PSEB Notes

This PSEB 8th Class Science Notes Chapter 10 Reaching the Age of Adolescence will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 8th Class Science Notes Chapter 10 Reaching the Age of Adolescence

→ It is after growing up to a certain age that human beings and other animals become capable of reproduction.

→ On crossing the age of 10 or 11 in human beings there is a sudden spurt in growth.

→ Growth is a natural process.

→ The period of life when the body undergoes changes, leading to reproduction maturity is called adolescence.

→ Adolescence begins at the age of 11 and lasts upto 18 or 19 years of age.

→ Adolescents are also called teenagers.

→ The human body undergoes severe changes during adolescence which marks the onset of puberty.

→ The most conspicuous change during puberty is height.

→ The rate of growth in height varies in different individuals.

→ All the body parts do not grow at the same rate.

→ Height also depends on the genes inherited from parents.

→ At puberty, the voice box begins to grow. Generally, girls have a high-pitched voice, whereas the voice in boys is deep.

→ During puberty, the secretion of sweat glands and sebaceous glands also increases.

→ Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream.

→ Adolescence is also a period of change in a person’s way of thinking.

→ The appearance of secondary sexual characters helps in distinguishing males from females.

→ Changes occurring in adolescence are controlled by hormones which are the chemical substances secreted by endocrine glands.

→ Hormones are secreted by endocrine or ductless glands.

→ The endocrine glands are the pituitary, adrenal, thyroid, and gonads.

→ The pancreas is an exocrine as well as an endocrine gland.

→ Pheromones are the hormones present in insects.

→ An endocrine gland does not have a duct and is, therefore, also called a ductless gland.

→ A ductless or endocrine gland pours its secretion into the circulatory system of the body for sending to the target cells.

→ Secretions of endocrine glands are called hormones.

→ Testes or male gonads are mixed organs that produce sperms as well as male sex hormones or androgens (e.g., testosterone, androsterone).

→ Ovary secretes estrogen and progesterone hormones.

→ The cyclic changes that occur every 28 days (lunar month) in the reproductive tract of human females from the period of puberty to the age of menopause are called the menstrual cycle.

→ At the age of 45-50 women stop menstruation. It is called menopause.

→ There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans.

→ There are 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes in human beings.

→ The change from larva to adult is called metamorphosis. These changes are also controlled by hormones.

→ The physical and mental well-being of an individual is regarded as an individual’s health.

→ Diet for an adolescent has to be carefully planned as it is a stage of rapid growth and development.

→ Personal hygiene is more necessary for teenagers because the increased activity of sweat glands makes the body smelly.

→ All adolescents should take walks, do exercise and play other games.

→ Adolescence: Children between the ages of 10 or 11 years to 18 or 19 years are called adolescents. This period of the age is called adolescence.

→ Puberty: It is a period (11 to 18 years) when the reproductive organs start functioning.

→ Voice Box: It is a box consisting of cartilages present in the throat of human beings causing voice.

→ Adam’s Apple: In boys, the growing voice box is seen as a protruding part of the throat called Adam’s apple.

→ Secondary Sexual Characters: In boys and girls some characters are present which helps to distinguish them. These are called secondary sexual characters.

→ Endocrine Glands: The ductless glands present in animals which secrete hormones and pour them directly into the bloodstream are called endocrine glands.

→ Hormones: These are the chemical secretions secreted by endocrine glands to control the activities of the human body.

→ Target Site: It is a particular body part where hormones released by the endocrine glands through the bloodstream reach.

→ Pituitary Gland: It is a master gland present in the brain.

→ Testosterone: It is a male hormone secreted by the testes at the onset of puberty.

→ Estrogen: It is a female hormone released by the ovaries at the onset of puberty which makes the breasts develop.

→ Sex Chromosomes: Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes. One pair out of them (23rd pair) is called a sex chromosome.

→ Thyroxine: It is a hormone secreted by the thyroid gland situated in the neck.

→ Insulin: It is a hormone secreted by the pancreas which controls sugar levels in the blood.

→ Adrenalin: It is a hormone secreted by the adrenal gland which maintains the salt balance in the blood.

→ Balanced Diet: A diet that contains the various components of food (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins, water) in the right proportion.

→ Health: The physical and mental well-being of an individual is regarded as an individual’s health.

This PSEB 8th Class Science Notes Chapter 9 Reproduction in Animals will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 8th Class Science Notes Chapter 9 Reproduction in Animals

→ Reproduction ensures the continuation of similar kinds of individuals, generation after generation.

→ All living organisms reproduce to create more of their own kind. This process is called reproduction.

→ There are two main methods of reproduction.

• Asexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction

→ In asexual reproduction, a new individual is formed from a single parent.

