamous group which has its own different language, culture, religion etc. They never like to interfere in any one’s matters and never like to be interfered .by anyone. They are blood relatives of each other because they believe that they are the children of one ancestor. They live in a definite geographical area and even today they use ancient ways of living. Yet some changes are coming in their societies but still they are living in a backward condition according to our society.

Question 2.
Write a detailed note on the classification of tribal society.
Or
Write the economic classification of Indian Tribes.
Answer:
Tribes are an indispensible part of Indian population. Indian tribes can be classified on many basis such as racial, economic and integration and their description is given below :

1. Racial Classification of the Indian Tribes. Sir Herbert Risley classified Indian people on scientific basis. According to him, people of three races, Dravid, Indo-Aryan and Mongoloid, live in India and they are also mixed with each other. That’s why there is difference of colour among Indians. That’s why, he divided them in seven tribes.

1) The Indo-Aryan. This type of tribal community lives in Rajasthan and Kashmir. From physical point of view, they have long stature, fair complexion, black eyes and more growth of hair on face and body. They also have long nose.

2) The Dravidian. These people spread from Ceylon to the Ganga valley of West Bengal which include Chennai, Hyderabad, Central India and Chotta Nagpur. They are also known as the original inhabitants of India. They are of dark complexion. Their physical features are black eyes, long head and broad nose.

3) The Mongoloid. Such tribes live in the belt along the Himalayan region which includes north west frontiers, Nepal and Burma. Their major physical features are broad head, dark complexion with yellowish tingle and less growth of hair on face. Their height is lesser than the average height.

4) The Aryo-Dravidian. Such tribe came forward due to the mixture of Aryans and Dravidians. They live in Uttar Pradesh, few parts of Rajasthan and Bihar. Their complexion varies from light brown to black. They have medium to broad nose and are of medium height.

5) The Mongolo-Dravidians. Such tribes come forward due to the mixture of Dravidians and Mongols. They live in Bengal and Odisha. They have broad head, black colour, more growth of hair on face and medium height.

6) The Scytho-Dravidian. It is a mixture of Scytho and Dravidian people. They live in western’India, from Gujarat to Coorg. People of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra also come among them. They have medium height, fair complexion, broad head and fine nose.

7) The Turko-Iranian. These people live in Afghanistan, Baluchistan and North Western Frontier Province (Pakistan). They were probably formed with the mixture of Turks and Persians.

2. Economic Classification of the Indian Tribes. Indian tribes have also been classified on the basis of their economy. Nature* humans and spirits work for them in many ways. That’s why they can be classified in six types :

1) Food Gatherers and Hunters. Many tribes live at far off places in forests and mountains. Yet most of the tribes have joined the main stream due to-means of transport and they also have adopted the occupation of agriculture but still many tribes are there who still spend their life as hunters and food gatherers. They collect roots, fruits, honey etc. and even are hunting smaller animals. Some tribes also exchange many things. In this way they fulfil their needs in the absence of agriculture.

Those tribes are known as ancient tribes which fulfil their needs in this way. These people not only kill animals but also collect fruits, roots and honey from the jungles. In this way they fulfils their needs even without the presence of agriculture. We can come to know about their culture after looking at their way of hunting. These societies lack tools and means because of which they are the shadow of ancient tribes. There is no concept of surplus production in their societies. It is so because they can neither produce any thing surplus and nor they can keep the surplus production. They live like wanderers. Tribes of Chenchu, Katkari, Karnes, Baija, Khariya, Kuch, Paliyan etc. live this type of life.

2) Shifting Agriculture. Shifting agriculture prevails in most of the tribes. In this type of agriculture, tribal people first clear the forest by cutting it or lighting it on fire. Then they start cultivating that land. They get very less production due to old means of agriculture. When the production from that land becomes very less then they stop cultivating that land and start that same process on any other piece of land. This way of agriculture has been criticised to a great extent. Tribes of Lohta, Naga, Khasi, Kuki, Saora, Karva etc. used to do this type of agriculture. Very less production is there with this way of agriculture and that’s why their condition is very pitiable.

Because very less production is there with the way of agriculture, that’s why government is trying to stop this type of agriculture. If it will not be stopped then the forest land will come to an end very quickly and the economic system of these tribes will further deteriorate. Problem of soil erosion also occurs due to cutting of forests. Yet this type of agricuture has been banned in many parts of the country, but still this way of agriculture prevails in many parts of the country. So to stop this way of agriculture, it is necessary for the government that it should give them some sort of economic help for their employment so that should be able to earn bread to live a happy life.

3) Pastoralists. Pastoral economy is one of the important part of tribal economy. Tribal people rear animals for different purposes like to take milk, meat and wool and to carry weight. Pastoral tribes of India live a static and permanent life and none according to the se’ason. Tribes of mountaineous region move towards plains in the winter season and comes back to their areas in summer season. The main pastoral tribe of India is the Gujjar tribe of Himachal Pradesh which rears buffaloes, cows and sheep for business purposes.

This custom also prevails in the Toda tribe of Tamilnadu. This tribe rear animals and gets milk from them. Milk is used either to exchange things or it is used to fulfil their own needs. Indian tribes generally live a permanent life. They live at one place and rear animals. They get their things from them like milk, meat etc. They also used to do business of animals like sheep, gtiats etc.

4) Cultivators. Many tribes used to cultivate the land with the help of plough. Males and females have equal participation in this type of agriculture. Those, tribes, who have adopted the Christian religion, have started to use new technology in the agriculture. Tribes of Mizo, Aptalis, Oraon, Ho, Tharo, Gond etc. used to do this type of agriculture.

5) Artisons. Generally most of the tribes used to do the work of cultivation but some tribes are there who used to earn their livelihood only through this work. Many tribes used to do this work during their free time to increase their income. Tribes are making things of metal, cotton etc. to earn their livelihood. They also used to make things with bamboo. The work of artisan includes the work of carpenter, utensils, tools etc. These people are also famous to make toys of metal and glass.

6) Industrial Labour. Tribal people are moving near the main stream due to development of means of communication and reduction of forests. Their traditional ways of income are reducing due to reducing number of forests because of which they have to find new ways of earning money for their livelihood. That’s why a new means is coming in front of us and that is industrial labour. They either go to industrial areas for industrial labour or industrialists are establishing their industries in their areas. Many tribal people are working in tea gardens of Assam and in different industries. Tribal people of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand are working in mines. Many tribal people are working in cities as non-skilled laborers.

3. Classification of Indian Tribes on the basis of the level of Integration. Tribes are one of the important parts of the Indian population. They have maintained their separate identity. They have made good relations with the non-tribal people who came in their contact. L.P. Vidyarthi and B.K. Rai has divided them into four parts :

• Tribal Communities. Those tribes still live in their original place and live their lives in their distinctive pattern.
• Semi-Tribal Communities. Those tribes who have more or less settled down in rural areas started doing agriculture or other related occupations.
• Acculturated Tribal Communities. Such tribal Communities have migrated to urban or semi-urban areas and have adopted modern occupations such as working in industries. They have also taken up urban traits.
• Totally Assimilated Tribals. These are those tribal people who have completely adopted Hinduism.

Question 3.
What is deforestation? What are the causes responsible for deforestation?
Or
What is deforestation? Highlight the causes responsible for deforestation.
Answer:
One of the major reasons of environmental degradation is deforestation. The meaning of deforestation is cutting down trees. Except cutting of trees, deforestation increases due to the expansion of agriculture and pastoral areas. During earlier times, tribals fulfilled their needs because they had all the forest and natural resources available with them. To fulfill their needs, they^were dependent upon forests. But deforestation has been increased due to many factors such as industrialization, urbanization, agriculture, increase in population and need of wood etc. It has directly or indirectly affected the tribal economy. Deforestation is having a very ba,d impact on our atmosphere.

Reasons or causes of deforestation:

1. Deforestation for Agriculture. An increase in population leads to less space for agriculture. That’s why forests were cut down to increase the land under cultivation. Such farmers who do not have land, cut the forests down to earn their livelihood. Many tribal people still do shifting cultivation and cut the forests down.

2. Deforestation for Wood. Wood is used as a raw material in many industries because of which deforestation takes place. With the increase in population, we need wood to make homes and furniture. After the industrial revolution, the demand of wood increased to a great extent. That’s why wood was obtained from the Indian forests as this wood was of good quality and labor was also cheap over here.

3. Deforestation to Cook Food. Yet, there is no dearth of wood in forests to cook food but still, wood is put on fire to cook food and to get warmth. That’s why tribal people cut forests, collect wood to make coal.

4. Industrialisation and Urbanisation. The land is required to establish industries and to expand urban areas. That’s why forests are cut down to clear land so as to develop industries and urban areas. It adversely affects our environment as well as forests. Consequently, tribals were forced to abandon their original habitat.

5. Deforestation for Pastoral Lands. To fulfill the increasing need of fodder for cattle, pastoral lands were expanded. Consequently, forest land was cleared to make it grassland. In this way forests were cut down.

6. Deforestation for Paper Industry. Wood pulp is used to make paper which is used in every sector of society. During last few decades, the consumption of paper has been increased to a great extent. That’s why a particular type of tree is grown to make paper from wood pulp.

7. Deforestation for Commercial Purposes. Many factories use wood as raw-material. That’s why they stress on growing a particular type of tree which they cut down very quickly. This also increases deforestation in one way or the other.

Question 4.
What is displacement? Write a detailed note on it.
Or
Land acquisition and Dam construction are causes of Displacement. Discuss.
Answer:
Displacement is a situation in which someone is uprooted from his place of living and to take him to. other place to settle down. It is one of the problems which tribals are facing. If any one is uprooted from his place of living, he will have to face many psychological, physical and mental problems. Tribal population is facing the adverse impact of industrialisation and urbanisation. There exist many natural resources in tribal areas and these resources are exploited in many ways such as to make dams for electricity and as raw-material. In this way, tribals are displaced from their lands and are given very less money as compensation.

Tribals use that money to buy drugs or any other non-useful work. In this way they lose all the money as well as land. To fulfill their needs, they have to work as labourers in industries. Yet, due to industrialisation, tribal youth is getting employment but due to illiteracy, they are unable to get educated or semi-educated jobs.

Many scholars are of the view that many steel factories have been established in Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, West Bengal and Odisha. That’s why many tribals were displaced. Very few of them were able to take advantage of the government facilities. They were given alternate lands but there was no arrangement of irrigation facilities over there. That’s why such lands did not prove fruitful for them.

They are also given money as compensation of their land but that is not utilised properly. They use that money till they get other work. Except this, they do not get any support from the industries and urban people. Industrialists do not care about the displaced persons. Instead they care only about their profit. Tribals do not have any other option and they start to live in small kutcha houses which become a slum area with time. In this way, they face many problems due to displacement.

Question 5.
Write down about social changes which occur in tribal society.
Answer:
Many changes have taken place within tribes which exist today. After 1947, many changes have taken place in tribal life due to many factors like industralization, urbanization, development of means of transport and communication, planned social change programmes, spread of education etc. Tribes, in earlier times, lived away from main stream in forests and mountains. That’s why they are very much backward. But now they are coming near to main stream and national life. They are joining the main stream because of which many changes are coming in their life. But which ever changes are coming in their societies, they are very much different from the changes of main stream. Changes in the life of tribal people are coming due to two factors-internal and external. Internal factors occur due to internal factors of the tribe and external factors occur due to the tribal contacts with other groups. Whichever changes have taken place, in the different sectors in tribal life, are given below :

1. Changes in Social Structure. The most important base of social life of all the tribes is family and kinship. All the social institutions and the relations between different institution are changing. Joint families of tribes are disintegrating and nuclear families are coming into existence. Patriarchal tribes like Ho, Gond, Bhil etc. are changing in this way. But no such changes are coming in matriarchal families. Families in these tribes are still matrilineal and matriarchal. Power of taking decision in the family is still in the hands of head of the family. Custom of polygamy was there in many tribes like Bhil, Gond, Naga, Baiga etc. But due to modernization, monogamous families are coming into existence.

Clan system keeps a very important place in the social structure of tribes. Clans were very powerful until the tribal people were living in a definite area. But the control of the clans over the humans has decreased from that day when these people came out of their area to work in the industries. Now clans are not the basic means of control. Importance of clan now can be seen only at the time of marriage.

Yet the kinship system of these tribes has not been changed to a great extent but the area of kinship has not been widened to a great extent due to the development of means of communication. Now the people of the tribes like Bhil, Santhal etc. are marrying their children to far off places. They ,pasily can move from one place to another with the help of means of transport. That’s why now kinship has been widened from a smaller area to a larger area.

Many changes have taken place in the institution of marriage of tribal society. During earlier times, custom of polygamy was there in many tribes, which is decreasing day by day. Now monogamous marriages are coming forward. Ways of doing marriage among tribes are also changing. Some types of acquiring mate have been changed completely. Now many types of marriages are not permitted because that way is an offence in the eyes of law. Marriage by service has been reduced to a great extent. Many traditional types of marriages have come to an end and monogamy is coming forward. Tribal people are adopting customs of Hindu society because they are living near to the Hindu society.

Religion among tribes is kept in the category of Animism. But with the advent of Britishers, many changes were taken place in their religion. It is so because they started to come in contact with other groups and their social life was very much affected. Their religion also started to change. Some people had adopted the Hindu religion and some people had adopted the Christian religion. They have adopted the different rituals of Hindu religion releated to birth, marriage, death etc.

Now they used to do the same rituals of Hindu religion at the time of death of any person. They used to do ‘Havan’ at the time of marriage and take rounds of fire during marriage. Now they even celebrate the fesivals of Hindus with great pomp and show. It is correct to say that the tribes now are the important part of Hindu social system. Christian missionaries have done a great work for the welfare of tribal people because of which many tribal people have adopted the Christian religion.

2. Change due to Education. Many changes have taken place among tribes related to ideology of taking education after the 1947 and education has been spread to a great extent. Figures tell us that many tribal people are taking education up to primary level or maximum up to middle level. But if any one reaches the college or university then they get job very easily because of reservation of seats for them. Chohan says that children of tribes of Rajasthan are getting primary education but their numbers reduced to a great extent after that. Nayak says that Bhil people love nuclear family after getting education and adopt new occupations instead of agriculture or their traditional occupations. Political consciousness also came among them due to education. Many reform movements were also started among Bhil people and they participated in it.

3. Changes in Economy. Tribal people, in ancient times, were used to producing things only to meet their needs. They never produced more than their needs. But due to modernization, their economy is also changing. Now they are connected with the far off places due to the development of means of transport and communication. Now their economy is changing to market economy from subsistence economy. Now they are producing those things which can be easily sold in the market. Now they produce things more then their needs and sell the surplus things in the market. Now slowly and slowly their economy is coming closer to the economy of the country due to the protection given to them by governmental programme’s and five year plans. But their economy is not developing to a great extent. Their per capita income is very low as compared to other population.

Now tribal people are given the right to keep property .because this right is given to every citizen of the country by the Constitution. Now tribal people can adopt any occupation of their choice. They can also take loans from the public sector banks.

Now tribal people are moving toward urban areas and are working in the industries. They are now earning their bread and butter by working in the cities. Even new means of earning are coming in front of them. Those tribal people, who are earning more money, have higher social status. These people are not only economically rich but they are becoming leaders of tribal people and are elected in panchayats or other democratic institutions. Now these people are moving towards higher classes. Rich people are becoming more rich and poor people are becoming poorer and poorer. Gap between rich and poor is widening day by day.

F.G. Bailey says that the Gond people in Orissa have joined the main stream of economy of the country and in the same way they have joined the political sector. In this way tribal people now are the indispensible part of country’s economic and political system. Market economy has also raised the living standard of tribal people. Now their wishes have been increased more than their needs. Now they like to do white collar jobs instead of working with hands. Tribal higher class has started to exploit the lower classes of tribes.

4. Political Changes. Political functions of tribes, in ancient times, were being done by clans and that’s why conflicting situation was always there in tribal area. It is so because different clans were always trying to attain political power in their hands. But the political life of tribal people have been changed after independence. There is no importance of clans or kinship in today’s politics. Now the same type of political system has been established in the whole country. That’s why the traditional political systems of tribes have been changed completely. Some Sociologists are of the view that new democratic system has been established among tribes instead of traditional tribal political system. That’s why the nature of leadership of tribes is also changing. Now leadership does not depends upon kinship. Traditional political guilds have been weakend and their functions are being done by the governmental administration. If any person commits any crime then he is prosecuted by the courts and not by tribal panchayats. That’s why the importance of tribal panchayats has been reduced but civil matters are still decided by tribal panchayats.

Political consciousness, now, among tribes is increasing. Their percentage of voting is increasing in every election. But still the complete political consciousness has not yet reached to these people. That’s why political parties are taking advantage of this situation. Tribal leaders are still very much away from the minds of the people. But even then these tribes are becoming an indispensible part of country’s politics. Some times political parties create a type of situation with which conflict starts between tribal people and non-tribal people.

5. Socio Cultural Changes. From cultural point of view, traditional tribal customs are also changing. These changes are coming due to the process of assimilation. Some tribes are adopting western ways of living *under the influence of Christian missionaries. They aM also very much influenced by the customs and rituals of hindu religion. Their-language, eating habits, wearing habits are also changing. A number of changes have taken place in their culture due to the spread of modern education.

Many tribal people, who were against the hindu rituals during earlier times, now call priests at the time of many occasions of life like birth, marriage, death etc. They also have started to adopt the norms and values of people of other groups. They now are connected with Hindu society. Due to these changes their distinctiveness is coming to an end.

Question 6.
Differentiate between deforestation and displacement.
Answer:
deforestation:
One of the major reasons of environmental degradation is deforestation. The meaning of deforestation is cutting down trees. Except cutting of trees, deforestation increases due to the expansion of agriculture and pastoral areas. During earlier times, tribals fulfilled their needs because they had all the forest and natural resources available with them. To fulfill their needs, they^were dependent upon forests. But deforestation has been increased due to many factors such as industrialization, urbanization, agriculture, increase in population and need of wood etc. It has directly or indirectly affected the tribal economy. Deforestation is having a very ba,d impact on our atmosphere.

displacement:
Displacement is a situation in which someone is uprooted from his place of living and to take him to. other place to settle down. It is one of the problems which tribals are facing. If any one is uprooted from his place of living, he will have to face many psychological, physical and mental problems. Tribal population is facing the adverse impact of industrialisation and urbanisation. There exist many natural resources in tribal areas and these resources are exploited in many ways such as to make dams for electricity and as raw-material. In this way, tribals are displaced from their lands and are given very less money as compensation.

Tribals use that money to buy drugs or any other non-useful work. In this way they lose all the money as well as land. To fulfill their needs, they have to work as labourers in industries. Yet, due to industrialisation, tribal youth is getting employment but due to illiteracy, they are unable to get educated or semi-educated jobs.

Many scholars are of the view that many steel factories have been established in Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, West Bengal and Odisha. That’s why many tribals were displaced. Very few of them were able to take advantage of the government facilities. They were given alternate lands but there was no arrangement of irrigation facilities over there. That’s why such lands did not prove fruitful for them.

They are also given money as compensation of their land but that is not utilised properly. They use that money till they get other work. Except this, they do not get any support from the industries and urban people. Industrialists do not care about the displaced persons. Instead they care only about their profit. Tribals do not have any other option and they start to live in small kutcha houses which become a slum area with time. In this way, they face many problems due to displacement.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class History Book Solutions Chapter 1 पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताएँ तथा उनका इसके इतिहास पर प्रभाव Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 1 पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताएँ तथा उनका इसके इतिहास पर प्रभाव

निबंधात्मक प्रश्न (Essay Type Questions)

पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताएँ (Physical Features of the Punjab)

प्रश्न 1.
पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं का वर्णन करें।
(Describe the Geographical features of Punjab.)
अथवा
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं का वर्णन कीजिए। (Explain the physical features of Punjab.)] .
अथवा
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं का विस्तार सहित वर्णन करें। (Describe in detail the physical features of Punjab.)
अथवा
भौतिक विशेषता के आधार पर पंजाब को कितने भागों में विभाजित किया जा सकता है ? किसी एक भाग का विस्तृत वर्णन करें।
(In how many parts can Punjab be divided on the basis of physical features ? Describe any one part in detail.)
उत्तर-
पंजाब फ़ारसी भाषा के दो शब्दों ‘पंज’ और ‘आब’ से मिलकर बना है। पंजाब का अर्थ है पाँच नदियों का प्रदेश। ये पाँच नदियाँ हैं-सतलुज, ब्यास, रावी, जेहलम और चनाब।
पंजाब को भिन्न-भिन्न युगों में भिन्न-भिन्न नामों से पुकारा जाता रहा है। ऋग्वैदिक काल में पंजाब को ‘सप्त सिंधु’ कहा जाता था। महाकाव्यों व पुराणों में पंजाब को पंचनद कहा गया है। यूनानियों ने पंजाब पर अधिकार करने के पश्चात् इसका नाम पैंटापोटामिया रखा। पंजाब में कई शताब्दियों तक टक कबीले का शासन रहा था जिस कारण पंजाब को ‘टक देश’ कहा जाने लगा।
मध्य काल में पंजाब को ‘लाहौर सूबा’ कहा जाने लगा। ऐसा इसे इसकी राजधानी लाहौर के कारण कहा जाने लगा। 1849 ई० में जब अंग्रेजों ने लाहौर राज्य को ब्रिटिश साम्राज्य में शामिल किया तो उन्होंने इसका नाम ‘पंजाब प्रांत’ रखा।
प्रसिद्ध इतिहासकार एस० एम० लतीफ का यह कथन पूर्णत: सही है,
“पूर्व के किसी देश की प्राकृतिक विशेषताओं में इतनी भिन्नता नहीं मिलती जितनी की पाँच नदियों की इस भूमि में मिलती है।”¹
भौतिक विशेषताओं के आधार पर हम पंजाब को निम्नलिखित तीन भागों में विभाजित कर सकते हैं—

1. हिमालय और सुलेमान पर्वत
2. अर्द्ध-पर्वतीय प्रदेश
3. मैदानी प्रदेश।

हिमालय और सुलेमान पर्वतीय श्रेणियाँ (The Himalayas and Sulaiman Mountain Ranges)

1. हिमालय पर्वत (The Himalayas) हिमालय पर्वत पंजाब के उत्तर में स्थित है। यह पर्वत पूर्व में असम से लेकर पश्चिम में अफ़गानिस्तान तक फैला हुआ है। इसकी लंबाई 2500 किलोमीटर तथा चौड़ाई 240 किलोमीटर से 320 किलोमीटर है। ऊँचाई के आधार पर हिमालय पर्वत को तीन भागों-उच्च हिमालय, मध्य हिमालय तथा शिवालिक की पहाड़ियों में विभाजित किया जा सकता है।
हिमालय पर्वत पंजाब के लिए उसी प्रकार एक वरदान सिद्ध हुआ है जैसे नील नदी मिस्र के लिए। पंजाब को इससे कई लाभ प्राप्त हुए। प्रथम, यह पंजाब तथा भारतवर्ष का पहरेदार रहा क्योंकि हिमालय पर्वत की ऊँचाई बहुत अधिक है। फलस्वरूप पंजाब उत्तर की ओर से दीर्घकाल तक आक्रमणकारियों से सुरक्षित रहा। दूसरा, मानसून पवनें इससे टकरा कर पंजाब में पर्याप्त वर्षा करती हैं। तीसरा, यहाँ से निकलने वाली नदियों ने पंजाब की भूमि को बहुत उपजाऊ बनाया है। चौथा, हिमालय की वादियों ने पंजाब को शिमला, मनाली, कुल्लू, काँगड़ा, डलहौज़ी तथा कसौली जैसे नगर दिए।

2. सुलेमान पर्वतीय श्रेणियाँ (Sulaiman Mountain Ranges)-सुलेमान पर्वतीय श्रेणियाँ पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में स्थित हैं। इन श्रेणियों में अनेक दर्रे स्थित हैं जो भारत को एशिया के अन्य देशों से मिलाते हैं। इनमें खैबर, बोलान, कुर्रम, टोची तथा गोमल नामक दर्रे प्रसिद्ध हैं। पंजाब में आने वाले अधिकाँश आक्रमणकारी तथा व्यापारी इन्हीं दरौं द्वारा ही आए।

अर्द्ध-पर्वतीय प्रदेश (Sub-Mountainous Region)
यह प्रदेश शिवालिक पहाड़ियों और पंजाब के मैदानी भाग के मध्य स्थित है। इस प्रदेश को तराई प्रदेश भी कहा जाता है। इस प्रदेश में होशियारपुर, काँगड़ा, अंबाला, गुरदासपुर के उत्तरी क्षेत्र तथा स्यालकोट के कुछ क्षेत्र शामिल हैं। पर्वतीय प्रदेश होने के कारण यहाँ की भूमि कम उपजाऊ है तथा जनसंख्या अधिक सघन नहीं है।
1. “No country in the East presents the same variety of features as does the land of five rivers.” S.M. Latif, History of the Punjab (New Delhi : 1964) p. 12.

मैदानी प्रदेश
(The Plains)
मैदानी प्रदेश पंजाब का सबसे बड़ा और महत्त्वपूर्ण खंड है। यह प्रदेश सिंध और यमुना नदियों के मध्य स्थित है। इस मैदान की गणना विश्व के सबसे उपजाऊ मैदानों में की जाती है। पंजाब में बहने वाले पाँचों दरियासतलुज, ब्यास, रावी, चनाब तथा जेहलम इसी प्रदेश में बहते हैं। यह प्रदेश तीन भागों-पाँच दोआब, मालवा एवं बांगर तथा दक्षिण-पश्चिम के रेगिस्तान में बँटा हुआ है।

1. पाँच दोआब (Five Doabs)—पंजाब के मैदानी प्रदेश का अधिकाँश भाग पाँच दोआबों से घिरा हुआ है। दोआब फ़ारसी भाषा का शब्द है जिसका अर्थ है-दो पानी अथवा दो नदियों के बीच का क्षेत्र। इन दोआबों का वर्णन निम्नलिखित अनुसार है

i) बिस्त जालंधर दोआब (Bist Jalandhar Doab)-ब्यास और सतलुज नदियों के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को बिस्त जालंधर दोआब कहते हैं। जालंधर और होशियारपुर इस दोआब के दो सबसे बड़े शहर हैं।

ii) बारी दोआब (Bari Doab)—यह दोआब ब्यास और रावी नदियों के मध्यवर्ती क्षेत्र में स्थित है। बारी दोआब को माझा भी कहा जाता है तथा यहाँ के निवासी मझैल कहलाते हैं। लाहौर तथा अमृतसर इस दोआब में स्थित दो प्रसिद्ध शहर हैं।

iii) रचना दोआब (Rachna Doab)-रावी और चनाब नदियों के मध्यवर्ती क्षेत्र को रचना दोआब कहा जाता है। गुजराँवाला और शेखूपुरा इस दोआब के सबसे प्रसिद्ध शहर हैं।

iv) चज दोआब (Chaj-Doab)—चनाब और जेहलम नदियों के मध्यवर्ती क्षेत्र को चज दोआब कहा जाता है। गुजरात और शाहपुर इस दोआब के प्रसिद्ध शहर हैं।

v) सिंध सागर दोआब (Sindh Sagar Doab)-सिंध और जेहलम नदियों के मध्यवर्ती क्षेत्र को सिंध सागर दोआब कहते हैं। रावलपिंडी इस दोआब का सबसे प्रसिद्ध शहर है।

2. मालवा तथा बांगर (Malwa and Bangar)—पाँच दोआबों के अतिरिक्त पंजाब के मैदानी भाग में सतलुज और यमुना नदियों के बीच में स्थित विस्तृत मैदानी भाग आता है। इसे मालवा और बांगर में विभाजित किया जा सकता है।

i) मालवा (Malwa)-सतलुज और घग्घर नदियों के मध्यवर्ती क्षेत्र को मालवा कहा जाता है। इसमें पटियाला, लुधियाना, मालेरकोटला, भटिंडा, फरीदकोट और नाभा शामिल हैं। यहाँ के निवासियों को ‘मलवई’ कहा जाता है।

ii) बांगर (Bangar) घग्घर एवं यमुना नदियों के मध्य स्थित प्रदेश को बांगर कहा जाता है। इसे हरियाणा भी कहा जाता है। इस प्रदेश में अंबाला, पानीपत, रोहतक, करनाल, कुरुक्षेत्र, गुरु ग्राम (गुड़गाँव) और हिसार के क्षेत्र शामिल हैं।

3. दक्षिण-पश्चिम के रेगिस्तान (South-West Deserts)-पंजाब के दक्षिण-पश्चिम में सिंध, बहावलपुर एवं मुलतान के प्रदेश स्थित हैं। यह संपूर्ण प्रदेश रेगिस्तान है। इस कारण यहाँ की भूमि उपजाऊ नहीं है। अतः इस प्रदेश में मैदानी भागों की अपेक्षा जनसंख्या भी बहुत कम है।

पंजाब की जलवायु
(Climate of the Punjab)
पंजाब की जलवायु में भी बहुत भिन्नता पाई जाती है। यहाँ शीतकाल में भयंकर सर्दी पड़ती है और ग्रीष्मकाल में भयंकर गर्मी पड़ती है। जनवरी और फरवरी के महीनों में यहाँ भयंकर ठंड पड़ती है। मई और जून के महीनों में मैदानी भागों में लुएँ चलती हैं। जुलाई से लेकर सितंबर के महीनों में पंजाब में वर्षा होती है। अक्तूबर-नवंबर और फरवरी-मार्च के महीनों में पंजाब का मौसम बहुत सुहावना होता है।

भौतिक विशेषताओं का पंजाब के इतिहास पर प्रभाव (Influence of Physical Features on the History of Punjab)

प्रश्न 2.
पंजाब के भूगोल ने इसके इतिहास को कैसे प्रभावित किया है ?
(How did the geography of the Punjab affected its history ?)
अथवा
पंजाब के पर्वतों, मैदानों तथा नदियों ने इसके इतिहास को किस प्रकार प्रभावित किया है ?
(How have the mountains, plains and rivers of the Punjab influenced the course of its history ?)
अथवा
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं ने यहाँ के इतिहास को किस प्रकार प्रभावित किया ?
(How did the physical features of Punjab affected its history ?)
अथवा
पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं ने यहाँ के राजनीतिक, सामाजिक, धार्मिक तथा आर्थिक इतिहास को किस प्रकार प्रभावित किया है ?
(How did the geographical features of the Punjab influence its political, social, religious and economic history ?)
अथवा
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं ने इसके सामाजिक, राजनीतिक और आर्थिक इतिहास को कैसे प्रभावित किया ?
(How did physical features of Punjab influence its social, political and economic history ?)
अथवा
पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं के सामाजिक तथा आर्थिक प्रभावों का वर्णन करो।
(Explain the social and economic effects of the geographical features of Punjab.)
अथवा
पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं के राजनीतिक, सैनिक और सामाजिक प्रभाव क्या पड़े ?
(What were the political, military and social effects of the geographical features of the Punjab ?)
उत्तर-
किसी भी देश का इतिहास वहाँ के भूगोल से अत्यधिक प्रभावित होता है। अतः पंजाब के इतिहास पर यहाँ की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं का प्रभाव पड़ना स्वाभाविक ही था। जहाँ एक ओर यहाँ के उपजाऊ मैदानों ने विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों को न्यौता दिया एवं नदियों ने उन्हें मार्गदर्शन दिया वहीं दूसरी ओर वनों ने मुग़लों तथा अफ़गानों के अत्याचारों से पीड़ित लोगों को अपने आँचल में आश्रय दिया। पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं का इसके राजनीतिक, सामाजिक, सांस्कृतिक, धार्मिक तथा आर्थिक जीवन पर प्रभाव अग्रलिखित अनुसार है—

I. राजनीतिक प्रभाव (Political Effects)
1.पंजाब-भारत का प्रवेश द्वार (Punjab-Gateway of India)—पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में खैबर, कर्रम, बोलान, टोची और गोमल नामक प्रसिद्ध दर्रे स्थित थे। इन्हें पार करना कोई मुश्किल काम न था। परिणामस्वरूप विदेशी आक्रमणकारी यहीं से भारत में प्रवेश करते थे। उदाहरण के लिए आर्यों, यूनानियों, कुषाणों, हूणों, तुर्कों, दुर्रानियों तथा मुग़लों ने यहीं से भारत में प्रवेश किया। परिणामस्वरूप पंजाब इन लोगों के लिए एक प्रवेश द्वार का काम करने लगा। इन आक्रमणकारियों का प्रथम संघर्ष पंजाब के लोगों के साथ ही होता था। पंजाब को विजित कर लेने के उपरांत शेष भारत को विजित करना कोई अधिक मुश्किल कार्य न रह जाता था। अत: पंजाब की विजय भारत विजय के समान थी।

2. पंजाब-निर्णायक लड़ाइयों का क्षेत्र (Punjab-the battlefield of Decisive Battles)-पंजाब अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण शताब्दियों तक भारतीय इतिहास की अनेक महत्त्वपूर्ण और निर्णायक लड़ाइयों का क्षेत्र रहा है। आर्यों का द्रविड़ लोगों के साथ युद्ध, सिकंदर का पोरस से युद्ध, चंद्रगुप्त का यूनानियों से युद्ध, मुहम्मद गौरी का पृथ्वीराज चौहान के साथ युद्ध तथा पानीपत के तीनों युद्ध पंजाब की धरती पर ही हुए। मुहम्मद गौरी ने जहाँ 1192 ई० में तराइन युद्ध में पृथ्वीराज को हराकर भारत में मुस्लिम राज्य की नींव डाली, वहीं 1526 ई० में पानीपत के प्रथम युद्ध में बाबर ने इब्राहिम लोधी को पराजित कर मुग़ल वंश की स्थापना की।

3. उत्तर-पश्चिमी सीमा की समस्या (North-West Frontier Problem)-पंजाब की उत्तर-पश्चिमी सीमा सदैव यहाँ के शासकों के लिए परेशानी का एक स्रोत रही है। इसके दो प्रमुख कारण थे। पहला, यह कि अधिकतर विदेशी हमलावर इसी रास्ते से भारत आते थे तथा दूसरा, इस सीमा में रहने वाले लोग अत्यंत खूखार थे। वे नित नई परेशानियाँ खड़ी करने से बाज़ नहीं आते थे। अतः प्रत्येक शासक को अपना राज्य बचाने के लिए इस सीमा की सुरक्षा के लिए एक अलग नीति अपनानी पड़ती और अपार धन राशि खर्च करनी पड़ती थी। बलबन, अलाऊद्दीन ख़लजी, अकबर तथा महाराजा रणजीत सिंह ने इस सीमा की ओर विशेष ध्यान दिया। जिन राजाओं ने इस प्रति ध्यान न दिया, उन्हें इसके परिणाम भुगतने पड़े।

4. पंजाबियों को शताब्दियों तक कष्ट झेलने पड़े (Punjabis had to suffer for centuries)—अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण पंजाब के निवासियों को शताब्दियों तक कष्ट सहने पड़े। लगभग सभी विदेशी आक्रमणकारी अत्याचारों का सामना सबसे पहले तथा सबसे अधिक पंजाबियों को ही करना पड़ा। महमूद गज़नवी, मुहम्मद गौरी, तैमूर, नादिरशाह तथा अहमदशाह अब्दाली आदि आक्रमणकारियों ने यहाँ के लोगों पर घोर अत्याचार किये। पुरुषों की हत्याएँ कर दी जाती थीं तथा स्त्रियों के साथ दुर्व्यवहार किया जाता था। तलवार की नोक पर बलपूर्वक लोगों को इस्लाम धर्म में शामिल होने के लिए विवश किया जाता था।

5. पंजाब की नदियों का प्रभाव (Influence of the Rivers of the Punjab)-पंजाब का इतिहास यहाँ पर बहने वाली नदियों से भी बहुत प्रभावित हुआ है। इन नदियों ने कभी तो विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों के बढ़ते कदमों को रोका तो कभी उनका मार्ग निर्धारित किया। आक्रमणकारी इन नदियों को वहाँ से पार करते जहाँ से ये कम तंग होती थीं। इस प्रकार पंजाब का भाग्य लिखने में इन नदियों ने महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाई।

6. पंजाब के वनों और पर्वतों का प्रभाव (Influence of the Forests and Hills of the Punjab)पंजाब के वनों तथा पर्वतों ने भी पंजाब के राजनीतिक जीवन पर गहरा प्रभाव डाला। जब सिखों पर विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों के अत्याचार बहुत बढ़ गए तो उन्होंने इन्हीं वनों तथा पर्वतों में जाकर शरण ली। इसके साथ ही वे अपने शत्रुओं पर अचानक आक्रमण कर फिर से इन वनों और पर्वतों में जा छुपते थे।

II. सामाजिक तथा सांस्कृतिक प्रभाव
(Social and Cultural Effects)

1. पंजाबियों के चरित्र के विशेष लक्षण (Special traits of the Character of Punjabis)-पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति ने पंजाबियों के चरित्र में विशेष लक्षण पैदा कर दिए। पंजाब के लोग लंबे समय तक विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों से जूझते रहे इसलिए वे शेष भारत के लोगों से अधिक वीर, साहसी तथा कष्टों को सहने वाले बन गए। इसके साथ ही उनमें एक विशेष गुण उत्पन्न हुआ। वह था ‘खाओ, पिओ और मौज़ उड़ाओ’ का। उन्होंने अपना धन स्वादिष्ट भोजन, अच्छे कपड़ों तथा मनोरंजन के साधनों पर खर्च करना आरंभ कर दिया।

2. जातियों तथा उपजातियों की संख्या में वृद्धि (Increase in the number of the Castes and Sub-castes)-अनेकों विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों ने पंजाब की स्त्रियों के साथ विवाह संबंध भी स्थापित किए। परिणामस्वरूप कई नई जातियों तथा उपजातियों का जन्म हुआ। इनमें प्रमुख थीं-पठान, गुज्जर, जाट, स्याल, महाजन तथा डोगरा आदि।

3. पंजाब की विलक्षण संस्कृति (Distinct Culture of the Punjab)—पंजाब में विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों के यहाँ बस जाने के कारण इस धरती पर एक नई विलक्षण संस्कृति का जन्म हुआ। इस संस्कृति में कुछ देशी तथा कुछ विदेशी गुण मौजूद थे।

4. कला तथा साहित्य की क्षति (Loss of the Art and Literature)-पंजाब पर विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों के आक्रमणों के कारण यहाँ सदा अशाँति तथा असुरक्षा का माहौल रहा। परिणामस्वरूप कला और साहित्य के क्षेत्र में पंजाब पिछड़ गया। यदि इस क्षेत्र में थोड़ा बहुत विकास हुआ भी, तो आक्रमणकारियों द्वारा उसे भी नष्ट कर दिया गया।

III. धार्मिक प्रभाव (Religious Effects)

1. हिंदू धर्म का जन्म (Origin of Hinduism)—पंजाब को हिंदू धर्म का जन्म स्थान माना जाता है क्योंकि आर्य लोग सबसे पहले इसी प्रदेश में आकर बसे। उन्होंने अपने पवित्र ग्रंथों की रचना इसी प्रदेश में की। वे अपने ग्रंथों में पंजाब की प्राकृतिक अवस्थाओं का वर्णन करते हैं। विभिन्न हिंदू देवी-देवताओं, पंजाब की नदियों, पर्वतों तथा वनों का उल्लेख इन ग्रंथों में बार-बार आता है।

2. इ.लाम का प्रचार (Propagation of Islam)-पंजाब में भारत के अन्य भागों की तुलना में इस्लाम का अधिक प्रसार हुआ। इसके कई कारण थे। पहला, पंजाब मुस्लिम आक्रमणकारियों के संपर्क में आने वाला प्रथम प्रदेश था। दूसरा, इन आक्रमणकारियों ने यहाँ के निवासियों से तलवार की नोक पर इस्लाम कबूल करवाया। तीसरा, मुसलमान यहाँ पर स्थाई रूप से बसे। चौथा, हिंदू धर्म की बुराइयों ने लोगों को इस्लाम की ओर आकर्षित किया। परिणामस्वरूप, इस्लाम धर्म का पंजाब में तेजी से प्रसार हुआ।

3. सिख धर्म की उत्पत्ति और विकास (Origin and Development of Sikhism) पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति का पंजाब पर पड़ने वाला सबसे महत्त्वपूर्ण धार्मिक प्रभाव था सिख धर्म की उत्पत्ति और उसका विकास। सिख धर्म की स्थापना तथा उसका विकास करने वाले गुरुओं का संबंध पंजाब से ही था। संपन्न पंजाबियों ने भी इस धर्म के प्रसार में भरपूर सहयोग दिया। परिणामस्वरूप, बहुत से लोग सिख धर्म के अनुयायी बन गए।

IV. आर्थिक प्रभाव (Economic Effects)

1. पंजाब का समृद्ध होना (Prosperity of the Punjab)—पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं के कारण पंजाब एक समृद्ध प्रदेश बन गया। हिमालय पर्वत से निकलने वाली नदियों ने इसको उपजाऊ मिट्टी प्रदान की। इस पर भरपूर फसलें उपजा कर यहाँ के लोग धनवान् हो गए।

2. कृषि मुख्य व्यवसाय (Agriculture Main Occupation)-पंजाब के लोगों का मुख्य व्यवसाय कृषि है। इसका श्रेय भी यहाँ की भौगोलिक स्थिति को ही जाता है। यहाँ की नदियों द्वारा लाई गई मिट्टी बहुत उपजाऊ है। इस कारण अधिकतर जनसंख्या कृषि का व्यवसाय करती है। यहाँ की मुख्य फसलें हैं-गेहूँ, कपास, चावल, गन्ना, दालें, जौ आदि।

3. विदेशी व्यापार (Foreign Trade)-पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में स्थित दरों से अगर विदेशी आक्रमणकारी पंजाब आते रहे तो व्यापारी भी इसी रास्ते से आए। पंजाब का विदेशी व्यापार अफ़गानिस्तान और मध्य एशिया के देशों के साथ था। पंजाब से इन देशों को अनाज, चीनी, कपास, ऊनी, सूती और रेशमी वस्त्र आदि का निर्यात किया जाता था तथा इन देशों से घोड़े, सूखे मेवे, दरियाँ, गलीचे, फर आदि का आयात किया जाता था। पंजाब के व्यापारिक नगरों में लाहौर, मुलतान, पेशावर, गुजराँवाला, भटिंडा, अमृतसर आदि प्रमुख थे।

अंत में हम डॉ० बी० एस० निज्जर के इन शब्दों से सहमत हैं,
“पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं ने यहाँ के इतिहास पर बहुत गहरा प्रभाव डाला है।”²

प्रश्न 3.
पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं के राजनीतिक प्रभावों का वर्णन करें।
(Explain the political effects of the physical features of Punjab.)
उत्तर-
नोट-इस प्रश्न के उत्तर के लिए विद्यार्थी कृपया प्रश्नु नं० 2 का भाग I देखें।

संक्षिप्त उत्तरों वाले प्रश्न (Short Answer Type Questions)

प्रश्न 1.
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं का संक्षिप्त वर्णन कीजिए।
(Describe in brief physical features of the Punjab.)
अथवा
पंजाब की कोई तीन भौगोलिक विशेषताएँ लिखो। (Write any three geographical features of the Punjab.)
उत्तर-
पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में हिमालय पर्वत स्थित है। यह पर्वत बहुत ऊँचा होने के कारण सदियों से पंजाब और भारत के प्रहरी का काम कर रहा है। दूसरा, इस पर्वत से मानसून पवनें टकरा कर पंजाब में वर्षा करती हैं। शिवालिक पहाडियाँ और मैदानी भाग के बीच पंजाब के अर्द्ध-पर्वतीय प्रदेश स्थित हैं। इस प्रदेश को तराई प्रदेश भी कहा जाता है। पहाडी प्रदेश होने के कारण यहाँ की भूमि कम उपजाऊ है। यहाँ पर जनसंख्या अधिक सघन नहीं है। पंजाब का मैदानी प्रदेश सर्वाधिक विख्यात है। इसकी गणना संसार के सबसे उपजाऊ मैदानों में की जाती है।

2. “The effects ofphysical features of the Punjab have exercised a great influence on its history.” Dr. B.S. Nijjar, Punjab Under the Great Mughals (Bombay : 1968) p. 9.