→ Living organisms reproduce asexually by the following five methods:

• Binary fission
• Budding
• Spore formation.
• Vegetative reproduction
• Regeneration

→ In sexual reproduction, two parents are needed to produce new individuals.

→ The male parent produces male gametes and the female parent produces female gametes.

→ The union of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.

→ There are some organisms in which both the gametes exist in the same individual. Such organisms are called hermaphrodites.

→ The fertilization in some animals is internal and in others external.

→ The process of forming specific shapes and patterns and increasing in size is called development and growth.

→ The growth of parts involves changes in shape, size, and number of constituents.

→ In plants the growth is indefinite but in animals it is definite.

→ The process of formation of the individual from seed, zygote, or body part is called development.

→ There are different ways for the development of individuals.

→ Sexual reproduction is highly evolved.

→ Male Reproductive System consists of a pair of testes, two epididymis, two vasa differentia, accessory glands, two ejaculatory ducts, urethra, and a copulatory organ or penis. Except for testes, all others are secondary male sex organs.

→ The female Reproductive System is made up of a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, uterus, vagina, external genitalia, accessory genital glands, and mammary glands. Except for the first, all others are secondary female sex organs.

→ Semen is a milky fluid produced by the male reproductive system and ejaculated during orgasm.

→ It contains spermatozoa and secretions of glands (seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and Cowper’s glands).

→ The penis is the male copulatory organ that also takes part in the conduction of urine from the body.

→ Spermatazoan (Sperm) is a motile, microscopic male gamete.

→ A typical spermatozoan consists of 4 parts – head, neck, middle piece, and tail.

→ Cloning is the production of an identical cell, carries another living part of a complete organism.

→ The cloned animals are found to be born with severe abnormalities.

→ Sexual Reproduction: A kind of reproduction in which the union of two opposite sexes (male and female) accomplishes fertilization is called sexual reproduction.

→ Asexual Reproduction: A kind of reproduction in which new ones are produced from a single parent is called asexual reproduction.

→ Egg: It is a female gamete produced by the ovary of a female.

→ Sperms: These are male gametes that are produced by the testes of males.

→ Fertilization: The union of male gamete (sperm) and female gamete (egg or ovum) is called fertilization.

→ Zygote: A single-celled structure formed by the union of sperm and egg is called a zygote.

→ Internal Fertilization: Fertilization that takes place inside the body of a female body is known as internal fertilization.

→ External Fertilization: Fertilization that takes place outside the body of females is called external fertilization.

→ Embryo: The zygote divides repeatedly into a structure called an embryo.

→ Foetus: The stage of development of an embryo in which all the body parts are identifiable is called foetus.

→ Viviparous Animals: The animals which produce young ones are known as viviparous animals.

→ Oviparous Animals: The egg-laying animals are known as oviparous animals.

→ Metamorphosis: The drastic change which transforms a larva into an adult is called metamorphosis.

→ Budding: The kind of asexual reproduction in which a new individual develops from the buds is called budding.

→ Binary Fission: A kind of asexual reproduction in which two individuals are produced simply by dividing itself is called binary fission.

→ Cloning: Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell or a complete organism.

This PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 10 The Harappan Civilization will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 10 The Harappan Civilization

→ Civilization: Civilization is that stage of the development of human culture when people look for more than just the satisfaction of material needs.

→ Rise of the Harappan Civilization: The Harappan Civilization arose about seven thousand years ago in the north-western part of the Indian sub-continent.

→ The extent of the Harappan Civilization: The Harappan Civilization extended over present-day Pakistan; Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and some parts of Western Uttar Pradesh and Afghanistan.

→ Other names of the Harappan Civilization: The Harappan Civilization is also known as the Indus Valley Civilization and the Indus- Sarasvati Civilization.

→ Town Planning of the Harappan Civilization: Town planning of the Harappan Civilization was similar to that of modern times.

→ Mohenjodaro: Mohenjodaro was the earliest city of the Harappan Civilization. It was discovered in the Larkana District of Sind in Pakistan.

→ Granaries: In the citadel at Harappa, the most impressive buildings were the granaries. These buildings were neatly laid out in rectangles and the grain was stored.

→ The Great Rath: The best-known building in the Mohenjodaro citadel is the Great Bath. It is 39 feet long, 23 feet broad, and 8 feet deep.

→ Pictographs: The Harappan people knew how to write and their language was written in picture-like signs, called pictographs.

→ Mother Goddess: Mother Goddess was the goddess worshipped by the people of the Harappan Civilization.

This PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 9 Early Man: The Stone Age will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 9 Early Man: The Stone Age

→ Early Man: Early man was a nomad who wandered around mainly in search of food and shelter.