प्रश्न 2.
पंजाब को भारत का प्रवेश द्वार क्यों कहा जाता है ?
(Why is the Punjab called as the Gateway of India ?)
उत्तर-
अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण पंजाब शताब्दियों तक भारत का प्रवेश द्वार रहा है। इसके उत्तरपश्चिम की ओर खैबर, कुर्रम, टोची और बोलान नामक दर्रे स्थित हैं। इन दरों को पार करना कोई मुश्किल कार्य नहीं था। प्राचीन काल से विदेशी आक्रमणकारी इसी रास्ते से भारत पर आक्रमण करते रहे। इन आक्रमणकारियों को सर्वप्रथम पंजाब के लोगों से ही संघर्ष करना पड़ा। पंजाब पर विजय प्राप्त करने के पश्चात् ही वे आगे कदम बढ़ा पाए। इसी कारण पंजाब को भारत का प्रवेश द्वारा कहा जाता है।

प्रश्न 3.
पंजाब का भारतीय इतिहास में क्या महत्त्व है ?
(What is the importance of Punjab in the Indian History ?)
उत्तर-
पंजाब का भारतीय इतिहास में कई कारणों से विशेष महत्त्व रहा है। आर्यों ने अपने सुविख्यात धार्मिक ग्रंथ ऋग्वेद की रचना इसी पवित्र भूमि पर की। महाभारत का युद्ध भी इसी भूमि पर हुआ था और श्रीकृष्ण ने गीता का संदेश भी यहीं पर दिया था। इसी भूमि पर चंद्रगुप्त मौर्य ने भारत का प्रथम साम्राज्य स्थापित किया। भारतीय इतिहास की सबसे महत्त्वपूर्ण और निर्णायक लड़ाइयाँ भी यहीं हुईं। इसी पावन भूमि पर सिख धर्म के नौ गुरुओं ने अवतार लिया। सिखों के दसवें गुरु, गुरु गोबिंद सिंह जी ने अपना अधिकाँश समय यहीं व्यतीत किया।

प्रश्न 4.
हिमालय पर्वत के पंजाब को क्या मुख्य लाभ हुए ? (What were the main benefits of the Himalayas to Punjab ?)
अथवा
” हिमालय से पंजाब को होने वाले कोई तीन लाभ बताएँ।
उत्तर-

1. हिमालय पर्वत सदियों से एक प्रहरी का कार्य दे कर है।
2. हिमालय की पहाड़ियों ने शिमला, मनाली, कुल्लू, डलहौज़ी जैसे सुंदर नगर दिए।
3. हिमालय ने पंजाब की आर्थिक समृद्धि में बहुमूल्य योगदान दिया।

प्रश्न 5.
दोआब शब्द से क्या अभिप्राय है ? पंजाब के पाँच दोआबों का संक्षिप्त विवरण दो।
(What do you mean by Doab ? Give a brief description of five Doabs of Punjab.)
अथवा
पंजाब के तीन दोआबों का वर्णन करें। (Explain the three Doabs of Punjab.)
उत्तर-
दोआब फ़ारसी भाषा का शब्द है जिससे अभिप्राय है दो नदियों के बीच का क्षेत्र । ब्यास और सतलुज नदियों के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को बिस्त जालंधर दोआब कहते हैं। ब्यास और रावी नदियों के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को बारी दोआब कहते हैं। रावी और चिनाब नदियों के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को रचना दोआब कहते हैं। चिनाब और जेहलम के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को चज दोआब कहते हैं। सिंध और जेहलम नदियों के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को सिंध सागर दोआब कहते हैं।

प्रश्न 6.
पंजाब के मैदानी भागों का संक्षेप में वर्णन करें।
(Describe briefly about plain areas of Punjab.)
उत्तर-
मैदानी प्रदेश पंजाब का सबसे बड़ा और महत्त्वपूर्ण खंड है। सही अर्थों में यही पंजाब है। यह प्रदेश सिंध और यमुना नदियों के मध्य स्थित है। इस मैदान की गणना विश्व के सबसे उपजाऊ मैदानों में की जाती है। इसकी समुद्र तल से औसत ऊँचाई 1000 फुट से अधिक नहीं है। पंजाब में बहने वाले पाँचों दरिया-सतलुज, ब्यास, रावी, चिनाब, जेहलम इसी प्रदेश में बहते हैं। क्योंकि यह प्रदेश बहुत उपजाऊ है, वर्षा पर्याप्त होती है और यातायात के साधन विकसित हैं, इसलिए यहाँ की जनसंख्या भी काफ़ी सघन है। मैदानी प्रदेश को तीन भागों में विभाजित किया जा सकता है—

• पाँच दोआब
• मालवा और बांगर
• दक्षिण-पश्चिम के रेगिस्तान।

प्रश्न 7.
मालवा तथा बांगर से आपका क्या भाव है ? (What do you understand by Malwa and Bangar ?)
उत्तर-
1. मालवा-सतलुज और घग्गर नदियों के मध्यवर्ती क्षेत्रों को मालवा कहा जाता है। इसमें पटियाला, लुधियाना, सरहिंद, संगरूर, मालेरकोटला, भटिंडा, फरीदकोट और नाभा शामिल हैं। इस प्रदेश में ‘मलव’ नामक प्रसिद्ध कबीला रहता था जिस कारण इस प्रदेश का नाम मालवा पड़ गया। यहाँ के निवासियों को ‘मलवई’ पुकारा जाता है।

2. बांगर-घग्गर एवं यमुना नदियों के मध्य स्थित प्रदेशों को बांगर कहा जाता है। इसे हरियाणा भी कहा जाता है। इस प्रदेश में अंबाला, पानीपत, रोहतक, करनाल, कुरुक्षेत्र, गुरु ग्राम (गुड़गाँव), जींद और हिसार के क्षेत्र शामिल हैं। पंजाब के इस भाग में भारतीय इतिहास की कई निर्णायक लड़ाइयाँ हुईं।

प्रश्न 8.
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं ने यहाँ के राजनीतिक इतिहास पर क्या प्रभाव डाला ? (What influence did the physical features of the Punjab have on its political History ?)
अथवा
पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं के क्या राजनीतिक प्रभाव पड़े ?
(What were the political effects of the geographical features of the Punjab ?)
अथवा
पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं के कोई तीन राजनीतिक प्रभाव लिखें। (Write any three political effects of the geographical features of the Punjab.)
उत्तर-

1. पंजाब अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण शताब्दियों तक भारत का प्रवेश द्वार रहा है।
2. अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण पंजाब के लाहौर, मुलतान, पेशावर, तथा सरहिंद नामक नगरों का विशेष महत्त्व रहा है।
3. पंजाब में बहने वाले दरियाओं ने यहाँ के इतिहास को प्रभावित किया है।
4. पंजाब के जंगलों और पर्वतों ने भी पंजाब के इतिहास पर गहरा प्रभाव डाला है।

प्रश्न 9.
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं ने इसके आर्थिक इतिहास पर क्या प्रभाव डाला है ? (What impact did the physical features of the Punjab have on its economic History ?)
अथवा
पंजाब के भूगोल पर पड़े तीन मुख्य आर्थिक प्रभावों का वर्णन करो। (Write three economic influences on the Geography of Punjab.)
अथवा
पंजाब के भूगोल ने यहाँ के आर्थिक जीवन को कैसे प्रभावित किया ? (How did the geography of the Punjab affect its economic life ?)
उत्तर-

1. पंजाब का मैदानी भाग बहुत उपजाऊ होने के कारण यहाँ के लोगों का मुख्य व्यवसाय कृषि था।
2. पंजाब के पहाड़ी क्षेत्रों में लोग भेड़-बकरियाँ पालते थे।
3. अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण पंजाब के लाहौर, मुलतान, सरहिंद, जालंधर, अमृतसर तथा समाना प्रसिद्ध व्यापारिक नगर बन गए थे।
4. पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण ही यहाँ का विदेशी व्यापार बड़ा विकसित रहा था।

प्रश्न 10.
पंजाब की नदियों ने यहाँ के इतिहास को कैसे प्रभावित किया ? (How did the rivers of the Punjab influence its History ?) :
अथवा
पंजाब की नदियों ने यहाँ के इतिहास पर क्या प्रभाव डाला ?
(What are the effects of Punjab rivers on the History of the Punjab ?) .
उत्तर-
पंजाब के इतिहास को यहाँ बहने वाली नदियों ने बहुत प्रभावित किया है। इन नदियों के कारण ही विदेशी आक्रमणकारी अपने कदम आगे नहीं बढ़ा पाए और देश की रक्षा होती रही। जब इन नदियों में बाढ़ आई होती थी तो उन्हें पार करना बहुत कठिन होता था। इन नदियों ने अनेक बार आक्रमणकारियों का मार्ग भी निर्धारित किया। इन नदियों के कारण पंजाब की भूमि बहुत उपजाऊ बनी। परिणामस्वरूप पंजाब के लोग आर्थिक पक्ष से बहुत समृद्ध हुए।

प्रश्न 11.
पंजाब के वनों और पर्वतों ने यहाँ के इतिहास पर गहरा प्रभाव डाला है। क्या आप इस कथन से सहमत हैं ?
(The forests and hills of the Punjab have deeply ipfluenced its History. Do you agree with this statement ?)
अथवा
पंजाब के जंगलों और पहाड़ों ने इसके इतिहास पर क्या प्रभाव डाला ? (How did the forests and hills of Punjab affect its History ?)
अथवा
पंजाब के जंगलों ने इसके इतिहास को कैसे प्रभावित किया ? (How did the forests of Punjab affect its History ?)
उत्तर-
पंजाब के इतिहास पर पंजाब के वनों और पर्वतों ने भी गहरा प्रभाव डाला है। 1716 ई० में बंदा सिंह बहादुर के बलिदान के पश्चात् सिखों पर मुग़लों तथा अफ़गानों के अत्याचार जब बहुत बढ़ गए तो इन वनों और पर्वतों ने ही उन्हें शरण दी। यहाँ से उन्होंने गुरिल्ला (छापामार) युद्ध प्रणाली अपना कर शत्रुओं का सामना किया। . वे शत्रुओं की सेना पर अचानक आक्रमण करके पुनः इन वनों और पर्वतों में जा छुपते थे। सिखों ने गुरिल्ला युद्ध नीति अपना कर नादिरशाह एवं अहमद शाह अब्दाली को लूट लिया था।

प्रश्न 12.
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं ने इसके सामाजिक-सांस्कृतिक इतिहास पर क्या प्रभाव डाला है ? (What effect did the physical features of Punjab have on its socio-cultural History ?)
अथवा
पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं के सामाजिक तथा सांस्कृतिक प्रभावों का उल्लेख कीजिए।
(Mention the socio-cultural effects of the geographical features of the Punjab.)
उत्तर-
प्राचीन काल से बहुत-से आक्रमणकारी. पंजाब में ही बस गए। उन्होंने यहाँ की महिलाओं के साथ विवाह कर लिए। परिणामस्वरूप पंजाब में कई नई जातियाँ तथा उपजातियाँ अस्तित्व में आईं। पंजाब में विभिन्न देशों तथा धर्मों के लोगों के बसने के कारण एक नई संस्कृति का जन्म हुआ। पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण पंजाब के लोग बहुत बहादुर बन गए। विदेशियों के लगातार आक्रमणों के कारण पंजाब के साहित्य एवं कला को भारी धक्का लगा।

प्रश्न 13.
पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति ने यहाँ के धार्मिक जीवन को किस प्रकार प्रभावित किया ?
(How did geography of the Punjab affect its religious life ?)
अथवा
“पंजाब धार्मिक आंदोलनों की भूमि है।” इस कथन की व्याख्या करें। (“Punjab was a land of religious movements.” Explain this statement.)
उत्तर-
पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति ने यहाँ के लोगों के धार्मिक जीवन को भी काफ़ी प्रभावित किया। पंजाब को हिंदू धर्म की जन्म भूमि कहा जाता है। आर्य सर्वप्रथम इसी प्रदेश में आकर बसे थे। यहाँ ही उन्होंने अपने अधिकतर धार्मिक साहित्य की रचना की। पंजाब में भारत के अन्य भागों की अपेक्षा इस्लाम का अधिक प्रचार हुआ। पंजाब में सिख धर्म के संस्थापक गुरु नानक देव जी एवं उनके आठ उत्तराधिकारियों ने अवतार धारण किया था। गुरु गोबिंद सिंह जी के जीवन का अधिकाँश समय यहीं पर व्यतीत हुआ था। इस प्रकार हम देखते हैं कि पंजाब की भूमि ने विभिन्न धर्मों का पालन-पोषण किया।

प्रश्न 14.
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं ने यहाँ के इतिहास पर बहुत गहरा प्रभाव डाला। किन्हीं तीन महत्त्वपूर्ण प्रभावों का संक्षिप्त वर्णन करें।
(Physical features of the Punjab greatly influenced its History. Write briefly three important effects.) .
उत्तर-

1. पंजाब अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण शताब्दियों तक भारत का प्रवेश द्वार रहा है।
2. उत्तर-पश्चिम में स्थित दरों द्वारा विदेशी आक्रमणकारी से भारत पर आक्रमण करते रहे हैं।
3. पंजाब की इस पवित्र धरती पर सिख धर्म ने जन्म लिया।
4. क्योंकि पंजाब शताब्दियों से युद्ध स्थल बना रहा, इसीलिए यहाँ कला तथा साहित्य का विकास नहीं हो सका।
5. प्राचीन काल से ही पंजाब अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण आर्थिक पक्ष से बड़ा समृद्ध रहा है।

वस्तुनिष्ठ प्रश्न (Objective Type Questions)

(i) एक शब्द से एक पंक्ति तक के उत्तर (Answer in One Word to One Sentence)

प्रश्न 1.
पंजाब शब्द से क्या अभिप्राय है?
उत्तर-
पाँच दरियाओं (नदियों) की धरती।

प्रश्न 2.
पंजाब का नाम पंजाब क्यों पड़ा?
उत्तर-
क्योंकि यहाँ पाँच दरिया बहते थे।

प्रश्न 3.
पंजाब की किसी एक नदी का नाम लिखो।
उत्तर-
सतलुज।

प्रश्न 4.
ऋग्वैदिक काल में पंजाब को किस नाम से जाना जाता था?
अथवा
ऋग्वैदिक काल में पंजाब का क्या नाम था ?
उत्तर-
सप्त सिंधु।

प्रश्न 5.
सप्त सिंधु से क्या अभिप्राय है ?
उत्तर-
सात दरिया।

प्रश्न 6.
यूनानियों ने पंजाब को क्या नाम दिया ?
उत्तर-
पैंटापोटामिया।

प्रश्न 7.
पैंटापोटामिया से क्या अभिप्राय है ?
उत्तर-
पाँच दरिया।

प्रश्न 8.
महाकाव्यों तथा पुराणों में पंजाब को क्या कहा जाता था?
उत्तर-
पंचनद।

प्रश्न 9.
पंचनद से क्या अभिप्राय है ?
उत्तर-
पाँच नदियाँ। ।

प्रश्न 10.
पंजाब को टक देश क्यों कहा जाता था ?
उत्तर-
क्योंकि यहाँ लंबे समय तक टक कबीले का शासन रहा था।

प्रश्न 11.
मध्यकाल में पंजाब का क्या नाम था ?
अथवा
मध्यकाल में पंजाब को क्या कहा जाता था ?
उत्तर-
लाहौर सूबा।

प्रश्न 12.
महाराजा रणजीत सिंह के समय में पंजाब को क्या कहा जाता था?
उत्तर-
लाहौर राज्य।

प्रश्न 13.
लाहौर राज्य को अंग्रेज़ी साम्राज्य में कब सम्मिलित किया गया?
उत्तर-
29 मार्च, 1849 ई०।

प्रश्न 14.
पंजाब पर अंग्रेज़ों का कब्ज़ा सबसे बाद में क्यों हुआ?
उत्तर-
भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण।

प्रश्न 15.
1947 ई० में पंजाब का कौन-सा भाग पाकिस्तान को दिया गया?
उत्तर-
पश्चिमी भाग।

प्रश्न 16.
पंजाब के भौगोलिक खंडों के नाम बताएँ।
अथवा
पंजाब के भौतिक लक्षणों के नाम बताएँ।
अथवा
पंजाब को भौगोलिक दृष्टि से किन तीन खंडों में बाँटा जाता है?
उत्तर-
हिमालय तथा सुलेमान पर्वत श्रेणियाँ, उप-पर्वतीय खंड तथा मैदानी क्षेत्र।

प्रश्न 17.
पंजाब को किस देश की खड़ग भुजा कहा जाता है ?
उत्तर-
भारत की।

प्रश्न 18.
पंजाब को भारत की खड्ग-भुजा क्यों कहा जाता है?
उत्तर-
क्योंकि यहाँ के लोगों ने भारत की सुरक्षा के लिए मुख्य भूमिका अदा की।

प्रश्न 19.
भारत का प्रवेश द्वार किसे कहा जाता था?
उत्तर-
पंजाब।

प्रश्न 20.
पंजाब को भारत का प्रवेश द्वार क्यों कहा जाता है?
उत्तर-
क्योंकि विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों को भारत में प्रवेश करने के लिए सर्वप्रथम पंजाब में प्रवेश करना पड़ता था।

प्रश्न 21.
पंजाब में आने वाले विदेशी आक्रमणकारी किस दिशा से पंजाब में प्रवेश करते रहे हैं?
उत्तर-
उत्तर-पश्चिम दिशा से।

प्रश्न 22.
भारत की उत्तर-पश्चिमी सीमा में स्थित दरों में से सबसे अधिक आक्रमण किस दर्रे से हुए ?
उत्तर-
खैबर।

प्रश्न 23.
पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में स्थित सबसे प्रसिद्ध दर्रे का नाम बताएँ।
उत्तर-
खैबर।

प्रश्न 24.
हिमालय की सबसे ऊँची चोटी कौन-सी है?
उत्तर-
माऊँट एवरेस्ट।

प्रश्न 25.
हिमालय पर्वत के पंजाब को कौन-सा एक मुख्य लाभ हुआ?
उत्तर-
इसने उत्तर दिशा से विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों से पंजाब की रक्षा की।

प्रश्न 26.
पंजाब के कोई एक सुंदर पर्वतीय नगर का नाम बताएँ जो हिमालय की देन है?
उत्तर-
शिमला।

प्रश्न 27.
तराई अथवा उप-पर्वतीय प्रदेश कहाँ स्थित है?
उत्तर-
हिमालय पर्वत के ऊँचे प्रदेशों तथा पंजाब के मैदानी क्षेत्रों के मध्य।

प्रश्न 28.
दोआब शब्द से क्या अभिप्राय है?
उत्तर-
दो नदियों के बीच का क्षेत्र।

प्रश्न 29.
पंजाब को कितने दोआबों में विभाजित किया गया है?
उत्तर-
पाँच।

प्रश्न 30.
पाँच दुआबे किस मुग़ल बादशाह के समय बनाए गए थे ?
उत्तर-
अकबर।

प्रश्न 31.
किसी एक दोआब का नाम लिखें।
उत्तर-
बिस्त जालंधर दोआब।

प्रश्न 32.
जालंधर किस दोआब में स्थित है?
उत्तर-
बिस्त जालंधर दोआब ।

प्रश्न 33.
होशियारपुर किस दोआब में स्थित है?
उत्तर-
बिस्त जालंधर दोआब ।

प्रश्न 34.
बारी दोआब से क्या अभिप्राय है ?
उत्तर-
ब्यास और रावी नदियों के मध्य स्थित प्रदेश।

प्रश्न 35.
बारी दोआब के किसी एक प्रसिद्ध शहर का नाम बताएँ।
उत्तर-
लाहौर।

प्रश्न 36.
लाहौर किस दोआब में स्थित है ?
उत्तर-
बारी दोआब में।

प्रश्न 37.
बारी दोआब को अन्य किस नाम से जाना जाता है ?
उत्तर-
माझा।

प्रश्न 38.
बारी दोआब को ‘माझा’ क्यों कहा जाता है?
उत्तर-
पंजाब के मध्य में स्थित होने के कारण।

प्रश्न 39.
अमृतसर किस दोआब में स्थित है?
उत्तर-
बारी दोआब।

प्रश्न 40.
मालवा के लोगों को किस नाम से जाना जाता है?
उत्तर-
मलवई।

प्रश्न 41.
मालवा प्रदेश कहाँ स्थित है ?
उत्तर-
सतलुज तथा घग्घर दरियाओं के मध्य।

प्रश्न 42.
मालवा का यह नाम क्यों पड़ा ?
उत्तर-
मल्लव नाम की बहादुर जाति के निवास के कारण।

प्रश्न 43.
मालवा प्रदेश के किसी एक मुख्य नगर का नाम बताएँ।
उत्तर-
पटियाला।

प्रश्न 44.
रचना दोआब से क्या अभिप्राय है?
उत्तर-
रावी एवं चिनाब नदियों के मध्य स्थित प्रदेश।

प्रश्न 45.
रचना दोआब के किसी एक प्रसिद्ध नगर का नाम बताएँ।
उत्तर-
गुजराँवाला।

प्रश्न 46.
चज दोआब से क्या अभिप्राय है ?
उत्तर-
चिनाब और जेहलम नदियों के मध्य स्थित प्रदेश।

प्रश्न 47.
चिनाब और जेहलम नदियों के मध्य के क्षेत्र को क्या कहा जाता है?
उत्तर-
चज दोआब।

प्रश्न 48.
सिंध सागर दोआब कहाँ स्थित है ?
उत्तर-
सिंध तथा जेहलम नदियों के मध्य।

प्रश्न 49.
सिंध सागर दोआब के सबसे प्रसिद्ध नगर का नाम बताएँ।
उत्तर-
रावलपिंडी।

प्रश्न 50.
बांगर प्रदेश कहाँ स्थित है ?
उत्तर-
घग्घर तथा यमुना दरियाओं के मध्य।

प्रश्न 51.
पंजाब की दो प्रसिद्ध फसलों के नाम लिखो।
उत्तर-
गेहूँ और गन्ना।

प्रश्न 52.
तराइन की प्रथम लड़ाई कब हुई ?
उत्तर-
1191 ई०।

प्रश्न 53.
तराइन की द्वितीय लड़ाई कब हुई ?
उत्तर-
1192 ई०।

प्रश्न 54.
पानीपत की प्रथम लड़ाई कब हुई?
उत्तर-
1526 ई०।

प्रश्न 55.
पानीपत की द्वितीय लड़ाई कब हुई ?
उत्तर-
1556 ई०।

प्रश्न 56.
हिमालय द्वारा पंजाब के इतिहास पर डाला कोई एक महत्त्वपूर्ण प्रभाव बताएँ।
उत्तर-
इसने पंजाब की खुशहाली में वृद्धि की है।

प्रश्न 57.
पंजाब की भूमि कैसी है ?
उत्तर-
बहुत उपजाऊ।

प्रश्न 58.
पंजाब के दरियाओं ने इसके इतिहास को कैसे प्रभावित किया है ?
उत्तर-
इनके द्वारा देश की सुरक्षा का कार्य किया गया है।

प्रश्न 59.
पंजाब के पर्वतों तथा जंगलों ने इसके इतिहास को कैसे प्रभावित किया है ?
उत्तर-
इनके द्वारा सिखों की शक्ति के उत्थान में बहुमूल्य योगदान दिया गया है।

प्रश्न 60.
पंजाब के मैदानी भागों ने पंजाब के इतिहास पर क्या प्रभाव डाला?
उत्तर-
पंजाब की आर्थिक समृद्धि कई विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों की प्रेरणा का स्रोत बनी।

प्रश्न 61.
पंजाब की आर्थिक समृद्धि का कोई एक कारण लिखो।
उत्तर-
पंजाब का विदेशों के साथ व्यापार काफ़ी विकसित रहा।

(ii) रिक्त स्थान भरें (Fill in the Blanks)

प्रश्न 1.
पंजाब फ़ारसी भाषा के दो शब्दों……और……..के मेल से बना है।
उत्तर-
(पंज, आब)

प्रश्न 2.
पंजाब से भाव है………दरियाओं का प्रदेश।
उत्तर-
(पाँच)

प्रश्न 3.
पंजाब को भारत का………..कहा जाता है।
उत्तर-
(प्रवेश द्वार)

प्रश्न 4.
ऋग्वैदिक काल में पंजाब को……..कहा जाता था।
उत्तर-
(सप्त-सिंधु)

प्रश्न 5.
यूनानियों ने पंजाब को……….नाम दिया।
उत्तर-
(पैंटापोटामिया)

प्रश्न 6.
पुराणों में पंजाब को………..कहा जाता था।
उत्तर-
(पंचनद)

प्रश्न 7.
मध्यकाल में पंजाब का नाम………..था।
उत्तर-
(लाहौर सूबा)

प्रश्न 8.
महाराजा रणजीत सिंह के समय पंजाब को ………… का नाम दिया गया।
उत्तर-
(लाहौर राज्य)

प्रश्न 9.
आधुनिक पंजाब के……..ज़िले हैं।
उत्तर-
(22)

प्रश्न 10.
हिमालय पर्वत की सबसे ऊंची चोटी का नाम…………है।
उत्तर-
(माऊंट ऐवरेस्ट)

प्रश्न 11.
हिमालय से भाव……..है।
उत्तर-
(बर्फ का घर)

प्रश्न 12.
पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में सब से प्रसिद्ध……..दर्रा है।
उत्तर-
(खैबर)

प्रश्न 13.
पंजाब में………..दुआब हैं।
उत्तर-
(पाँच)

प्रश्न 14.
दुआब शब्द से भाव…….है।
उत्तर-
(दो दरियाओं के मध्य का क्षेत्र)

प्रश्न 15.
बारी दुआब को…….भी कहा जाता है।
उत्तर-
(माझा)

प्रश्न 16.
रचना दुआब का सबसे प्रसिद्ध शहर……..है।
उत्तर-
(गुजरांवाला)

प्रश्न 17.
…….सिंध सागर दुआब का सब से प्रसिद्ध शहर है।
उत्तर-
(रावलपिंडी)

प्रश्न 18.
मालवा के निवासियों को………कहा जाता है।
उत्तर-
(मलवई)

प्रश्न 19.
……….में तराइन का प्रथम युद्ध हुआ।
उत्तर-
(1191 ई०)

प्रश्न 20.
………..में तराइन का द्वितीय युद्ध हुआ।
उत्तर-
(1192 ई०)

प्रश्न 21.
1556 ई० में अकबर और हेमू के मध्य पानीपत की……….लड़ाई हुई।
उत्तर-
(दूसरी)

प्रश्न 22.
पानीपत की तीसरी लड़ाई………में हुई।
उत्तर-
(1761 ई०)

(ii) ठीक अथवा गलत (True or False)

नोट-निम्नलिखित में से ठीक अथवा गलत चुनें—

प्रश्न 1.
पंजाब शब्द से भाव है पाँच दरियाओं की धरती।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 2.
ऋग्वैदिक काल में पंजाब को सप्त सिंधु कहा जाता था।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 3.
महाकाव्यों और पुराणों में पंजाब को टक देश कहा जाता था।
उत्तर-
गलत

प्रश्न 4.
यूनानियों ने पंजाब का नाम ‘पैंटापोटामिया’ रखा।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 5.
मध्य काल में पंजाब को लाहौर सूबा कहा जाता था।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 6.
महाराजा रणजीत सिंह के समय पंजाब को लाहौर राज्य का नाम दिया गया।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 7.
हिमालय से भाव हैं बर्फ का घर।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 8.
पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में स्थित सब से प्रसिद्ध दर्रे का नाम गोमल है।
उत्तर-
गलत

प्रश्न 9.
दुआब से अभिप्राय है दो दरियाओं के मध्य का क्षेत्र।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 10.
होशियारपुर बारी दुआब में स्थित है।
उत्तर-
गलत

प्रश्न 11.
बारी दुआब को माझा भी कहा जाता है।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 12.
ब्यास और सतलज दरियाओं के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को बिस्त जालंधर दुआब कहा जाता है।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 13.
रावी और चिनाब दरियाओं के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को रचना दुआब कहा जाता है।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 14.
रचना दुआब में स्थित सबसे प्रसिद्ध शहर का नाम गुजराँवाला है। .
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 15.
सतलुज और चिनाब दरियाओं के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को चज दुआब कहा जाता है।
उत्तर-
गलत

प्रश्न 16.
सिंध सागर दुआब का सबसे प्रसिद्ध शहर रावलपिंडी है।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 17.
सतलुज और यमुना नदियों के मध्यवर्ती क्षेत्र को मालवा कहा जाता है।
उत्तर-
गलत

प्रश्न 18.
मालवा के निवासियों को मलवई कहा जाता है।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 19.
घग्घर और यमुना नदियों के मध्यवर्ती क्षेत्र को बांगर कहा जाता है।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 20.
तराइन की दूसरी लड़ाई 1193 ई० में हुई।
उत्तर-
गलत

प्रश्न 21.
बाबर और इब्राहिम लोधी के मध्य पानीपत की पहली लड़ाई 1556 ई० में हुई।
उत्तर-
गलत

प्रश्न 22.
1556 ई० में अकबर और हेमू के मध्य पानीपत की दूसरी लड़ाई हुई।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 23.
पानीपत की तीसरी लड़ाई 1761 ई० में हुई।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 24.
पंजाब में सिख धर्म का जन्म हुआ।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 25.
पंजाब के लोगों का मुख्य व्यवसाय खेती-बाड़ी है।
उत्तर-
ठीक

प्रश्न 26.
पंजाब अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण आर्थिक पक्ष से बड़ा खुशहाल रहा है।
उत्तर-
ठीक

(iv) बहु-विकल्पीय प्रश्न (Multiple Choice Questions) :

नोट-निम्नलिखित में से ठीक उत्तर का चयन कीजिए—

प्रश्न 1.
पंजाब शब्द से क्या अभिप्राय है ?
(i) दो नदियों की धरती
(ii) तीन नदियों की धरती
(iii) चार नदियों की धरती
(iv) पाँच नदियों की धरती।
उत्तर-
(iv)

प्रश्न 2.
पंजाब किस भाषा का शब्द है ?
(i) फ़ारसी
(ii) उर्दू
(iii) हिंदी
(iv) गुरमुखी।
उत्तर-
(i)

प्रश्न 3.
ऋग्वैदिक काल में पंजाब को किस नाम से पुकारते थे ?
(i) सप्त सिंधु
(ii) पैंटापोटामिया
(iii) टक देश
(iv) इनमें से कोई नहीं।
उत्तर-
(i)

प्रश्न 4.
यूनानियों ने पंजाब को क्या नाम दिया ?
(i) पंचनद
(ii) सप्त सिंधु
(ii) टक देश
(iv) पैंटापोटामिया।
उत्तर-
(iv)

प्रश्न 5.
प्राचीन काल में पंजाब को टक देश क्यों कहा जाता था ?
(i) टक कबीले के कारण
(ii) टक राजे के कारण
(iii) टक सिक्के के कारण
(iv) टक पहाड़ के कारण।
उत्तर-
(i)

प्रश्न 6.
मध्यकाल में पंजाब की राजधानी का क्या नाम था ?
(i) मुलतान
(ii) रावलपिंडी
(iii) काबुल
(iv) लाहौर।
उत्तर-
(iv)

प्रश्न 7.
पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में स्थित सबसे प्रसिद्ध दर्रे का नाम बताएँ।
(i) खैबर
(ii) कुर्रम
(iii) टोची
(iv) बोलान। ।
उत्तर-
(i)

प्रश्न 8.
हिमालय पर्वत की सबसे ऊँची चोटी का क्या नाम है ?
(i) कंचन जंगा
(ii) नंदा देवी
(iii) माऊँट एवरेस्ट
(iv) K₂.
उत्तर-
(iii)

प्रश्न 9.
हिमालय पर्वत की लंबाई लगभग कितनी है ?
(i) 1200 किलोमीटर
(ii) 1800 किलोमीटर
(iii) 2000 किलोमीटर
(iv) 2500 किलोमीटर।
उत्तर-
(iv)

प्रश्न 10.
दोआब से क्या अभिप्राय है ?
(i) दो नदियों के बीच का क्षेत्र
(ii) दो पर्वतों के बीच का क्षेत्र
(iii) दो मैदानों के बीच का क्षेत्र
(iv) इनमें से कोई नहीं।
उत्तर-
(i)

प्रश्न 11.
पंजाब में कितने दोआब हैं ?
(i) दो
(ii) तीन
(iii) चार
(iv) पाँच।
उत्तर-
(iv)

प्रश्न 12.
अमृतसर निम्नलिखित में से किस दोआब में स्थित है ?
(i) चज दोआब
(ii) बिस्त दोआब
(iii) रचना दोआब
(iv) बारी दोआब।
उत्तर-
(iv)

प्रश्न 13.
रचना दोआब कहाँ स्थित है ?
(i) रावी और चिनाब नदियों के मध्य में
(ii) चनाब और जेहलम नदियों के मध्य में
(iii) रावी और सतलुज नदियों के मध्य में
(iv) सतलुज और ब्यास नदियों के मध्य में।
उत्तर-
(i)

प्रश्न 14.
गुजरात और शाहपुर किस दोआब के प्रसिद्ध शहर हैं ?
(i) चज दोआब
(ii) रचना दोआब
(iii) बारी दोआब
(iv) बिस्त दोआब।
उत्तर-
(i)

प्रश्न 15.
सिंध सागर दोआब का सबसे प्रसिद्ध शहर कौन-सा है ?
(i) सिंध
(ii) जालंधर
(iii) लुधियाना
(iv) रावलपिंडी।
उत्तर-
(iv)

प्रश्न 16.
तराइन का प्रथम युद्ध कब हुआ ?
(i) 1191 ई० में
(ii) 1192 ई० में
(iii) 1291 ई० में
(iv) 1491 ई० में।
उत्तर-
(i)

प्रश्न 17.
तराइन का दूसरा युद्ध कब हुआ ?
(i) 1152 ई० में
(ii) 1192 ई० में
(iii) 1292 ई० में
(iv) 1526 ई० में।
उत्तर-
(ii)

प्रश्न 18.
पानीपत का दूसरा युद्ध कब हुआ ?
(i) 1526 ई० में
(ii) 1536 ई० में
(iii) 1556 ई० में
(iv) 1656 ई० में।
उत्तर-
(iii)

प्रश्न 19.
पानीपत का तीसरा युद्ध कब हुआ ?
(i) 1526 ई० में
(ii) 1556 ई० में
(iii) 1661 ई० में
(iv) 1761 ई० में।
उत्तर-
(iv)

प्रश्न 20.
भौगोलिक दृष्टि से पंजाब का कौन-सा शहर महत्त्वपूर्ण है ?
(i) मुलतान
(ii) लाहौर
(iii) पेशावर
(iv) उपरोक्त सभी।
उत्तर-
(iv)

प्रश्न 21.
16वीं शताब्दी में पंजाब में कौन-सी भाषा नहीं बोली जाती थी ?
(i) उर्दू
(ii) हिंदी
(iii) पंजाबी
(iv) तमिल।
उत्तर-
(iv)

प्रश्न 22.
पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति ने पंजाबियों में निम्नलिखित में से किसे नहीं अपनाया ?
(i) बहादुरी
(ii) मेहनत
(iii) सहिष्णुता
(iv) धोखेबाज़ी।
उत्तर-
(iv)

प्रश्न 23.
निम्नलिखित में से कौन-से विदेशी हमलावर ने उत्तर-पश्चिम से भारत पर हमला नहीं किया ?
(i) मुग़ल
(ii) ह्यूण
(iii) यूनानी
(iv) अंग्रेज़।
उत्तर-
(iv)

प्रश्न 24.
पंजाब में इस्लाम का बहुत प्रसार क्यों हुआ ?
(i) यहाँ के मुसलमान आर्थिक पक्ष से अधिक खुशहाल थे
(ii) मुसलमानों ने सबसे पहले पंजाब पर कब्जा किया था ।
(iii) पंजाब के लोग इस धर्म को अधिक पसंद करते थे
(iv) क्योंकि पंजाब में मुसलमानों के अधिक शिक्षा केंद्र थे।
उत्तर-
(i)

प्रश्न 25.
16वीं शताब्दी में पंजाब निम्नलिखित में से किस वस्तु का निर्यात नहीं करता था ?
(i) घोड़े
(ii) कपास
(iii) चीनी
(iv) कपड़े।
उत्तर-
(i)

प्रश्न 26.
16वीं शताब्दी में पंजाब निम्नलिखित में से किस वस्तु का आयात नहीं करता था ?
(i) सूखे मेवे
(ii) हथियार
(iii) घोड़े
(iv) कपास।
उत्तर-
(iv)

प्रश्न 27.
16वीं शताब्दी में निम्नलिखित में से कौन-सा प्रसिद्ध व्यापारिक नगर नहीं था ?
(i) अमृतसर
(ii) लाहौर
(iii) हिसार
(iv) रावलपिंडी।
उत्तर-
(iv)

Long Answer Type Question

प्रश्न 1.
पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं का संक्षिप्त वर्णन कीजिए। (Describe in brief physical features of the Punjab.)
अथवा
पंजाब की किन्हीं छः भौगोलिक विशेषताओं का वर्णन करो। (Explain any six physical features of Punjab.)
उत्तर-
पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं का वर्णन निम्नलिखित है—

1. हिमालय पर्वत-हिमालय पर्वत पंजाब के उत्तर में स्थित है। यह पर्वत पूर्व में असम से लेकर पश्चिम में अफ़गानिस्तान तक फैला हुआ है। इसकी लंबाई 2500 किलोमीटर तथा चौड़ाई 240 किलोमीटर से 320 किलोमीटर है। यह पंजाब के लिए अनेक पक्षों से वरदान सिद्ध हुआ है।

2. सुलेमान पर्वतीय श्रेणियाँ—सुलेमान पर्वतीय श्रेणियाँ पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में स्थित हैं। इन श्रेणियों में अनेक दर्रे स्थित हैं जो भारत को एशिया के अन्य देशों से मिलाते हैं। इनमें खैबर, बोलान, कुर्रम, टोची तथा गोमल नामक दर्रे प्रसिद्ध हैं। पंजाब में आने वाले अधिकाँश आक्रमणकारी तथा व्यापारी इन्हीं दरों द्वारा ही आए।

3. अर्द्ध-पर्वतीय प्रदेश-यह प्रदेश शिवालिक पहाड़ियों और पंजाब के मैदानी भाग के मध्य स्थित है। इस प्रदेश को तराई प्रदेश भी कहा जाता है। इस प्रदेश में होशियारपुर, काँगड़ा, अंबाला, गुरदासपुर के उत्तरी क्षेत्र तथा स्यालकोट के कुछ क्षेत्र शामिल हैं। पर्वतीय प्रदेश होने के कारण यहाँ की भूमि कम उपजाऊ है तथा जनसंख्या अधिक सघन नहीं है।

4. मैदानी प्रदेश-मैदानी प्रदेश पंजाब का सबसे बड़ा और महत्त्वपूर्ण खंड है। यह प्रदेश सिंध और यमुना नदियों के मध्य स्थित है। इस मैदान की गणना विश्व के सबसे उपजाऊ मैदानों में की जाती है। पंजाब में बहने वाले पाँचों दरिया-सतलुज, ब्यास, रावी, चनाब तथा जेहलम इसी प्रदेश में बहते हैं। यह प्रदेश तीन भागोंपाँच दोआब, मालवा एवं बांगर तथा दक्षिण-पश्चिम के रेगिस्तान में बँटा हुआ है।

5. पंजाब की जलवायु-पंजाब की जलवायु में भी बहुत भिन्नता पाई जाती है। यहाँ शीतकाल में भयंकर सर्दी पड़ती है और ग्रीष्मकाल में भयंकर गर्मी पड़ती है। जनवरी और फरवरी के महीनों में यहाँ भयंकर ठंड पड़ती है। मई और जून के महीनों में मैदानी भागों में लुएँ चलती हैं। जुलाई से लेकर सितंबर के महीनों में पंजाब में वर्षा होती है। अक्तूबर-नवंबर और फरवरी-मार्च के महीनों में पंजाब का मौसम बहुत सुहावना होता है।

6. पंजाब की मिट्टी-पंजाब के भिन्न-भिन्न भागों में भिन्न-भिन्न प्रकार की मिट्टी पाई जाती है। पंजाब के तराई और पर्वतीय प्रदेश की भूमि पथरीली होने के कारण उपजाऊ नहीं है। दूसरी ओर इसका मैदानी भाग बहुत उपजाऊ है। इसकी गणना विश्व के सबसे उपजाऊ मैदानों में की जाती है। पंजाब के दक्षिण-पश्चिम में कुछ रेगिस्तानी प्रदेश स्थित हैं। यहाँ की भूमि कम उपजाऊ है।

प्रश्न 2.
पंजाब को भारत का प्रवेश द्वार क्यों कहा जाता है ? (Why is the Punjab called as the Gateway of India ?)
उत्तर-
अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण पंजाब शताब्दियों तक भारत का प्रवेश द्वार रहा है। इसके उत्तरपश्चिम की ओर खैबर, कुर्रम, टोची और बोलान नामक दर्रे स्थित हैं। इन दरों को पार करना कोई जटिल कार्य नहीं था। इसलिए प्राचीन काल से ही विदेशी आक्रमणकारी (अंग्रेज़ों के अतिरिक्त) इन दरों को पार करके भारत पर आक्रमण करते रहे। आर्यों, ईरानियों, यूनानियों, कुषाणों, हूणों, तुर्कों, मुग़लों और दुर्रानियों ने इस मार्ग से प्रवेश करके भारत पर आक्रमण किए। इन आक्रमणकारियों को सर्वप्रथम पंजाब के लोगों से ही संघर्ष करना पड़ा। पंजाब पर विजय प्राप्त करने के पश्चात् ही वे आगे कदम बढ़ा पाए। वास्तव में पंजाब की विजय ही इन आक्रमणकारियों को भारत की विजय प्रदान करती थी। इसी कारण पंजाब को भारत का प्रवेश द्वार कहा जाता है।

प्रश्न 3.
पंजाब का भारतीय इतिहास में क्या महत्त्व है ? (What is the importance of Punjab in the Indian History ?)
उत्तर-
पंजाब का भारतीय इतिहास में अनेक कारणों से विशेष महत्त्व है। आज से लगभग पाँच हजार वर्ष पूर्व इस भूमि पर ही भारत की सबसे प्राचीन और गौरवमयी सभ्यता सिंधु घाटी का जन्म हुआ। आर्यों ने अपने विख्यात धार्मिक ग्रंथ ऋग्वेद की रचना इसी पवित्र भूमि पर की। रामायण तथा महाभारत के महान् पात्रों का संबंध भी पंजाब से था। महाभारत का युद्ध भी इसी भूमि पर हुआ था और श्रीकृष्ण ने गीता का संदेश भी यहीं पर दिया था। विश्व-विख्यात तक्षशिला विश्वविद्यालय और गांधार कला का केंद्र यहीं स्थापित थे। इसी भूमि पर चंद्रगुप्त मौर्य ने भारत के प्रथम साम्राज्य की स्थापना की। भारतीय इतिहास की सबसे महत्त्वपूर्ण और निर्णायक लड़ाइयाँ-तराइन की दो एवं पानीपत की तीन लड़ाइयाँ भी यहीं हुईं। इसी पावन भूमि पर सिख धर्म के नौ गुरुओं ने अवतार लिया। सिखों के दसवें गुरु, गुरु गोबिंद सिंह जी के जीवन का अधिकाँश हिस्सा यहाँ ही व्यतीत हुआ। उन्होंने खालसा पंथ का सृजन भी इसी भूमि पर किया। यहीं बंदा सिंह बहादुर ने मुग़लों को नानी याद करा दी। इसी भूमि पर महाराजा रणजीत सिंह ने प्रथम सिख साम्राज्य स्थापित किया जिसकी भव्यता को आज भी लोग स्मरण करते हैं। भारत की गुलामी की जंजीरें तोड़ने में पंजाब के देश-भक्तों ने सर्वाधिक योगदान दिया।

प्रश्न 4.
हिमालय पर्वत के बारे में आप क्या जानते हैं ? इसके पंजाब को क्या मुख्य लाभ हुए ? (What do you know about Himalayas ? What were its main benefits to Punjab ?)
अथवा
हिमालय पर्वत के पंजाब को मुख्य लाभ क्या हैं ? (What were the main benefits of the Himalayas to Punjab ?)
उत्तर-
हिमालय पर्वत पंजाब के उत्तर में स्थित है। हिमालय से अभिप्राय बर्फ का घर है। हिमालय की चोटियाँ सदैव बर्फ से ढकी रहती हैं। यह पर्वत पूर्व में असम से लेकर पश्चिम में अफगानिस्तान तक फैला हुआ है। इसकी लंबाई 2500 किलोमीटर तथा चौड़ाई 240 किलोमीटर से 320 किलोमीटर है। ऊँचाई के आधार पर हिमालय पर्वत को तीन भागों में विभाजित किया जा सकता है। प्रथम भाग में वे चोटियाँ आती हैं जिनकी ऊँचाई 20,000 फूट तथा इससे ऊपर हैं। माऊंट एवरेस्ट इसकी विश्व में सबसे ऊँची चोटी है। इसकी ऊँचाई 29,028 फुट है। ये चोटियाँ सारा वर्ष बर्फ से ढकी रहती हैं। दूसरे भाग में वे चोटियाँ आती हैं जिनकी ऊंचाई 10,000 फुट से 20,000 फुट के बीच है। इसे मध्य हिमालय कहते हैं। यहाँ शिमला, डलहौज़ी तथा कश्मीर स्थित हैं। हिमालय के तृतीय भाग में 3,000 से 10,000 फुट ऊँची चोटियाँ हैं। ये भाग शिवालिक की पहाड़ियों के नाम से प्रसिद्ध हैं।