→ Paleolithic Period: Paleolithic period is also known as the Old Stone Age.

→ It was the period when early man used crude stone implements and led a nomad’s life.

→ Mesolithic Period: Mesolithic period is also called the Middle Stone Age.

→ Early men learned several new things during this period and improved upon the older ones.

→ Neolithic Period: Neolithic period is called the New Stone Age.

→ It was the period when early man learned the use of polished stone tools and domesticated animals.

→ Discoveries that helped early man to lead a settled life: The beginning of agriculture, the taming of animals, the discovery of metals, and the discovery of the wheel were the discoveries that helped early man to lead a settled life.

→ Food-gatherer: Food-gatherer is a person who wanders from place to place in search of food.

→ Man in Early Stone Age was a food-gatherer. He lived by hunting animals and collecting wild plants or their fruits.

→ Food-producer: Food-producer is a person who produces plants and crops to meet his food requirements.

→ Man in the Neolithic period stopped being a nomad and began to settle down at one place as an agriculturist.

→ He now began to domesticate animals and cultivate plants.

→ Bhimbaithaka: Bhimbaithaka is situated near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh. Here, the rock drawings of early man have been discovered.

This PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 8 Study of Ancient History – Sources will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 8 Study of Ancient History – Sources

→ Origin of the word ‘History’: The word ‘History’ has been originated from the Greek word ‘Historia’.

→ Father of History: Herodotus is considered the Father of History.

→ Division of the long period of man’s life: The long period of man’s life is divided into two periods, namely, Pre-history and History.

→ Meaning of the sources of History: Sources of history are the facts that help us to reconstruct the story of mankind.

→ Dharmasastras: Dharmasastras are books written about the rules and regulations of ancient times.

→ Archaeologist: An archaeologist is a person who studies old buildings, pottery, things of daily use, coins, and inscriptions of ancient times.

→ Numismatics: Numismatics is the study of coins.

→ Epigraphy: The study of inscriptions is known as Epigraphy.

→ Use of copper-plates in ancient times: Copper-plates were used to record the sale, purchase, or donation of land in ancient times.

This PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 6 Our India – In World will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 6 Our India – In World

→ Total geographical area – 32,87,263 km2

→ Latitudinal extent – 8°4′ North to 37°6′ North

→ Longitudinal extent – 68°7′ East to 97° 25′ East

→ North-South extent – 3,214 km.

→ East-West extent – 2,933 km.

→ Land Frontiers – 15,200 km.

→ Coast-line – 7,516 km.

→ Standard Meridian – 82½° East Longitude

→ Southernmost point – Indira Point (6°4′ N)

→ The southernmost tip of the mainland – Kanya Kumari (8°4′ N)

→ Number of States – 28

→ Number of Union Territories – 8

→ The Largest State (In area) – Rajasthan

→ The Smallest State (In area) – Goa

→ India is the seventh-largest nation in the world as regards area.

→ India ranks second in the world as regards population.

→ India extends from 8°4′ N to 37°6′ N.

→ India extends from 68°7′ E to 97°25′ E.

→ International boundaries of 7 countries touch India.

→ India has 28 states and 8 union territories.

→ India has five physiographic units – great mountains of north, northern plains, peninsular plateau, coastal plain, and offshore lands.

This PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 5 Realms of the Earth will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 5 Realms of the Earth

→ Realms of the Earth: Land, water, and air are the three realms of the earth.

→ Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the realm of the earth which consists of solid crust, i.e. rocks.

→ Hydrosphere: Hydrosphere means the realm of the earth containing the water of the earth collectively.

→ Atmosphere: The realm of the air surrounding the earth is known as the atmosphere.

→ Biosphere: The narrow contact zone of land, water, and air that contains all forms of life is called the biosphere.

→ Continent: A continent is a large area of contiguous land rising above sea level.

→ Ocean: An ocean is a vast body of water on the surface of the earth, which surrounds the land.

→ Mountain: A mountain is a landmass considerably higher than the surrounding area.

→ Plateau: A plateau is a broad and rather level stretch of land rising sharply above the neighbouring lowland.

→ Plain: A relatively flat and low-lying land surface is called a plain.

→ Gases of Air: Nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon- dioxide are the main gases of air.

→ The largest ocean in the world: The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean in the world. It is also deeper than any other ocean.

→ It is bounded by Asia and Australia on the one hand and North America and South America on the other.

→ About 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by water.

→ About 29% of the earth’s surface is covered by land.

→ The lithosphere consists of mountains, plateaus, and plains.

→ There are seven continents namely Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe, Antarctica, and Australia.

→ There are four oceans namely Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and the Arctic.

→ The atmosphere is a mixture of gases.