हिमालय पर्वत पंजाब के लिए उसी प्रकार एक वरदान सिद्ध हुआ है जैसे नील नदी मिस्र के लिए। इससे पंजाब को अनेक लाभ हुए। पहला, यह पंजाब तथा भारत वर्ष का पहरेदार रहा। क्योंकि हिमालय पर्वत की ऊँचाई बहुत अधिक है तथा यह सदैव हिम से ढका रहता है इसलिए किसी आक्रमणकारी ने इसे पार करने का साहस न किया। फलस्वरूप पंजाब उत्तर की ओर से दीर्घकाल तक आक्रमणकारियों से सुरक्षित रहा। दूसरा, मानसून पवनें इनसे टकरा कर पंजाब में पर्याप्त वर्षा करती हैं। तीसरा, यहाँ से निकलने वाली नदियों ने पंजाब की भूमि को बहुत उपजाऊ बनाया है। परिणामस्वरूप पंजाब में कृषि के उत्पादन को बहुत प्रोत्साहन मिला जिससे यहाँ के निवासी समृद्ध हुए। चौथा, हिमालय की वादियों ने पंजाब को शिमला, मनाली, कुल्ल, काँगड़ा, डलहौज़ी तथा कसौली जैसे नगर दिए। इन नगरों ने न केवल भारतीय अपितु विदेशी सैलानियों के दिलों पर जादुई प्रभाव डाला है। इन सैलानियों के कारण राज्य की आमदनी में पर्याप्त वृद्धि हुई। पाँचवां, यहाँ से प्राप्त होने वाली लकड़ी ने पंजाब के खेल उद्योग को उत्साहित किया।

प्रश्न 5.
दोआब शब्द से क्या अभिप्राय है ? पंजाब के पाँच दोआबों का संक्षिप्त वर्णन करें। (What do you mean by Doab ? Give a brief description of five Doabs of Punjab.)
अथवा
पंजाब के पाँच दोआबों का वर्णन करें। (Explain the five Doabs of Punjab.)
उत्तर-
दोआब फ़ारसी भाषा का शब्द है जिससे अभिप्राय है दो पानी अथवा दो नदियों के बीच का क्षेत्र। पंजाब के दोआबों की कुल संख्या 5 है। ये दोआब मुग़ल बादशाह अकबर द्वारा बनाए गए थे। ये पंजाब के मैदानी भागों में स्थित हैं।—

1. बिस्त जालंधर दोआब ब्यास और सतलुज नदियों के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को कहते हैं। जालंधर और होशियारपुर इस दोआब के दो सबसे बड़े शहर हैं। यह दोआब सर्वाधिक विख्यात है।
2. बारी दोआब ब्यास और रावी नदियों के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को कहते हैं। लाहौर और अमृतसर इस दोआब के दो सबसे विख्यात शहर हैं। बारी दोआब को माझा भी कहा जाता है।
3. रचना दोआब रावी और चनाब नदियों के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को कहते हैं। गुजराँवाला और शेखूपुरा इस दोआब के विख्यात शहर हैं।
4. चज दोआब चनाब और जेहलम के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को कहते हैं। गुजरात इस दोआब का सबसे विख्यात शहर है।
5. सिंध सागर दोआब सिंध और जेहलम नदियों के मध्यवर्ती प्रदेश को कहते हैं। रावलपिंडी इस दोआब का सबसे विख्यात शहर है। सिंध सागर दोआब को छोड़कर शेष सभी दोआब बहुत उपजाऊ हैं।

प्रश्न 6.
मालवा तथा बांगर से आपका क्या भाव है ? (What do you understand by Malwa and Bangar ?)
उत्तर-
पाँच दोआबों के अतिरिक्त पंजाब के मैदानी भाग में सतलुज और यमुना नदियों के बीच में स्थित विस्तृत मैदानी भाग आता है। इसे दो भागों-मालवा और बांगर में विभाजित किया जा सकता है।

1. मालवा-सतलुज और घग्गर नदियों के मध्यवर्ती क्षेत्र को मालवा कहा जाता है। इसमें पटियाला, लुधियाना, सरहिंद, संगरूर, मालेरकोटला, भटिंडा, फरीदकोट और नाभा शामिल हैं। इस प्रदेश में प्राचीन काल में ‘मलव’ नामक प्रसिद्ध कबीला रहता था जिस कारण इस प्रदेश का नाम मालवा पड़ गया। यहाँ के निवासियों को ‘मलवई’ कहा जाता है।

2. बांगर-घग्घर एवं यमना नदियों के मध्य स्थित प्रदेश को बांगर कहा जाता है। इसे हरियाणा भी कहा जाता है। इस प्रदेश में अंबाला, पानीपत, रोहतक, करनाल, कुरुक्षेत्र, गुड़गाँव, जींद और हिसार के क्षेत्र शामिल हैं। पंजाब के इस भाग में भारतीय इतिहास के कई महत्त्वपूर्ण और निर्णायक युद्ध हुए।

प्रश्न 7.
पंजाब के भूगोल ने इसके इतिहास को कैसे प्रभावित किया ? कोई छः बिंदु बताएँ। (How did the geography of Punjab influence its history ? Explain any six points.)
उत्तर-
पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति ने इसके इतिहास को निम्नलिखित प्रकार से प्रभावित किया।

पंजाब-भारत का प्रवेश द्वार पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में खैबर, कुर्रम, बोलान, टोची और गोमल नामक प्रसिद्ध दर्रे स्थित थे। इन्हें पार करना कोई मुश्किल काम न था। परिणामस्वरूप विदेशी आक्रमणकारी यहीं से भारत में प्रवेश करते थे। परिणामस्वरूप पंजाब इन लोगों के लिए एक प्रवेश द्वार का काम करने लगा।

2. पंजाब-ऐतिहासिक लड़ाइयों का क्षेत्र-पंजाब अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण शताब्दियों तक भारतीय इतिहास की अनेक महत्त्वपूर्ण और निर्णायक लड़ाइयों का क्षेत्र रहा है। उदाहरण के रूप में सिकंदर का पोरस के साथ युद्ध, चंद्रगुप्त मौर्य का यूनानियों के साथ युद्ध, तराइन के दो युद्ध तथा पानीपत के तीन युद्ध पंजाब के वे निर्णायक युद्ध थे जिन्होंने पंजाब के इतिहास पर गहन प्रभाव डाला।

3. पंजाब की नदियों का प्रभाव-पंजाब का इतिहास यहाँ पर बहने वाली नदियों से भी बहुत प्रभावित हुआ है। इन नदियों ने कभी तो विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों के बढ़ते कदमों को रोका तो कभी उनका मार्ग निर्धारित किया। आक्रमणकारी इन नदियों को वहाँ से पार करते जहाँ से ये कम तंग होती थीं। इस प्रकार पंजाब का भाग्य लिखने में इन नदियों ने महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाई।

4. पंजाब के वनों और पर्वतों का प्रभाव-पंजाब के वनों तथा पर्वतों ने भी पंजाब के राजनीतिक जीवन पर गहरा प्रभाव डाला। जब सिखों पर विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों के अत्याचार बहुत बढ़ गए तो उन्होंने इन्हीं वनों तथा पर्वतों में जाकर शरण ली। इसके साथ ही वे अपने शत्रुओं पर अचानक आक्रमण कर फिर से इन वनों और पर्वतों में जा छुपते थे।

5. पंजाबियों के चरित्र के विशेष लक्षण-पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति ने पंजाबियों के चरित्र में विशेष लक्षण पैदा कर दिए। पंजाब के लोग लंबे समय तक विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों से जूझते रहे इसलिए वे शेष भारत के लोगों से अधिक वीर, साहसी तथा कष्टों को सहने वाले बन गए।

6. पंजाब का समद्ध होना-पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं के कारण पंजाब एक समृद्ध प्रदेश बन गया। हिमालय पर्वत से निकलने वाली नदियों ने इसको उपजाऊ मिट्टी प्रदान की। इस पर भरपूर फसलें उपजा कर यहाँ के लोग धनवान हो गए।

प्रश्न 8.
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं ने यहाँ के राजनीतिक इतिहास पर क्या प्रभाव डाला ? (What influence did the physical features of the Punjab have on its political history ?)
अथवा
पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं के क्या राजनीतिक प्रभाव पड़े ? (What were the political effects of the geographical features of the Punjab ?)
उत्तर-
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं ने यहाँ के राजनीतिक इतिहास पर निम्नलिखित प्रभाव डाले—

1. पंजाब-भारत का प्रवेश द्वार-पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में खैबर, कुर्रम, बोलान, टोची और गोमल नामक प्रसिद्ध दर्रे स्थित थे। इन्हें पार करना कोई मुश्किल काम न था। परिणामस्वरूप विदेशी आक्रमणकारी यहीं से भारत में प्रवेश करते थे। इनका पहला संघर्ष पंजाब के लोगों से होता था। इस तरह पंजाब इन विदेशियों का प्रवेश द्वार बन गया।

2. पंजाब-निर्णायक लड़ाइयों का क्षेत्र-पंजाब अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण शताब्दियों तक भारतीय इतिहास की अनेक महत्त्वपूर्ण और निर्णायक लड़ाइयों का क्षेत्र रहा है। आर्यों का द्रविड़ लोगों के साथ युद्ध, सिकंदर का पोरस से युद्ध, चंद्रगुप्त मौर्य का यूनानियों से युद्ध, मुहम्मद गौरी के पृथ्वीराज चौहान के साथ दो तराइन के युद्ध तथा पानीपत के तीनों युद्ध पंजाब की धरती पर ही हुए।

3. उत्तर-पश्चिमी सीमा की समस्या-पंजाब की उत्तर-पश्चिमी सीमा सदैव यहाँ के शासकों के लिए परेशानी का एक स्रोत रही है। इसके दो प्रमुख कारण थे। पहला, यह कि अधिकतर विदेशी हमलावर इसी रास्ते से भारत आते थे तथा दूसरा, इस सीमा में रहने वाले लोग अत्यंत खूखार थे। अतः प्रत्येक शासक को इस सीमा की सुरक्षा के लिए एक अलग नीति अपनानी पड़ती और अपार धन राशि खर्च करनी पड़ती थी।

4. पंजाबियों को शताब्दियों तक कष्ट झेलने पड़े-अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण पंजाब के निवासियों को शताब्दियों तक कष्ट सहने पड़े। लगभग सभी विदेशी आक्रमणकारी अत्याचारों का सामना सबसे पहले तथा सबसे अधिक पंजाबियों को ही करना पड़ा। महमूद गज़नवी, मुहम्मद गौरी, तैमूर, नादिरशाह तथा अहमदशाह अब्दाली आदि आक्रमणकारियों ने यहाँ के लोगों पर घोर अत्याचार किये।

5. पंजाब की नदियों का प्रभाव-पंजाब का इतिहास यहाँ पर बहने वाली नदियों से भी बहुत प्रभावित हुआ है। इन नदियों ने कभी तो विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों के बढ़ते कदमों को रोका तो कभी उनका मार्ग निर्धारित किया। आक्रमणकारी इन नदियों को वहाँ से पार करते जहाँ से ये कम तंग होती थीं। इस प्रकार पंजाब का भाग्य लिखने में इन नदियों ने महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाई।

6. पंजाब पर अंग्रेज़ों का अधिकार सबसे पश्चात् हुआ-पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण ही अंग्रेजों ने इसे सबसे पश्चात् अपने साम्राज्य में सम्मिलित किया। अंग्रेजों ने 1757 ई० में प्लासी के युद्ध में विजय प्राप्त करके बंगाल पर अधिकार कर लिया था। इसके पश्चात् उन्होंने पंजाब पर 1849 ई० में अधिकार किया।

प्रश्न 9.
पंजाब के भूगोल का पंजाब के लोगों पर क्या आर्थिक प्रभाव पड़ा ?
(What were the major economic effects of geography of Punjab on the people of punjab ?)
अथवा
पंजाब के भूगोल पर पड़े मुख्य आर्थिक प्रभावों का वर्णन कीजिए। (Write main economic influences on the geography of Punjab.)
उत्तर-
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं ने इसके आर्थिक इतिहास पर निम्नलिखित प्रभाव डाले—

कृषि मुख्य व्यवसाय-पंजाब के मैदानी भागों की भूमि बहुत उपजाऊ थी। इसके कारण यहाँ की अधिकाँश जनसंख्या कृषि का व्यवसाय करती थी। यहाँ की मुख्य फसलें गेहूँ, कपास, चावल, गन्ना, जौ और तेलों के बीज थीं। पहाडी क्षेत्रों में लोग भेड-बकरियाँ पाल कर अपनी आजीविका की व्यवस्था करते थे।

2. विदेशी व्यापार-पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण ही यहाँ के लोगों का प्राचीन काल से ही विदेशों से बहुत अधिक व्यापार चलता रहा। सीमावर्ती प्रांत होने के कारण पंजाब का काफ़ी व्यापार अफ़गानिस्तान और मध्य एशिया के देशों के साथ होता रहा। पंजाब का अधिकतर व्यापार पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में स्थित दरों द्वारा किया जाता था।

3. व्यापारिक नगरों का अस्तित्व में आना-प्राचीन और मध्यकाल में पंजाब में बहुत-से व्यापारिक नगर अस्तित्व में आए। इनमें से प्रमुख लाहौर, मुलतान, पेशावर, गुजराँवाला, भटिंडा, सरहिंद, जालंधर, अमृतसर, समाना और हिसार थे। ये सभी नगर अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण विकसित हुए क्योंकि ये व्यापारिक मार्गों अथवा उनके निकट स्थित थे।

4. पंजाब का समृद्ध होना-प्राचीन काल से ही पंजाब अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण आर्थिक पक्ष से बहुत समृद्ध रहा है। पंजाब के मैदानी भाग इतने उपजाऊ थे कि वे सोना उगलते थे। पंजाब का विदेशी व्यापार भी बहुत विकसित रहा है। फलस्वरूप पंजाब के निवासी बहुत धनवान् थे।

प्रश्न 10.
पंजाब के दरियाओं ने यहाँ के इतिहास को कैसे प्रभावित किया ? (P.S.E.B. June 2017) (How did the rivers of the Punjab influence its history ?).
अथवा
पंजाब की नदियों ने यहाँ के इतिहास पर क्या प्रभाव डाला ? (What are the effects of Punjab rivers on the history of Punjab ?)
उत्तर-
पंजाब में बहने वाली नदियों ने भी यहाँ के इतिहास को बहुत प्रभावित किया है। इन नदियों ने कई बार विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों के बढ़ते हुए कदमों को रोका और देश की रक्षा की। जब इन नदियों में बाढ़ आई होती थी. तो उन्हें पार करना बहुत कठिन होता था। सिकंदर ब्यास नदी के तट पर पहुँच कर आगे नहीं बढ़ पाया था। इन नदियों ने अनेक बार आक्रमणकारियों का मार्ग भी निर्धारित किया। वे प्रायः उस ओर से आगे बढ़ते थे जहाँ नदियाँ कम तंग होती थीं तथा उन्हें पार करना सरल होता था। इस प्रकार पंजाब का भाग्य इन नदियों पर आश्रित था। ये नदियाँ सरकारों और परगनों इत्यादि की सीमाएँ निर्धारित करने में भी सहायक सिद्ध हुईं। इन नदियों के किनारों पर अनेक नगरों का विकास हुआ। इन नदियों ने पंजाब की भूमि को बहुत उपजाऊ बनाया। परिणामस्वरूप पंजाब के लोग आर्थिक पक्ष से बहुत समृद्ध हुए।

प्रश्न 11.
पंजाब के वनों और पर्वतों ने यहाँ के इतिहास पर गहरा प्रभाव डाला है क्या आप इस कथन से सहमत हैं ?
(The forests and hills of the Punjab have deeply influenced its history. Do you agree with this statement ?)
अथवा
पंजाब के जंगलों ने इसके इतिहास को कैसे प्रभावित किया ? (P.S.E.B. June 2017) (How did the forests of Punjab effect its history ?)
उत्तर-
पंजाब के वनों और पर्वतों ने भी इसके इतिहास पर गहरा प्रभाव डाला है। 1716 ई० में बंदा सिंह बहादुर के बलिदान के पश्चात् जब सिखों पर अब्दुस समद खाँ, जकरिया खाँ, याहिया खाँ, मीर मन्नू और अहमद शाह अब्दाली के अत्याचार बहुत बढ़ गए तो उन्होंने इन वनों और पर्वतों में जाकर शरण ली। यहाँ से उन्होंने गुरिल्ला (छापामार) युद्ध प्रणाली अपना कर शत्रुओं का सामना किया। वे शत्रुओं की सेना पर अचानक आक्रमण करके पुनः इन वनों और पर्वतों में जा छिपते थे। सिखों ने गुरिल्ला युद्ध नीति अपना कर 1739 ई० में नादिर शाह जैसे अत्याचारी को लट लिया था। इसी नीति के कारण सिखों ने अहमद शाह अब्दाली के नाक में दम कर रखा था। उसने सिखों की शक्ति का दमन करने के लिए पंजाब पर 8 बार आक्रमण किए, परंतु अंततः उसे ही पराजय का सामना करना पड़ा। अपनी गुरिल्ला युद्ध नीति के कारण ही सिख अंत में पंजाब में कई भागों में अपनी स्वतंत्र मिसलें स्थापित करने में सफल हुए।

प्रश्न 12.
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं ने इसके सामाजिक-सांस्कृतिक इतिहास पर क्या प्रभाव डाला है ? (What effect did the physical features of Punjab have on its socio-cultural history ?)
अथवा
पंजाब की भौगोलिक विशेषताओं के सामाजिक तथा सांस्कृतिक प्रभावों का उल्लेख कीजिए। (Mention the socio-cultural effects of the geographical features of the Punjab.)
उत्तर-
पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं ने इसके सामाजिक व सांस्कृतिक विकास पर निम्नलिखित प्रभाव डाले हैं—

1. पंजाबियों के चरित्र के विशेष लक्षण-पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण पंजाबियों के चरित्र में कुछ विशेष गुण उत्पन्न हुए। ये गुण पंजाबियों को शेष भारतवासियों से विलक्षणता प्रदान करते थे। क्योंकि पंजाबियों को दीर्घकाल तक अनेक युद्धों और कठिनाइयों का सामना करना पड़ा, इसलिए उनमें वीरता, साहस, श्रम, सहानुभूति, समाज-सेवा, कष्टों को सहन करने और देश के लिए बलिदान देने के गुण उत्पन्न हुए।

2. जातियों और उपजातियों की संख्या में वृद्धि प्राचीन काल से ही पंजाब विदेशी आक्रमणों का शिकार रहा है। इरानी, यूनानी, हूण, कुषाण, मंगोल, तुर्क, मुग़ल और अफ़गान इत्यादि जातियों ने पंजाब पर आक्रमण किए। इनमें से बहुत-से आक्रमणकारी पंजाब में ही बस गए। उन्होंने यहाँ की स्त्रियों से विवाह किए। इस कारण कई नई जातियाँ और उप-जातियाँ अस्तित्व में आईं।

3. पंजाब की विलक्षण संस्कृति-पंजाब में भिन्न-भिन्न देशों और धर्मों के लोग आबाद हो गए थे। इसलिए उनके परस्पर समन्वय से एक नई संस्कृति का जन्म हुआ। एक संयुक्त भाषा भी अस्तित्व में आई जिसका नाम उर्दू रखा गया।

4. कला और साहित्य की क्षति-पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण मध्यकाल में यहाँ कला और साहित्य का विकास न हो पाया। निरंतर आक्रमणों और युद्धों के कारण पंजाब में शांति व सुरक्षा का अभाव रहा। फलस्वरूप ऐसे माहौल में कला एवं साहित्य का विकास भला कैसे हो सकता था ? यदि इस क्षेत्र में कुछ विकास हुआ भी तो आक्रमणकारियों ने उसे नष्ट कर दिया। यह निश्चित रूप में पंजाब के लिए एक बहुत ही दुर्भाग्यपूर्ण बात थी।

प्रश्न 13.
पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति ने यहाँ के धार्मिक जीवन को किस प्रकार प्रभावित किया ? (How did geography of the Punjab effect its religious life ?)
अथवा
“पंजाब धार्मिक आंदोलनों की भूमि है।” इस कथन की व्याख्या करें। (“Punjab was a land of religious movements.” Explain this statement.)
उत्तर-
पंजाब की भौगोलिक स्थिति ने यहाँ के लोगों के धार्मिक जीवन पर गहरा प्रभाव डाला है। पंजाब को हिंदू धर्म की जन्म भूमि कहा जाता है। आर्यों ने सर्वप्रथम इसी प्रदेश में आकर निवास किया था। यहाँ ही उन्होंने अपने अधिकतर धार्मिक साहित्य की रचना की। इनमें वेदों को उल्लेखनीय स्थान प्राप्त है। यहाँ ही भगवान कृष्ण ने गीता का उपदेश दिया था। पंजाब में भारत के अन्य भागों की अपेक्षा इस्लाम का अधिक प्रचार हुआ। इसके दो मुख्य कारण थे। प्रथम, मुसलमान आक्रमणकारियों ने पंजाब पर सर्वप्रथम कब्जा किया तथा दूसरा, यहाँ उनका लंबे समय तक शासन रहा। पंजाब में सिख धर्म के संस्थापक गुरु नानक देव जी एवं उनके 8 उत्तराधिकारियों ने अवतार धारण किया था। सिखों के दसवें एवं अंतिम गुरु, गुरु गोबिंद सिंह जी के जीवन का अधिकाँश भाग पंजाब में ही व्यतीत हुआ था। क्योंकि पंजाब के लोग आर्थिक पक्ष से समृद्ध थे, इसलिए उन्होंने सिख धर्म के विकास में बहुमूल्य योगदान दिया।

Source Based Questions

नोट-निम्नलिखित अनुच्छेदों को ध्यानपूर्वक पढ़िए और उनके अंत में पूछे गए प्रश्नों का उत्तर दीजिए।
1
पाँच दरियाओं की धरती को भारतीय संस्कृति तथा सभ्यता की जन्म भूमि कहा जाता है। आज से लगभग 4 हज़ार से 5 हज़ार वर्ष पूर्व पंजाब के आस-पास के प्रदेशों में सिंधु घाटी सभ्यता अथवा हड़प्पा सभ्यता का जन्म हुआ जो संसार की प्राचीन सभ्यताओं में से एक मानी जाती है। रामायण तथा महाभारत के महान पात्रों का संबंध भी पंजाब से था। महाभारत का युद्ध भी इसी धरती पर लड़ा गया है जिस पर श्री कृष्ण जी ने गीता का उपदेश दिया था। पंजाब में संसार प्रसिद्ध तक्षशिला विश्वविद्यालय तथा गांधार कला के प्रमुख केंद्र स्थित थे। अर्थशास्त्र के लेखक कौटिल्य, संस्कृत व्याकरण के महान् विद्वान् पाणिनी तथा प्रसिद्ध चिकित्सक चर्क पंजाब के साथ ही संबंध रखते थे। भारत के राजनीतिक इतिहास का निर्माण भी किसी हद तक पंजाब में ही हुआ। पंजाब की आर्थिक स्थिति के कारण सभी विदेशी आक्रमणकारी पंजाब की उत्तर-पश्चिमी सीमा से होकर पंजाब में आकर चंद्रगुप्त मौर्य तथा हर्ष वर्धन जैसे राजाओं ने पंजाब से ही अपनी विजयों की मुहिम आरंभ की तथा विशाल तथा शक्तिशाली साम्राज्य की स्थापना की।

1. हड़प्पा सभ्यसा का जन्म किस धरती पर हुआ ?
2. किन दो महाकाव्यों के पात्रों का संबंध पंजाब से था ?
3. श्री कृष्ण ने गीता का उपदेश ……………. की धरती पर दिया।
4. भारत पर आक्रमण करने वाले विदेशी आक्रमणकारी पंजाब में किस ओर से प्रवेश करते थे?
5. पाणिनी किस विषय का विद्वान् था ?

उत्तर-

1. हड़प्पा सभ्यता का जन्म पंजाब की धरती पर हुआ।
2. रामायण और महाभारत के पात्रों का संबंध पंजाब के साथ था।
3. श्री कृष्ण ने गीता का उपदेश पंजाब की धरती पर दिया।
4. भारत पर आक्रमण करने वाले विदेशी आक्रमणकारी पंजाब में उत्तरी-पश्चिमी सीमा की ओर से प्रवेश करते थे।
5. पाणिनी संस्कृत व्याकरण का महान् विद्वान् था।

2
पंजाब को भिन्न-भिन्न युगों में भिन्न-भिन्न नामों से पुकारा जाता रहा है। ऋग्वैदिक काल में पंजाब को ‘सप्त सिंधु’ कहा जाता था। यह नाम पंजाब में बहने वाली सात नदियों के कारण पड़ा। ये सात नदियाँ थीं-सिंधु, वितस्ता (जेहलम), अधिकनी (चिनाब), परूशनी (रावी), विपाशा (ब्यास), शतुदरी (सतलुज) और सरस्वती। उस समय सिंधु और सरस्वती पंजाब की बाह्य सीमाएँ मानी जाती थीं। महाकाव्यों व पुराणों में पंजाब को पंचनद कहा गया है। पंचनद से अभिप्राय है-पाँच नदियों की भूमि। यूनानियों ने पंजाब पर अधिकार करने के पश्चात् इसका नाम पैंटापोटामिया रखा। पैंटा से अभिप्राय था-पाँच और पोटामिया का अर्थ था-नदी। इस प्रकार यूनानियों ने भी पंजाब को पाँच नदियों की ही भूमि कहा। मौर्य काल में अफ़गानिस्तान और बलोचिस्तान के क्षेत्र भी पंजाब में सम्मिलित कर लिए गए थे जिस कारण इसकी
उत्तर-पश्चिमी सीमा हिंदुकुश पर्वत तक पहुँच गई थी। पंजाब में कई शताब्दियों तक टक कबीले का शासन रहा था जिस कारण पंजाब को ‘टक देश’ कहा जाने लगा।

1. ऋग्वैदिक काल में पंजाब को किस नाम से जाना जाता था ?
2. पंचनद से क्या भाव है ?
3. पंजाब को पैंटापोटामिया का नाम किसने दिया था ?
4. पंजाब को टक देश क्यों कहा जाता था ?
5. निम्नलिखित में से कौन-सी नदी पंजाब में बहती है ?
   • ब्यास
   • गंगा
   • यमुना
   • उपरोक्त में से कोई नहीं।

उत्तर-

1. ऋग्वैदिक काल में पंजाब को सप्त सिंधु के नाम से जाना जाता था।
2. पंचनद से भाव है-पाँच दरिया।
3. पंजाब को पैंटापोटामिया का नाम यूनानियों ने दिया।
4. पंजाब को टक देश इसलिए कहा जाता था क्योंकि यहाँ सदियों तक टक कबीले का राज रहा था।
5. ब्यास।

3
हिमालय पर्वत पंजाब के उत्तर में स्थित है। हिमालय से अभिप्राय बर्फ का घर है। हिमालय की चोटियाँ सदैव बर्फ़ से ढकी रहती हैं। यह पर्वत पूर्व में असम से लेकर पश्चिम में अफ़गानिस्तान तक फैला हुआ है। इसकी. लंबाई 2500 किलोमीटर तथा चौड़ाई 240 किलोमीटर से 320 किलोमीटर है। ऊँचाई के आधार पर हिमालय पर्वत को तीन भागों में विभाजित किया जा सकता है। प्रथम भाग में वे चोटियाँ आती हैं जिनकी ऊँचाई 20,000 फुट तथा इससे ऊपर है। माऊँट ऐवरेस्ट इसकी विश्व में सबसे ऊँची चोटी है। इसकी ऊँचाई 29:028 फुट अथवा 8848 मीटर है। ये चोटियाँ सारा वर्ष बर्फ से ढकी रहती हैं। दूसरे भाग में वे चोटियाँ आती हैं जिनकी ऊँचाई 10,000 फुट से 20,000 फुट के बीच है।

1. हिमालय से क्या भाव है ?
2. हिमालय की लंबाई व चौड़ाई कितनी है ?
3. हिमालय की संसार में सबसे ऊंची चोटी कौन-सी है ?
4. हिमालय का कोई एक वरदान बताएँ।
5. माऊँट ऐवरेस्ट की ऊँचाई ……… मीटर है।

उत्तर-

1. हिमालय से भाव है-बर्फ का घर।
2. हिमालय की लंबाई 2500 कि०मी० तथा चौड़ाई 240 कि०मी० से 320 कि०मी० है।
3. हिमालय की संसार में सर्वाधिक ऊंची चोटी का नाम माऊँट ऐवरेस्ट है।
4. इसने सदियों तक पंजाब तथा भारत के लिए पहरेदारी का काम किया है।
5. 8848.

4
मैदानी प्रदेश पंजाब का सबसे बड़ा और महत्त्वपूर्ण खंड है। सही अर्थों में यही पंजाब है। यह प्रदेश सिंध और यमुना नदियों के मध्य स्थित है। इस मैदान की गणना विश्व के सबसे उपजाऊ मैदानों में की जाती है। इसकी समुद्र तल से औसत ऊँचाई 1000 फुट से अधिक नहीं है। पंजाब में बहने वाले पाँचों दरिया-सतलुज, ब्यास, रावी, चिनाब, जेहलम इसी प्रदेश में बहते हैं। क्योंकि यह प्रदेश बहुत उपजाऊ है, वर्षा पर्याप्त होती है और यातायात के साधन विकसित हैं, इसलिए यहाँ की जनसंख्या भी काफ़ी सघन है।

1. पंजाब का मैदानी प्रदेश कहाँ स्थित है ?
2. संसार में सबसे अधिक उपजाऊ मैदान कौन-से हैं ?
3. पंजाब में बहने वाले दरियाओं के नाम बताएँ।
4. पंजाब के मैदानी प्रदेश में जनसंख्या इतनी सघन क्यों है ?
5. पंजाब की जनसंख्या काफी ………….. है।

उत्तर-

1. पंजाब का मैदानी प्रदेश सिंधु तथा यमुना दरियाओं के मध्य स्थित है।
2. संसार में सबसे अधिक उपजाऊ मैदान पंजाब के मैदान हैं।
3. पंजाब में बहने वाले दरियाओं के नाम सतलुज, ब्यास, रावी, चिनाब तथा जेहलम हैं।
4. क्योंकि यहाँ यातायात के साधन बहुत विकसित हैं।
5. सघन।

5
अपनी भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण पंजाब शताब्दियों तक भारत का प्रवेश द्वार रहा है। इसके उत्तर-पश्चिम की ओर खैबर, कुर्रम, टोची और बोलान नामक दर्रे स्थित हैं। इन दरों को पार करना कोई जटिल कार्य नहीं था। इसलिए प्राचीन काल से ही विदेशी आक्रमणकारी इन दरों को पार करके भारत पर आक्रमण करते रहे। आर्यों, ईरानियों, यूनानियों, कुषाणों, हूणों, तुर्कों, मुग़लों और दुरानियों ने इस मार्ग से प्रवेश करके भारत पर आक्रमण किए। इन आक्रमणकारियों को सर्वप्रथम पंजाब के लोगों से ही संघर्ष करना पड़ा। पंजाब की विजय प्राप्त करने के पश्चात् ही वे आगे कदम बढ़ा पाए। वास्तव में पंजाब की विजय ही इन आक्रमणकारियों को भारत की विजय प्रदान करती थी। इसी कारण पंजाब को भारत का प्रवेश-द्वार कहा जाता है।

1. पंजाब को भारत का प्रवेश द्वार क्यों कहा जाता है ?
2. पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में स्थित सबसे प्रसिद्ध दर्रा कौन-सा है ?
3. विदेशी आक्रमणकारी दरियाओं के स्थान से भारत में क्यों आते रहे ?
4. कौन-से विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों ने सबसे पहले पंजाब पर आक्रमण किए ?
5. पंजाब में कौन-से विदेशी आक्रमणकारी सबसे पहले आए ?
   • ईरानी
   • आर्य
   • यूनानी
   •  कुषाण।

उत्तर-

1. क्योंकि विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों ने सबसे पहले पंजाब पर आक्रमण किए।
2. पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में स्थित सबसे प्रसिद्ध दर्रा खैबर है।
3. क्योंकि इन दरियाओं को पार करना आसान था।
4. पंजाब पर सबसे पहले आर्यों, ईरानियों, यूनानियों, कुषाणों, तुर्को, मुग़लों तथा दुर्रानियों ने आक्रमण किए।
5. आर्य।

पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताएँ तथा उनका इसके इतिहास पर प्रभाव PSEB 12th Class History Notes

• पंजाब के विभिन्न नाम (Different Names of the Punjab)-पंजाब फ़ारसी भाषा के दो शब्दों ‘पंज’ और ‘आब’ से मिलकर बना है-पंजाब का शाब्दिक अर्थ है पाँच नदियों का प्रदेश-पंजाब को प्राचीन काल में टक देश, ऋग्वैदिक काल में ‘सप्त-सिंधु’, पुराण काल में ‘पंचनद’, यूनानियों द्वारा ‘पैंटापोटामिया’, मध्यकाल में ‘लाहौर सूबा’ तथा अंग्रेजों द्वारा ‘पंजाब प्रांत’ कहा जाता था।
• पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताएँ (Physical Features of the Punjab)—पंजाब की भौतिक विशेषताओं से संबंधित मुख्य तथ्य इस प्रकार हैं—
  • हिमालय और सुलेमान पर्वत श्रेणियाँ (The Himalayas and Sulaiman Mountain Ranges)-हिमालय पर्वत पंजाब के उत्तर में स्थित है-यह पर्वत आसाम से लेकर अफ़गानिस्तान तक फैला हुआ है-यह पंजाब के लिए वरदान सिद्ध हुआ है-हिमालय पर्वत के फलस्वरूप पंजाब की भूमि अत्यधिक उपजाऊ बन गई है-सुलेमान पर्वत श्रेणियाँ पंजाब के उत्तर-पश्चिम में स्थित हैं – इन्हीं श्रेणियों में खैबर, कुर्रम, बोलान, टोची तथा गोमल नामक दर्रे स्थित हैं।
  • अर्द्ध-पर्वतीय प्रदेश (Sub-Mountainous Region)—यह प्रदेश शिवालिक पहाड़ियों और पंजाब के मैदानी भाग के मध्य स्थित है-इसे तराई प्रदेश भी कहा जाता है-इसमें होशियारपुर, काँगड़ा, अंबाला, गुरदासपुर तथा स्यालकोट के प्रदेश आते हैं।
  • मैदानी प्रदेश (The Plains)—मैदानी प्रदेश पंजाब का सबसे बड़ा और महत्त्वपूर्ण खंड है-यह प्रदेश सिंध और यमुना नदियों के मध्य स्थित है-इसका अधिकाँश भाग पाँच दोआबों से घिरा हुआ हैइन दोबाओं को बिस्त जालंधर दोआब, बारी दोआब, रचना दोआब, चज दोआब और सिंध सागर दोआब कहा जाता है-पंजाब के मैदानी भाग में सतलुज और घग्घर नदियों के बीच के क्षेत्र को मालवा तथा बांगर कहा जाता है। पंजाब के दक्षिण-पश्चिम का प्रदेश रेगिस्तानी है। अतः यहाँ की जनसंख्या बहुत कम है।
• भौतिक विशेषताओं का पंजाब के इतिहास पर प्रभाव (Influence of Physical Features on the History of the Punjab)—पंजाब पर उसकी भौतिक विशेषताओं के राजनीतिक, सामाजिक, धार्मिक तथा आर्थिक प्रभावों से संबंधित मुख्य तथ्य इस प्रकार हैं—
  • राजनीतिक प्रभाव (Political Effects)-उत्तर-पश्चिम में विभिन्न दर्रे स्थित होने के कारण पंजाब विदेशी आक्रमणकारियों के लिए भारत का प्रवेश द्वार बन गया सभी महत्त्वपूर्ण और निर्णायक लड़ाइयाँ इसी क्षेत्र में हुईं-पंजाब के शहरों का राजनीतिक महत्त्व बढ़ गया-पंजाबियों को शताब्दियों तक भारी कष्टों और अत्याचारों का सामना करना पड़ा।
  • सामाजिक प्रभाव (Social Effects)—पंजाबियों में वीरता, साहस, कष्ट सहने और बलिदान के विशेष गुण उत्पन्न हो गए-यहाँ पर जातियों तथा उपजातियों की संख्या में वृद्धि हुई-पंजाब में कला और साहित्य के विकास को धक्का लगा।
  • धार्मिक प्रभाव (Religious Effects)-पंजाब को हिंदू धर्म की जन्म भूमि कहा जाता हैपंजाब में इस्लाम का प्रसार भारत के अन्य भागों की तुलना में अधिक हुआ-पंजाब की भूमि को सिख धर्म की उत्पत्ति और विकास का श्रेय जाता है।
  • आर्थिक प्रभाव (Economic Effects)-पंजाब की भूमि अत्यधिक उपजाऊ होने के कारण पंजाबियों का मुख्य व्यवसाय कृषि है-पंजाब का आंतरिक तथा विदेशी व्यापार काफ़ी उन्नत हो गयापंजाब में अनेक व्यापारिक नगर अस्तित्व में आए-पंजाबी आर्थिक रूप से काफ़ी समृद्ध हो गए।

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 23 विश्व के प्रमुख विषयों के प्रति भारत का दृष्टिकोण Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 23 विश्व के प्रमुख विषयों के प्रति भारत का दृष्टिकोण

दीर्घ उत्तरीय प्रश्न-

प्रश्न 1.
भारत में मानवीय अधिकारों की सुरक्षा के लिए किये गए प्रबन्धों का विस्तारपूर्वक वर्णन करो। (Write the arrangements made for the Protection of Human Rights in India in detail.)
अथवा
भारत में मानवीय अधिकारों की रक्षा सम्बन्धी कौन-से कदम उठाए गए हैं ? (What arrangements have been made in India for the Protection of Human Rights ?)
अथवा
भारत में मानवीय अधिकारों की रक्षा के लिए उठाये गए कोई छः कदमों का वर्णन कीजिए। (Describe any six steps taken in India for the protection of Human Rights.)
उत्तर-
मानवधिकारों का अर्थ-मानवाधिकार सामाजिक जीवन की वे परिस्थितियां हैं जिनमें रहकर व्यक्ति अपने व्यक्तित्व का पूर्ण विकास कर सके। मानवाधिकारों की व्याख्या अत्यन्त विशाल है। इसमें मानव जीवन पर प्रभाव डालने वाले व्यापक वातावरण को शामिल किया जाता है। मानव अधिकारों के बिना कोई भी व्यक्ति अपने व्यक्तित्व का विकास नहीं कर सकता। मानव अधिकारों से हमारा तात्पर्य चार प्रकार के अधिकरों से है-(1) ऐसे अधिकार जो प्रत्येक मानव में जन्म-जात होते हैं और उसके जीवन का अभिन्न अंग होते हैं। (2) ऐसे अधिकार जो मानव जीवन और उसके विकास के लिए आधारभूत होते हैं। (3) ऐसे अधिकार जिनके उपभोग के लिए उचित सामाजिक दशाओं का होना एक पूर्व शर्त है। (4) ऐसे अधिकार जिन्हें मानव की प्राथमिक आवश्यकता और मांगों के रूप में प्रत्येक राज्य को अपने संविधान तथा कानूनों में सम्मिलित कर लेना चाहिए।

भारत में मानवाधिकारों की रक्षा के लिए किए गए प्रबन्ध-व्यक्ति के व्यक्तित्व के विकास, सम्मान, गौरव व समस्त मानवता के कल्याण के लिए मानवाधिकारों का होना अत्यावश्यक है। मानवाधिकार का अस्तित्व एवं रक्षा उपाय किसी सभ्यता के उत्थान अथवा पतन को इंगित करते हैं। सहिष्णुता, अहिंसा, प्रेम, बंधुत्व, स्वतन्त्रता और सर्वधर्म स्वभाव भारतीय सभ्यता के अटूट अंग रहे हैं। परन्तु समय-समय पर विदेशी आक्रांताओं ने भारतीयों के अधिकारों का हनन किया है। औपनिवेशिक शासन के दौरान भारतीयों का दमन किया गया और मानवाधिकार नाम की कोई चीज़ नहीं रह गई थी। परन्तु स्वतन्त्रता संग्राम के दौरान ही प्रबुद्ध भारतीयों का पश्चिमी देशों के साथ सम्पर्क हुआ और भारत में भी मानवाधिकारों के प्रति एक नई समझ-बूझ पैदा हुई। स्वतन्त्रता संग्राम के दौरान धार्मिक नेताओं, सामाजिक सुधारकों व शिक्षा शास्त्रियों ने स्वतन्त्रता व अधिकारों का जोर-शोर से प्रचार किया। ब्रिटिश दमनकारी नीतियों ने बच्चों, स्त्रियों पुरुषों, श्रमिकों, किसानों इत्यादि पर प्रत्यक्ष अथवा अप्रत्यक्ष रूप से बहुत अधिक प्रभाव डाला। भारत में पहली बार 1928 में ‘सर्व दलीय बैठक’ में मानवाधिकारों की मांग की गई, परन्तु ब्रिटिश सरकार द्वारा इसे ठुकरा दिया गया। 1935 में भारत सरकार अधिनियम के अन्तर्गत भी इस मांग को ठुकरा दिया गया।

भारतीय संविधान निर्माता मानवाधिकारों के प्रति सचेत थे और इनका महत्त्व समझते थे। इसीलिए संविधान सभा के सदस्यों, जो मानवाधिकारों के प्रमुख समर्थक थे, ने नए संविधान में जान-बूझ कर नागरिकों के मौलिक अधिकारों की व्यवस्था की। संविधान निर्माताओं का यह विचार था कि यदि संविधान में मौलिक अधिकारों को स्थान न दिया गया तो वह पंगु रहेगा और विश्व की प्रेरणाओं का स्रोत नहीं बन पाएगा।

भारतीय संविधान भाग-III में अनुच्छेद 14 से 32 तक नागरिकों के मौलिक अधिकारों का विस्तृत रूप से वर्णन किया गया है। ये अधिकार हैं
(1) समानता का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 14-18), (2) स्वतन्त्रता का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 19-22), (3) शोषण के विरुद्ध अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 23-24), (4) धार्मिक स्वतन्त्रता का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 25-28), (5) सांस्कृतिक व शिक्षा सम्बन्धी अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 29-30), (6) संवैधानिक उपचारों का अधिकार (अनुच्छेद 32) । संविधान द्वारा बिना किसी भेदभाव के सभी नागरिकों को समान रूप से मौलिक अधिकार प्रदान किए गए हैं। इन अधिकारों द्वारा राज्य की शक्तियों पर प्रतिबन्ध लगाया गया है। विशेष रूप से कमजोर वर्गों, महिलाओं, बच्चों, अल्पसंख्यकों आदि के मानवाधिकारों के लिए विशेष कदम उठाने के प्रबन्ध भी किए गए हैं। इसके अतिरिक्त संविधान के भाग-IV में निर्देशक सिद्धान्तों के अन्तर्गत यह व्यवस्था की गई है कि राज्य अपनी नीति का निर्धारण इस प्रकार से करेगा कि सामाजिकआर्थिक न्याय की प्राप्ति हो सके।

भारत में मानव अधिकारों की रक्षा के लिए उठाये गए कदम- भारत में मानवीय अधिकारों की रक्षा के लिए निम्नलिखित कदम उठाए गए हैं

1. मौलिक अधिकारों की व्यवस्था- भारत के संविधान में छः मौलिक अधिकार प्रदान किये गए हैं। मौलिक अधिकारों की अवहेलना पर नागरिकों को न्यायालय में पांच प्रकार की याचिकाएं (Writs) दायर करने का अधिकार दिया गया है।
2. राष्ट्रीय मानव अधिकार आयोग की स्थापना- भारत में मानवीय अधिकारों की रक्षा के लिए राष्ट्रीय मानव अधिकार आयोग की स्थापना की गई हैं।
3. राष्ट्रीय अनुसूचित जाति एवं जनजाति आयोग-मानव अधिकारों की रक्षा के लिए भारत में राष्ट्रीय अनुसूचित जाति एवं जनजाति आयोग की स्थापना की गई है।
4. राष्ट्रीय महिला आयोग- भारत में महिला अधिकारों की रक्षा के लिए राष्ट्रीय महिला आयोग की स्थापना की गई है।
5. राष्ट्रीय अल्पसंख्यक आयोग- भारत में अल्पसंख्यकों के हितों की रक्षा के लिए अल्पसंख्यक आयोग की स्थापना की गई है।
6. स्वतन्त्र न्यायपालिका-भारत में मानव अधिकारों की रक्षा के लिए स्वतन्त्र न्यायपालिका की व्यवस्था की गई है। न्यायपालिका मानव अधिकारों की प्रहरी के रूप में कार्य करती है।

निःशस्त्रीकरण का अर्थ एवं आवश्यकता
(Meaning and Need of Disarmament)

प्रश्न 2.
निःशस्त्रीकरण से आप क्या समझते हो ? आधुनिक युग में इसकी क्या आवश्यकता है ?
(What do you mean by Disarmament ? Discuss the necessity of Disarmament in Present World.)
उत्तर-
नि:शस्त्रीकरण आज अंतर्राष्ट्रीय राजनीति की ज्वलंत समस्या है जो कि निरन्तर विचार-विमर्श के बावजूद भी गम्भीर बनी हुई है। क्योंकि 20वीं शताब्दी में शस्त्रों के उत्पादन ने बड़ा भयानक रूप धारण कर लिया है, जिसके कारण मानव सभ्यता अपने आपको बारूद के ढेर पर बैठी हुई अनुभव करती है जो कि किसी भी क्षण सम्पूर्ण मानव सभ्यता को नष्ट कर सकती है। शस्त्रों की दौड़, खासतौर पर आण्विक शस्त्रों की दौड़ इतनी तेजी से बढ़ रही है कि इसके कारण ‘पागलपन’ (Madness) की स्थिति पैदा हो गई है। इसीलिए आज विश्व समुदाय निःशस्त्रीकरण के ऊपर ज़ोर दे रहा है और यही समय की मांग है।

निःशस्त्रीकरण का अर्थ (Meaning of Disarmament)-साधारण शब्दों में नि:शस्त्रीकरण से हमारा अभिप्राय: “शारीरिक हिंसा के प्रयोग के समस्त भौतिक तथा मानवीय साधनों के उन्मूलन से है।” यह एक ऐसा कार्यक्रम है जिसका उद्देश्य हथियारों के अस्तित्व और उनकी प्रकृति से उत्पन्न कुछ खास खतरों को कम करना है। इससे हथियारों की सीमा निश्चित करने या उन पर नियन्त्रण करने या उन्हें कम करने का विचार प्रकट होता है। निःशस्त्रीकरण का लक्ष्य आवश्यक रूप से निरस्त्र कर देना नहीं है। इसका लक्ष्य तो यह है कि जो भी हथियार इस समय उपस्थित हैं, उनके

(1) मॉरगेंथो (Morgenthau) के शब्दों में, “निःशस्त्रीकरण कुछ या सब शस्त्रों में कटौती या उनको समाप्त करता है ताकि शस्त्रीकरण की दौड़ का अन्त हो।”
(2) वी० वी० डायक (V.V. Dyke) के मतानुसार, “सैनिक शक्ति से सम्बन्धित किसी भी तरह के नियन्त्रण अथवा प्रतिबन्ध लगाने के कार्य को नि:शस्त्रीकरण कहा जाता है।”
(3) वेस्ले डब्ल्यू ० पोस्वार (Wesley W. Posvar) ने अपने एक लेख “The New Meaning of Arms Control’ में लिखा है कि, “निःशस्त्रीकरण से हमारा अभिप्रायः सेनाओं और शस्त्रों को घटा देने या समाप्त कर देने से है जबकि शस्त्र-नियन्त्रण में वे सभी उपाय शामिल हैं जिनका उद्देश्य युद्ध के संभावित और विनाशकारी परिणामों को रोकना है। इसमें सेनाओं तथा शस्त्रों के घटाने या न घटाने को विशेष महत्त्व नहीं दिया जाता है।”

निःशस्त्रीकरण की आवश्यकता (NECESSITY OF DISARMAMENT):
निम्न कारणों से निःशस्त्रीकरण को आवश्यक माना जाता है-
1. विश्व शान्ति व सुरक्षा के लिए-नि:शस्त्रीकरण के द्वारा ही विश्व शान्ति व सुरक्षा की स्थापना सम्भव है।

2. निःशस्त्रीकरण आर्थिक विकास में सहायक-विश्व के अधिकांश विकसित व अविकसित राष्ट्र अपने धन यदि विकासशील देश निःशस्त्रीकरण की प्रक्रिया को अपनाते हुए निःशस्त्रीकरण के रास्ते पर चलें तो इसके कारण इन देशों का बहुत आर्थिक विकास हो सकता है क्योंकि ये देश जितना धन अपनी रक्षा पर खर्च करते हैं वही धन ये अपने आर्थिक विकास पर खर्च करें तो शीघ्र ही यह आर्थिक शक्ति बन सकते हैं।

3. निःशस्त्रीकरण अंतर्राष्ट्रीय तनाव को कम करता है-नि:शस्त्रीकरण के द्वारा अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय तनाव में कमी आती है क्योंकि शस्त्रों की होड़ के कारण प्रत्येक राष्ट्र अधिक-से-अधिक हथियार एकत्रित करने की सोचता है। हैडली बुल के अनुसार शस्त्रों की होड़ स्वयं तनाव की सूचक है। अतः अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय तनाव को कम करने व आपसी सहयोग की वृद्धि के लिए आवश्यक है कि नि:शस्त्रीकरण पर बल दिया जाए।

4. निःशस्त्रीकरण उपनिवेशवाद व साम्राज्यवाद का अन्त करने में सहायक है-जब एक देश के पास बड़ी मात्रा में हथियार जमा होने लगते हैं तो वह इनका प्रयोग अपना प्रभाव क्षेत्र बढ़ाने में करने लगता है। इसके कारण ही उपनिवेशवाद व साम्राज्यवाद की बुराइयां पैदा हो जाती हैं क्योंकि साम्राज्यवाद व उपनिवेशवाद शक्ति बढ़ाने के ही दूसरे रूप हैं। यदि राष्ट्र निःशस्त्रीकरण पर बल देंगे तो शक्तिशाली राष्ट्र कभी भी अपना प्रभाव क्षेत्र बढ़ाने की नहीं सोचेंगे जिसके कारण उपनिवेशवाद व साम्राज्यवाद का अन्त होगा तथा राष्ट्रों के मध्य आपसी सहयोग व शान्ति का वातावरण बनेगा।

5. लोक-कल्याण को बढ़ावा-सभी राष्ट्र चाहे वह विकसित हों या विकासशील शस्त्रों पर धन व्यय करते हैं। यदि विकासशील देश निःशस्त्रीकरण की नीति पर चलें तो वह प्रति वर्ष अपने करोड़ों डालर बचा कर उन्हें लोककल्याण के कार्यों पर खर्च कर सकते हैं।

6. विदेशी इस्तक्षेय को रोकता है-जब बड़े शष्ट्र शास्त्रों का भारी मात्रा में निर्माण कर लेते है तो इन्हें दूसरे देशों व अविकसित देशों में बेचते हैं। कुछ अविकसित देश इन देशों से नवीन तकनीक के सैन्य उपकरणों का आयात करते हैं। इसके कारण वह उन विकासशील देशों के आंतरिक मामलों में दखल-अंदाज़ी करते हैं। अत: विकासशील देशों में महाशक्तियों के बढ़ते हुए हस्तक्षेप को रोकने के लिए यह आवश्यक है कि यह देश मिलकर निःशस्त्रीकरण पर बल दें।

7. सैनिकीकरण को रोकता है-प्रायः देखा जाता है कि शस्त्रों की होड़ सैनिकीकरण को जन्म देती है। आज प्रत्येक राष्ट्र अपनी सुरक्षा के लिए लाखों की सेना एकत्रित करता है। अतः बढ़ते हुए सैनिकीकरण को रोकने के लिए नि:शस्त्रीकरण बहुत आवश्यक है।

8. सैनिक गठबन्धनों को रोकता है-निःशस्त्रीकरण सैनिक गठबन्धनों को रोकता है। द्वितीय विश्व-युद्ध के बाद शस्त्रीकरण की प्रक्रिया आरम्भ हुई। इसके दौरान कई सैनिक गठबन्धन हुए जिनमें नाटो, सीटो, सेंटो, एंजुस गठबन्धन अमेरिका के द्वारा किए गए। परन्तु जैसे ही 1985 के बाद गोर्बोच्योव-रीगन के मध्य वार्ता आरम्भ हुई तो इसमें निःशस्त्रीकरण की प्रक्रिया आरम्भ हुई और धीरे-धीरे नाटो को छोड़कर सभी सैनिक गठबन्धन समाप्त हो गए हैं। अतः स्पष्ट है कि नि:शस्त्रीकरण सैनिक गठबन्धनों को रोकता है।

9. परमाणु युद्ध से बचाव के लिए आवश्यक-द्वितीय विश्व युद्ध के दौरान 7 अगस्त, 1945 को अमेरिका ने नागासाकी पर और 9 अगस्त, 1945 को हिरोशीमा पर परमाणु बम गिराए। इसके कारण भयंकर नरसंहार हुआ। इसके पश्चात् 1949 में सोवियत संघ ने, 1954 में ब्रिटेन ने, 1959 में फ्रांस ने तथा 1963 में चीन ने परमाणु बम का आविष्कार किया। इन देशों ने मिलकर ‘परमाणु क्लब’ बना लिया और परमाणु क्षमता पर अपना एकाधिकार जमाए रखा। इसका मुख्य कारण था कि परमाणु शक्ति का प्रसार न हो। परन्तु धीरे-धीरे भारत, इज़राइल, ब्राज़ील, दक्षिणी अफ्रीका, ईराक, पाकिस्तान, कनाडा, ऑस्ट्रेलिया आदि देशों ने भी परमाणु क्षमता प्राप्त कर ली जिसके कारण परमाणु युद्ध होने के आसार बढ़ गए। इसके कारण परमाणु क्लब के सदस्य राष्ट्रों को चिंता हुई और उन्होंने परमाणु युद्ध को रोकने के लिए नि:शस्त्रीकरण पर बल दिया। इस दिशा में व्यापक परमाणु प्रसार निषेध सन्धि (C.T.B.T.) उल्लेखनीय है। 1985 में गोर्बोच्योव-रीगन के मध्य शान्ति वार्ता आरम्भ हुई और इसके कारण निःशस्त्रीकरण की प्रक्रिया आरम्भ हुई और परमाणु युद्ध का भय टल गया।

प्रश्न 3.
भूमण्डलीय निःशस्त्रीकरण के उद्देश्य को प्राप्त करने की दिशा में भारत की भूमिका.का वर्णन कीजिए। (Describe the role played by India in achieving the objective of Global Disarmament.)
अथवा
भारत द्वारा निःशस्त्रीकरण की दिशा में उठाए गए कदमों का वर्णन करें। (Explain steps taken by India towards Disarmaments.)
उत्तर-
भारत शान्तिप्रिय देश है। भारत की विदेश नीति का मूल उद्देश्य अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय शान्ति और सुरक्षा कायम रखना तथा उसे प्रोत्साहित करना है। भारत की मूल नीति यह है कि नि:शस्त्रीकरण के द्वारा ही विश्व-शान्ति को बनाए रखा जा सकता है और अणुशक्ति का प्रयोग केवल मानव कल्याण के लिए ही होना चाहिए। स्वतंत्रता के पश्चात् भारत सरकार ने अणु बमों के बनाने और उनके परीक्षणों का घोर विरोध किया है। भारत ने संयुक्त राष्ट्र के निःशस्त्रीकरण के प्रयासों में सदैव महत्त्वपूर्ण योगदान दिया है। भारत के प्रतिनिधियों ने संयुक्त राष्ट्र में अणु बम तथा परमाणु शस्त्र बनाने के विरुद्ध सदैव आवाज़ उठायी है और उन प्रस्तावों का समर्थन किया है जो इनके परीक्षण पर रोक लगाते हैं। 14 जुलाई, 1966 को मास्को में भाषण देते हुए प्रधानमन्त्री इंदिरा गांधी ने कहा था कि, “परमाणु शस्त्रीकरण का वास्तविक उत्तर पूर्ण निःशस्त्रीकरण है। इस विश्व-व्यापी समस्या का समाधान अविलंब किया जाना है।”

संयुक्त राष्ट्र निःशस्त्रीकरण सम्मेलन (1978)–मई-जून, 1978 में संयुक्त राष्ट्र की महासभा के नि:शस्त्रीकरण से सम्बन्धित अधिवेशन में भारत के प्रधानमन्त्री मोरारजी देसाई ने पूर्ण निःशस्त्रीकरण का समर्थन किया। प्रधानमन्त्री मोरारजी देसाई ने 9 जून, 1978 में घोषणा की कि-“हमने अपने आप से संकल्प लिया है कि हम परमाणु हथियारों का निर्माण नहीं करेंगे और न ही इन्हें कहीं से प्राप्त करेंगे।”

संयुक्त राष्ट्र निःशस्त्रीकरण सम्मेलन (1982)-जून, 1982 में संयुक्त राष्ट्र की महासभा में निःशस्त्रीकरण की समस्या पर व्यापक विचार-विमर्श किया गया। भारत की प्रधानमन्त्री श्रीमती इंदिरा गांधी ने परमाणु अस्त्रों पर रोक लगाने के बारे में एक पाँच सूत्रीय कार्यक्रम प्रस्तुत किया, जिसकी संयुक्त राष्ट्र में बहुत प्रशंसा की गई।

निःशस्त्रीकरण पर विश्व सम्मेलन-भारत ने अगस्त, 1987 में संयुक्त राष्ट्र द्वारा न्यूयार्क में आयोजित, नि शत्रीकरण पर आयोजित विश्व सम्मेलन में भाग लिया। भारत के विदेश राज्य मन्त्री नटवर सिंह ने अपने भाषण के दौरान सैन्य प्रतिस्पर्धा को समाप्त करके विश्व को विनाश से बचाने की अपील की।

प्रधानमन्त्री राजीव गांधी के निःशस्त्रीकरण के लिए किए गए प्रयास-प्रधानमन्त्री राजीव गांधी ने कई बार स्पष्ट शब्दों में कहा कि नि:शस्त्रीकरण आज की सबसे बड़ी आवश्यकता है। वे सामूहिक विध्वंस करने वाले परमाणु हथियारों पर पाबंदी लगाने के पक्ष में थे। प्रधानमन्त्री राजीव गांधी ने अक्तूबर, 1987 में संयुक्त राष्ट्र की महासभा में बोलते हुए पुन: परमाण्विक निःशस्त्रीकरण की अपील की और उन्होंने इस बात पर जोर दिया कि परमाणु आयुध सम्पन्न सभी राष्ट्र अपने समस्त आयुधों और उन्हें फेंकने के उपकरणों को नष्ट कर दें और भविष्य में उन्हें न बनाने का आश्वासन दें। भारत ने 29 अक्तूबर, 1987 को महासभा की नि:शस्त्रीकरण मामलों की समिति में प्रस्ताव रखा कि संयुक्त राष्ट्र महासभा परमाणु हथियार वाले सभी देशों को इन हथियारों का प्रसार रोकने के लिए सहमत कराये। जून, 1988 में प्रधानमन्त्री राजीव गांधी ने नि:शस्त्रीकरण पर संयुक्त राष्ट्र के तीसरे विश्व सम्मेलन को सम्बोधित करते हुए आगामी 22 वर्ष के भीतर विश्व के सभी तरह के परमाणु हथियार हटाने के लिए तीन चरण में समयबद्ध कार्यक्रम योजना का सुझाव दिया तथा संयुक्त राष्ट्र से इस योजना को तत्काल एक कार्यक्रम के रूप में आरंभ करने का आग्रह किया।

गुट-निरपेक्ष देशों का 11वाँ शिखर सम्मेलन-1995 में गुट-निरपेक्ष देशों.के 11वें शिखर सम्मेलन में भारत ने विश्व से पूर्ण परमाणु निःशस्त्रीकरण के पक्ष में सहयोग देने की बात कही। भारत पूर्ण नि:शस्त्रीकरण के पक्ष में है। परन्तु भारत ने 1996 में व्यापक परमाणु परीक्षण प्रतिबंध सन्धि पर हस्ताक्षर करने से इन्कार कर दिया। ये सन्धि समानता के सिद्धान्त का उल्लंघन करती है क्योंकि ये सन्धि परमाणु शक्ति सम्पन्न देशों और परमाणु शक्ति विहीन देशों में भेदभाव करती है। भारत परमाणु परीक्षणों पर प्रतिबन्ध लगाने के पक्ष में है परन्तु साथ में भारत ये भी चाहता है कि जिन देशों के पास परमाणु हथियार हैं, वे उन्हें समयबद्ध कार्यक्रम के आधार पर नष्ट करें। अतः भारत पूर्ण नि:शस्त्रीकरण का महान् समर्थक है।

भारत ने सन् 1998 में पांच परमाणु परीक्षण किये तथा साथ यह घोषणा कि वह परमाणु विहीन राष्ट्रों पर परमाणु हमला नहीं करेगा। वर्तमान समय में भी भारत निःशस्त्रीकरण के लिए निरन्तर कदम उठा रहा है।

प्रश्न 4.
वैश्वीकरण से क्या अभिप्राय है ? भारत में वैश्वीकरण (संसारीकरण ) की चार विशेषताओं का वर्णन करें। (What do you mean by Globalisation ? Explain four features of Globalisation in India.)
उत्तर-
20वीं शताब्दी के अन्तिम दशक में संचार क्रान्ति ने समूचे विश्व की दूरियां कम कर दी और समस्त संसार को ‘सार्वभौमिक ग्राम’ (Global Village) में परिवर्तित कर दिया। इस युग में एक नई विचारधारा का सूत्रपात हुआ जिसे वैश्वीकरण (Globalisation) कहा जाता है। यद्यपि भारत दगा विचारधारा से अनभिज्ञ नहीं है क्योंकि हमारी संस्कृति ‘वसुधैव कुटुंबकम्’ को मान्यता प्रदान करती है, लेकिन आधुनिक युग में वैश्वीकरण का विशेष महत्त्व है। अध्ययनों से यह स्पष्ट हो जाता है वैश्वीकरण तुलनात्मक लागत-लाभ (Comparative Cost) के सिद्धान्त का आधुनिक संस्करण है। इसका प्रतिपादन प्रतिष्ठित अर्थशास्त्रियों द्वारा किया गया था ताकि ग्रेट ब्रिटेन को पिछड़े देशों और अपने उप-निवेशों में निर्बाध रूप से वस्तुओं के निर्यात-आयात का सैद्धान्तिक आधार मिल सके। इसके पीछे यह तर्क दिया गया कि विशेषीकरण के परिणामस्वरूप आपस में व्यापार सम्बन्ध रखने वाले सभी देशों को लाभ होगा। यही तर्क अब

वैश्वीकरण के समर्थक दे रहे हैं। – वैश्वीकरण की परिभाषा एवं अर्थ-वैश्वीकरण की अवधारणा को विचारकों ने निम्नलिखित प्रकार से परिभाषित किया है

(1) ऐन्थनी गिडंस (Anthony Giddens) के मतानुसार वैश्वीकरण की अवधारणा को निम्नलिखित प्रकार से समझा जा सकता है
(i) वैश्वीकरण से अभिप्राय विश्वव्यापी सम्बन्धों के प्रबलीकरण से है।
(ii) वैश्वीकरण एक ऐसी अवधारणा है जो दूरस्थ प्रदेशों को इस प्रकार जोड़ देती है कि स्थानीय घटनाक्रम का प्रभाव मीलों दूर स्थित प्रदेशों की व्यवस्थाओं एवं घटनाओं पर पड़ता है।
(2) रोबर्टसन (Robertson) के अनुसार वैश्वीकरण, विश्व एकीकरण की चेतना के प्रबलीकरण से सम्बन्धित अवधारणा है।
(3) वैश्वीकरण से आशय है “व्यापार, पूंजी एवं टेक्नालॉजी के प्रवाहों के माध्यम से घरेलू अर्थव्यवस्था का शेष संसार के साथ एकीकरण एवं समन्वय।”

साधारण शब्दों में वैश्वीकरण से अभिप्राय किसी वस्तु, सेवा, पूंजी एवं बौद्धिक संपदा का एक देश से दूसरे के साथ अप्रतिबन्धित आदान-प्रदान है। वैश्वीकरण की अवधारणा के कारण विश्व के देश एक-दूसरे के निकट आए हैं तथा यह एक विश्व, एक राज्य, एक इकाई एवं विश्व शान्ति की ओर प्रभावी कदम है। वैश्वीकरण की अवधारणा के कारण विश्व की समस्याओं को सुलझाना आसान हो गया है।

वैश्वीकरण की विशेषताएं (Features of Globalisation)—वैश्वीकरण की अवधारणा की विशेषताएं निम्नलिखित हैं-

• अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय अर्थव्यवस्था वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया की विशेषता ही नहीं, अपितु इसका परिणाम भी है।
• विश्वव्यापी संगठनों का उद्भव वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया की एक प्रमुख विशेषता है। इस प्रक्रिया के चलते विश्व व्यापार संगठन (W.T.O) 1 जनवरी, 1995 को अस्तित्व में आया।
• सूचना एवं संचार के क्षेत्र में क्रान्ति वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया की विशेषता है।
• अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय शान्ति एवं सुरक्षा के लिए विकसित अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय कानून वैश्वीकरण की अवधारणा का ही एक अंग है।
• बहुराष्ट्रीय कंपनियां वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया का एक लक्षण हैं।
• भौगोलिक सीमाओं के महत्त्व का विघटन भी वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया की एक विशेषता है एवं यह इस प्रक्रिया का परिणाम भी है।
• विदेशी निवेश में वृद्धि भी वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया का लक्षण है।
• अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय व्यापार में बढ़ावा वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया की विशेषता है।
• विकसित तकनीक वैश्वीकरण की एक विशेषता है।
• वैश्वीकरण की अन्य विशेषता प्रतिस्पर्धात्मक अर्थव्यवस्था है।
  अतः वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया ने आज संसार का नक्शा ही बदल दिया है और विश्व के सभी समुदायों को निकट ला विश्व समाज की स्थापना की है।

प्रश्न 5.
वैश्वीकरण से क्या अभिप्राय है ? भारत ने वैश्वीकरण की नीति क्यों अपनाई है ? (What do you mean by Globalisation ? Why India adopted the Policy of Globalisation?)
उत्तर-
वैश्वीकरण का अर्थ-इसके लिए प्रश्न नं0 4 देखें। भारत ने वैश्वीकरण की नीति क्यों अपनाई ?–भारत ने निम्नलिखित कारणों से वैश्वीकरण की नीति अपनाई है-

• वैश्वीकरण की नीति अपनाने से भारतीय अर्थव्यवस्था प्रतियोगी बन जायेगी।
• वैश्वीकरण की नीति अपनाने से भारत में विदेशी धन एवं तकनीक का आयात हो सकेगा, जो भारत के विकास के लिए सहायक सिद्ध होगा।
• वैश्वीकरण के कारण विभिन्न उत्पादों में प्रतियोगिता होगी, जिससे, उपभोक्ताओं को ऊंची गुणवत्ता वाले उत्पादन कम मूल्य में मिल सकेंगे।
• वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया अपनाने से भारतीय अर्थव्यवस्था विश्व अर्थव्यवस्था से जुड़ जायेगी, जिससे भारतीय अर्थव्यवस्था को लाभ होगा।
• वैश्वीकरण की नीति अपनाने से भारत में औद्योगिक विकास होगा।
• वैश्वीकरण की नीति अपनाने से भारत में अधिक रोज़गारों का सृजन होगा।

प्रश्न 6.
भारत द्वारा अपनाई गई भूमण्डलीकरण या वैश्वीकरण की नीति के गुण व दोष लिखें। (Write down the Merits and Demerits of the Policy of Globalisation Adopted by India.)
उत्तर-
भारत द्वारा सन् 1991 में वैश्वीकरण की नीति को अपनाया गया। इसके गुण एवं दोषों का वर्णन इस प्रकार हैं।
गुण (Merits)-

• वैश्वीकरण की नीति अपनाने से भारतीय अर्थ व्यवस्था प्रतियोगी बन गई है।
• वैश्वीकरण के कारण भारत में रोज़गार के अवसर बढ़े हैं।”
• वैश्वीकरण के कारण भारत ने नई-नई विदेशी तकनीकों का आगमन हुआ है।
• वैश्वीकरण के कारण भारत में विदेशी निवेश बढ़ा है।
• वैश्वीकरण के कारण भारत में प्रतियोगिता बढ़ी है, जिससे उपभोक्ताओं को सस्ते दामों पर उचित वस्तु प्राप्त हो रही है।
• वैश्वीकरण से भारत में उद्योगों का विकास हुआ है।

अवगुण (Demerits)

• वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया अपनाने से रोज़गार के अवसर बढ़ने की अपेक्षा कम हुए हैं तथा भारत में बेरोज़गारी बढ़ी है।
• वैश्वीकरण के कारण भारतीय मज़दूरों का शोषण हो रहा है।
• वैश्वीकरण के कारण भारत में आर्थिक असमानता बढ़ी है।
• वैश्वीकरण के कारण विदेशी कम्पनियों ने भारतीय संसाधनों का अनावश्यक रूप से दोहन किया है।
• वैश्वीकरण के कारण भारत में सार्वजनिक क्षेत्र को नुकसान हुआ है।
• वैश्वीकरण के कारण भारत में लघु एवं कुटीर उद्योग बंद हो गए हैं।
• आलोचकों का कहना है कि वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया अपनाने से भारत आर्थिक रूप से विदेशी राज्यों का गुलाम बन जायेगा।

लघु उत्तरीय प्रश्न-

प्रश्न 1.
विश्व की प्रमुख समस्याओं का वर्णन करें।
उत्तर-
विश्व की अनेक समस्याएं हैं, जिनमें मुख्य समस्याएं निम्नलिखित हैं-

• निःशस्त्रीकरण-विशेषकर परमाणु निःशस्त्रीकरण विश्व की एक मुख्य समस्या है। विश्व शान्ति के लिए सम्पूर्ण निःशस्त्रीकरण अति आवश्यक है।
• सामाजिक और आर्थिक जीवन का विकास विश्व की दूसरी महत्त्वपूर्ण समस्या है। आर्थिक असमानता को कम करना नई अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय आर्थिक व्यवस्था का एक महत्त्वपूर्ण उद्देश्य है।
• अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय सुरक्षा विश्व की अन्य महत्त्वपूर्ण समस्या है। सुरक्षा सभी देशों और व्यक्तियों की व्यापक प्रवृत्ति है तथा शान्ति के लिए आवश्यक ह
• विश्व की एक महत्त्वपूर्ण समस्या मानव अधिकार है। मानव अधिकारों के बिना व्यक्ति अपने जीवन का विकास नहीं कर सकता।
  ये चारों विश्व समस्याएं एक-दूसरे से घनिष्ठ सम्बन्ध रखती हैं और इनके हल के द्वारा ही विश्व शान्ति, विश्व कल्याण और विश्व समृद्धि सम्भव है।

प्रश्न 2.
निःशस्त्रीकरण से आपका क्या भाव है ?
उत्तर-
साधारण शब्दों में नि:शस्त्रीकरण से हमारा अभिप्राय शारीरिक हिंसा के प्रयोग के समस्त भौतिक तथा मानवीय साधनों के उन्मूलन से है। यह एक ऐसा कार्यक्रम है-जिसका उद्देश्य हथियारों के अस्तित्व और उनकी प्रकृति से उत्पन्न कुछ खास खतरों को कम करना है। इससे हथियारों की सीमा निश्चित करने या उन पर नियन्त्रण करने या उन्हें कम करने का विचार प्रकट होता है। नि:शस्त्रीकरण का लक्ष्य आवश्यक रूप से निरस्त्र कर देना नहीं है। इसका लक्ष्य तो यह है कि जो भी हथियार इस समय उपस्थित हैं, उनके प्रभाव को घटा दिया जाए।

• मॉरगेंथो (Morgenthau) के शब्दों में, “निःशस्त्रीकरण कुछ या सब शस्त्रों में कटौती या उनको समाप्त करता है ताकि शस्त्रीकरण की दौड़ का अन्त हो।”
• वी० वी० डायक (V.V. Dyke) के मतानुसार, “सैनिक शक्ति से सम्बन्धित किसी भी तरह के नियन्त्रण अथवा प्रतिबन्ध लगाने के कार्य को नि:शस्त्रीकरण कहा जाता है।”

प्रश्न 3.
राष्ट्रीय मानव अधिकार आयोग की रचना लिखो।
उत्तर-
मानव अधिकार सुरक्षा अधिनियम के अधीन गठित राष्ट्रीय मानव अधिकार आयोग में निम्नलिखित सदस्य शामिल किए गए हैं

• इस आयोग की अध्यक्षता भारतीय सर्वोच्च न्यायालय का एक पूर्व मुख्य न्यायाधीश करेगा।
• एक वह सदस्य जो कि सर्वोच्च न्यायालय का न्यायाधीश हो या वह रह चुका हो।
• एक सदस्य वह जो कि उच्च न्यायालय का न्यायाधीश हो या रह चुका हो।
• मानव अधिकारों से सम्बन्धित विशेष ज्ञान रखने वाले दो व्यक्ति।
• इन सदस्यों के अलावा कुछ विशेष कार्यों के लिए अल्पसंख्यक आयोग (National Commission for Minorities), अनुसूचित जाति व जन-जातियों से सम्बन्धित राष्ट्रीय आयोग व महिलाओं से सम्बन्धित राष्ट्रीय आयोग के अध्यक्षों की कुछ समय के लिए मानव अधिकार आयोग के सदस्यों की नियुक्ति की जा सकती है।

इस तरह यह स्पष्ट है कि मानव अधिकार आयोग में एक अध्यक्ष के अलावा चार अन्य स्थाई सदस्य होते हैं। अस्थायी सदस्यों के रूप में मानव अधिकार आयोग में अल्पसंख्यक, अनुसूचित जाति व जन-जातियों तथा महिला आयोगों के अध्यक्षों की कुछ समय के लिए किसी विशेष कार्य हेतु नियुक्ति की जा सकती है। इस आयोग में एक सचिव (Secretary General) भी होता है। जिसको आयोग का मुख्य कार्यकारी अधिकारी (Chief executive officer) कहा जाता है। इसकी नियुक्ति केन्द्र सरकार द्वारा मानव अधिकार आयोग के लिए की जाती है।

प्रश्न 4.
वैश्वीकरण से आपका क्या अभिप्राय है ?
उत्तर-
वैश्वीकरण (Globalisation) से अभिप्राय है किसी वस्तु, सेवा, पूंजी एवं बौद्धिक सम्पदा का एक देश से दूसरे देशों के साथ निर्बाध रूप से आदान-प्रदान। वैश्वीकरण के अन्तर्गत अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय व्यापार का संचालन निर्बाध रूप से होता है जो एक सर्वसहमत अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय संस्था द्वारा निर्धारित नियमों का पालन करता है।

1. रोबर्टसन के अनुसार, “वैश्वीकरण विश्व एकीकरण की चेतना के प्रबलीकरण से सम्बन्धित अवधारणा है।”
2. गाय ब्रायंबंटी के अनुसार, “वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया केवल विश्व व्यापार की खुली व्यवस्था, संचार के आधुनिकतम तरीकों के विकास, वित्तीय बाज़ार के अन्तर्राष्ट्रीयकरण, बहुराष्ट्रीय कम्पनियों के बढ़ते महत्त्व, जनसंख्या देशान्तरगमन तथा विशेषतः लोगों, वस्तुओं, पूंजी, आंकड़ों तथा विचारों के गतिशीलन से ही सम्बन्धित नहीं है, बल्कि संक्रामक रोगों तथा प्रदूषण का प्रसार भी इसमें शामिल है।”

प्रश्न 5.
राष्ट्रीय मानव अधिकार आयोग के चार मुख्य कार्य लिखो।
अथवा
राष्ट्रीय मानवाधिकार आयोग के चार मुख्य कार्यों का वर्णन करें।
उत्तर-
मानव अधिकार आयोग निम्नलिखित कार्य करता है-

• भारत के किसी भी क्षेत्र में मानव अधिकारों की अवहेलना होने पर उनकी जांच-पड़ताल मानव अधिकार । आयोग पीड़ित व्यक्ति की प्रार्थना पर करता है।
• आयोग लोक-कल्याणकारी अधिकारी द्वारा मानव अधिकारों के उल्लंघन को रोकने में की गई ढील की जांचपड़ताल करता है।
• आयोग मानव अधिकारों के क्षेत्र में गैर-सरकारी संस्थाओं द्वारा उठाए जा रहे कदमों को प्रोत्साहित करता है।
• आयोग संविधान व राष्ट्रीय कानूनों में वर्णित मानव अधिकारों से सम्बन्धित व्यवस्था पर विचार करता है और उन्हें प्रभावशाली ढंग से लागू करने की सिफ़ारिश करता है।

प्रश्न 6.
निःशस्त्रीकरण के सम्बन्ध में भारत का क्या दृष्टिकोण है ?
अथवा
भारत का निशस्त्रीकरण के प्रति क्या दृष्टिकोण है ?
उत्तर-
भारत एक शान्तिप्रिय देश है। भारत की यही नीति रही है कि नि:शस्त्रीकरण के द्वारा ही विश्व शान्ति को बनाए रखा जा सकता है। प्रधानमन्त्री श्री राजीव गांधी ने कई बार स्पष्ट शब्दों में कहा था कि नि:शस्त्रीकरण समय की मांग है। प्रधानमन्त्री श्री राजीव गांधी ने अक्तूबर, 1987 में संयुक्त राष्ट्र की महासभा में बोलते हुए निःशस्त्रीकरण की अपील की और इस बात पर बल दिया कि परमाणु हथियारों से सम्पन्न सभी राष्ट्र अपने सभी आयुद्धों और उन्हें फेंकने के उपकरणों को नष्ट कर दें और उन्हें भविष्य में फिर न बनाने की गारण्टी दें। भारत ने 29 अक्तूबर, 1987 को महासभा की नि:शस्त्रीकरण मामलों की समिति में प्रस्ताव रखा कि संयुक्त राष्ट्र महसभा परमाणु हथियार वाले सभी देशों को इन हथियारों का प्रसार करने से रोकने के लिए सहमत कराए। जून, 1986 में प्रधानमन्त्री राजीव गान्धी ने निःशस्त्रीकरण पर संयुक्त राष्ट्र के तीसरे विशेष सम्मेलन को सम्बोधित करते हुए आगामी 22 वर्षों के भीतर विश्व के सभी तरह के परमाणु हथियार हटाने के लिए तीन चरण में समयबद्ध कार्यक्रम का सुझाव दिया। इसके अलावा भारत सरकार अनेक अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय मंचों से नि:शस्त्रीकरण के लिए. आवाज़ उठाती रही है।

मई, 1998 में भारत में परमाणु परीक्षण किए। लेकिन इसके साथ ही भारत ने यह स्पष्ट कर दिया कि उसका परमाणु कार्यक्रम शान्तिपूर्ण उद्देश्यों के लिए है। वह किसी भी देश पर आक्रमण के समय परमाणु हथियार गिराने की पहल नहीं करेगा।

प्रश्न 7.
भारत का वैश्वीकरण के प्रति क्या दृष्टिकोण है ?
उत्तर-
भारत ने 1980 के प्रारम्भिक दौर में ही तकनीकी विकास के लिए वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया के प्रति अपना सकारात्मक दृष्टिकोण स्पष्ट कर दिया था। दिवंगत प्रधानमन्त्री श्री राजीव गांधी देश में वैज्ञानिक एवं तकनीकी विकास को सुनिश्चित करने के लिए विदेशी तकनीक के पक्षधर थे। जैसे-जैसे विश्व व्यवस्था में बदलाव आता गया भारत ने भी स्वयं को उदारीकरण और वैश्वीकरण के साथ जोड़ लिया। 1991 में भारत ने नई आर्थिक नीति अपनाई जो इस बात का प्रमाण है कि भारत वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया से अलग नहीं हो सकता। नई आर्थिक नीति भारत के उदारीकरण और वैश्वीकरण के प्रति दृष्टिकोण को स्पष्ट करती है।

अति लघु उत्तरीय प्रश्न-

प्रश्न 1.
निःशस्त्रीकरण की क्या आवश्यकता है ? कोई दो तर्क दीजिए।
उत्तर-

• विश्व शान्ति व सुरक्षा के लिए-नि:शस्त्रीकरण के द्वारा ही विश्व-शान्ति व सुरक्षा की स्थापना सम्भव है।
• निःशस्त्रीकरण आर्थिक विकास में सहायक-यदि विकासशील देश नि:शस्त्रीकरण की प्रक्रिया को अपनाते हुए नि:शस्त्रीकरण के रास्ते पर चलें तो इसके कारण इन देशों का बहुत आर्थिक विकास हो सकता है।

प्रश्न 2.
वैश्वीकरण का क्या अर्थ है ?
उत्तर-
वैश्वीकरण (Globalisation) से अभिप्राय है किसी वस्तु, सेवा, पूंजी, एवं बौद्धिक सम्पदा का एक देश से दूसरे देशों के साथ निर्बाध रूप से आदान-प्रदान। वैश्वीकरण के अन्तर्गत अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय व्यापार का संचालन निर्बाध रूप से होता है जो एक सर्वसहमत अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय संस्था द्वारा निर्धारित नियमों का पालन करता है।

प्रश्न 3.
वैश्वीकरण की कोई दो विशेषताएं लिखें।
उत्तर-

• अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय अर्थव्यवस्था वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया की विशेषता ही नहीं, अपितु इसका परिणाम भी है।
• विश्वव्यापी संगठनों का उद्भव वैश्वीकरण की प्रक्रिया की एक प्रमुख विशेषता है। इस प्रक्रिया के चलते विश्व व्यापार संगठन (W.T.O.) 1 जनवरी, 1995 को अस्तित्व में आया।

प्रश्न 4.
भारत को वैश्वीकरण से होने वाली दो हानियां लिखिए।
उत्तर-

1. वैश्वीकरण के कुप्रभावों के कारण भारत में बेरोज़गारी बढ़ी है।
2. वैश्वीकरण के कारण भारत में आर्थिक असमानता बढ़ी है।

प्रश्न 5.
कोई चार मानव अधिकारों के नाम लिखो।
उत्तर-

1. जीवन का अधिकार
2. स्वतन्त्रता का अधिकार
3. आजीविका कमाने का अधिकार
4. परिवार बनाने का अधिकार।

प्रश्न 6.
वैश्वीकरण के कोई दो गुण बताएं।
उत्तर-

1. वैश्वीकरण के कारण रोज़गार के अवसर पैदा हुए हैं।
2. वैश्वीकरण के कारण वस्तुओं के दामों में कमी आई है।

प्रश्न 7.
भारत ने कौन-सी दो परमाणु सन्धियों पर हस्ताक्षर करने से इन्कार किया था ?
उत्तर-
भारत ने एन०पी०टी० (N.P.T.) तथा सी०टी०बी०टी० (C.T.B.T.) पर हस्ताक्षर करने से इन्कार किया था।

वस्तुनिष्ठ प्रश्न-

प्रश्न I. एक शब्द/वाक्य वाले प्रश्न-उत्तर-

प्रश्न 1.
आंशिक परीक्षण रोक सन्धि कब हुई ?
उत्तर-
आंशिक परीक्षण रोक सन्धि सन् 1963 में हुई।

प्रश्न 2.
परमाणु अप्रसार सन्धि (NPT) कब लागू की गई ?
उत्तर-
परमाणु अप्रसार सन्धि 5 मार्च, 1970 को लागू की गई।

प्रश्न 3.
व्यापक परीक्षण प्रतिबन्ध सन्धि को संक्षिप्त रूप में क्या कहा जाता है ?
उत्तर-
सी० टी० बी० टी०।

प्रश्न 4.
निःशस्त्रीकरण के पक्ष में कोई एक तर्क दें ?
उत्तर-
नि:शस्त्रीकरण शान्ति की ओर ले जाता है।

प्रश्न 5.
भारत का निःशस्त्रीकरण के प्रति क्या दृष्टिकोण है ?
उत्तर-
भारत निःशस्त्रीकरण का समर्थक है।

प्रश्न 6.
मानव अधिकार दिवस हर साल कब मनाया जाता है ? .
उत्तर-
मानव अधिकार दिवस 10 दिसम्बर को मनाया जाता है।

प्रश्न 7.
विश्व व्यापार संगठन (W.T.0.) की स्थापना कब की गई ?
उत्तर-
विश्व व्यापार संगठन की स्थापना 1 जनवरी, 1995 को हुई।

प्रश्न 8.
कोई एक सन्धि बताएं, जिस पर भारत ने हस्ताक्षर नहीं किए ?
उत्तर-
व्यापक परमाणु परीक्षण प्रतिबन्ध सन्धि (C.T.B.T.) पर भारत ने हस्ताक्षर नहीं किए।

प्रश्न 9.
संयुक्त राष्ट्र ने मानवाधिकारों की कब घोषणा की ?
उत्तर-
संयुक्त राष्ट्र ने मानवाधिकारों की घोषणा 10 दिसम्बर, 1948 को की।

प्रश्न 10.
निःशस्त्रीकरण का क्या अर्थ है ? .
अथवा
निःशस्त्रीकरण से क्या अभिप्राय है ?
उत्तर-
निःशस्त्रीकरण का अर्थ शारीरिक हिंसा के प्रयोग के समस्त भौतिक तथा मानवीय साधनों के उन्मूलन से

प्रश्न 11.
मानव अधिकार आयोग के दो कार्य लिखें।
उत्तर-

1. मानव अधिकार की अवहेलना की जांच-पड़ताल करना।
2. मानव अधिकारों को प्रभावशाली ढंग से लागू करने के लिए सिफारिश करना।

प्रश्न 12.
वैश्वीकरण का अर्थ लिखिए।
उत्तर-
वैश्वीकरण (Globalisation) से अभिप्राय है किसी वस्तु, सेवा, पूंजी एवं बौद्धिक सम्पदा का एक देश से दूसरे देशों के साथ निर्बाध रूप से आदान-प्रदान।

प्रश्न 13.
विश्व व्यापार संगठन का निर्माण क्यों हुआ ?
उत्तर-
विश्व व्यापार संगठन का निर्माण अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय व्यापार को नियमित करने के लिए हुआ।

प्रश्न 14.
निःशस्त्रीकरण की क्या जरूरत है ?
उत्तर-
विश्व शान्ति एवं मानवता के बचाव के लिए निशस्त्रीकरण की ज़रूरत है।

प्रश्न II. खाली स्थान भरें-

1. आतंकवाद विश्व की एक प्रमुख ………… है।।
2. भारत में राष्ट्रीय मानवाधिकार आयोग की स्थापना …………. को हुई।
3. नाटो एक ……………. संगठन है।
4. आंशिक परीक्षण रोक संधि सन् …………. में हुई।
उत्तर-

1. समस्या
2. 12 अक्तूबर, 1993
3. सैनिक
4. 1963.

प्रश्न III. निम्नलिखित वाक्यों में से सही एवं ग़लत का चुनाव करें-

1. भारत ने प्रथम परीक्षण 1974 में तथा दूसरी बार परमाणु परीक्षण 1998 में किया।
2. अमेरिका का रक्षा व्यय अन्य देशों के मुकाबले बहुत कम है।
3. नि:शस्त्रीकरण का अर्थ हथियारों (शस्त्रों) की पूरी तरह से समाप्ति है।
4. स्टॉकहोम सम्मेलन 1972 में हुआ, जिसका मुख्य विषय पर्यावरण था।
5. सन् 2001 में संयुक्त राष्ट्र संघ का पर्यावरण और विकास के मुद्दे पर केन्द्रित एक सम्मेलन ब्राज़ील के रियो डी जनेरियो में हुआ, इसे पृथ्वी सम्मेलन भी कहा जाता है।
उत्तर-

1. सही
2. ग़लत
3. सही
4. सही
5. ग़लत ।

प्रश्न IV. बहुविकल्पीय प्रश्न

प्रश्न 1.
वर्तमान समय में निम्नलिखित विचारधारा विश्व में पाई जाती है-
(क) नाजीवादी
(ख) फ़ासीवादी
(ग) वैश्वीकरण
(घ) उपरोक्त सभी।
उत्तर-
(ग) वैश्वीकरण

प्रश्न 2.
वैश्वीकरण का प्रभाव भारत में-
(क) पाया जाता है
(ख) नहीं पाया जाता
(ग) उपरोक्त दोनों
(घ) उपरोक्त सभी।
उत्तर-
(क) पाया जाता है

प्रश्न 3.
भारत में वैश्वीकरण का आरम्भ कब से माना जाता है ?
(क) 1995
(ख) 1991
(ग) 1989
(घ) 1987.
उत्तर-
(ख) 1991

प्रश्न 4.
भारत में वैश्वीकरण का समय-समय पर किसने विरोध किया है ?
(क) वामपन्थियों ने
(ख) स्वयंसेवी संगठनों ने
(ग) पर्यावरणवादियों ने
(घ) उपरोक्त सभी।
उत्तर-
(घ) उपरोक्त सभी।

प्रश्न 5.
पर्यावरण संरक्षण से सम्बन्धित उत्तरी गोलार्द्ध एवं दक्षिणी गोलार्द्ध के देशों में-
(क) मतभेद नहीं पाए जाते
(ख) मतभेद पाए जाते हैं
(ग) उपरोक्त दोनों
(घ) उपरोक्त सभी।
उत्तर-
(ख) मतभेद पाए जाते हैं