→ Nitrogen (78%) is the biggest constituent of the Atmosphere.

→ The biosphere is the realm of living things.

→ The hydrosphere is the realm of water.

→ The lithosphere is the realm of solid crust.

→ Earth: A unique planet

→ Litho: Means store.

→ Mt Everest: 8848 metres high

→ Table Land: A Plateau

→ White Continent: Antarctica

→ Mariana Trench: The deepest trench

→ Life breath: Oxygen

→ Harmful Gases: Carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide.

This PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 4 How Maps Help Us will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 4 How Maps Help Us

→ Map: A map is a representation of the earth’s surface or a part of it according to a scale.

→ Sketch: Sketch is a drawing usually made from one’s imagination without measuring the actual distance on the ground.

→ Plan: Plan is a large-scale drawing showing greater details.

→ Compass: A compass is an instrument used to find directions.

→ Outline Map: An outline map is a map that shows boundary lines between the countries, states, or any one of them.

→ Cardinal Directions: There are four cardinal directions. They are North, South, East, and West.

→ Conventional Symbols: Conventional symbols are used to represent various features in maps.

→ There has been a common agreement the world over regarding the use of these symbols.

→ Atlas: A book of maps is called Atlas.

→ Maps are tools of geography.

→ A globe shows a part of the earth’s surface.

→ Three pillars of the map are scale, direction, and conventional symbols.

→ North, South, East, and West are cardinal points.

→ Two main types of maps are physical and thematic maps.

→ A book of bound maps is called an Atlas.

→ A plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scale.

→ Globe is the true model of the earth.

→ A sketch is a drawing mainly based on memory and not on the scale.

→ Thematic maps represent a particular theme

→ Guide maps: Maps of big cities.

→ Globe: A true model of the earth.

→ Atlas maps: Thematic maps.

→ Physical maps: Show relief features.

→ Survey maps: Topographical maps.

→ Arrows: Direction to show north.

→ Key: List of symbols.

This PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 3 Motions of the Earth will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 3 Motions of the Earth

→ Rotation: The spinning of the Earth on its axis from West to East in about 24 hours is called Rotation.

→ Revolution: The motion of the Earth around the sun, along an elliptical orbit from West to East is known as Revolution.

→ Axis of the Earth: Axis of the Earth is an imaginary line on which the earth rotates.

→ Orbit: It is an imaginary plane or path along which the Earth revolves round the sun.

→ Aphelion: When the Earth is farthest from the sun, its position is called Aphelion.

→ Perihelion: When the Earth is nearest the sun its position is called Perihelion.

→ Solstices: The positions of the Earth on 21st June and 22nd December are known as solstices.

→ Equinoxes: The positions of the Earth on 23rd September and 21st March are known as equinoxes.

→ Days and nights are unequal in length due to the inclination of the Axis.

→ The axis of the earth is inclined from the perpendicular.

→ The time taken for a revolution is 365 days and 6 hours.

→ Equal days and nights are found at the equator.

→ Four distinct seasons are formed at different positions of the earth on 21 March (Spring), 21 June (Summer), 23 September (Autumn), 22 December (Winter).

→ Opposite Seasons are formed in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere.

→ The earth rotates from West to East.

→ The period of rotation of the earth is called the earth day.

→ The earth revolves round the sun along an elliptical orbit.

→ When the Sun is directly over 23½° N, it is called the summer solstice, when the Sun is directly over 23½° S, it is called the winter solstice.

→ The Sun rises: The Sun rises in the east.

→ Copernicus: A scientist who discovered the sun to be stationary.

→ The direction of Rotation: West to East.

→ Leap Year: 2016

→ Ellipse: An elongated sphere.

→ Speed of the Earth: 1,05,600 km per hour.

→ The direction between the Sun and the Earth: 15 crore kms.

This PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 2 Globe – The Model of the Earth will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 6th Class Social Science Notes Chapter 2 Globe – The Model of the Earth

→ Latitude: Latitude is the angular distance of a place North or South of the Equator.

→ Longitude: Longitude is the angular distance of a place East or West of Prime Meridian.

→ Lines of Latitude: Lines of latitude are imaginary circles drawn parallel to the Equator.

→ Lines of Longitude: Lines of longitude are semi-circles joining the North pole and the South pole.

→ Local Time: Local time is the time provided by Noon Sun at a given place.

→ Standard Time: Standard Time is the local time of the Standard Meridian of a country.

→ G.M.T: Greenwich Mean Time is the local time of Prime Meridian. (0° longitude)

→ I.S.T: Indian Standard Time is the local time of 82½° East longitude passing between Allahabad and Mirzapur (U.P.).

→ Great Circle: A great circle is a circle which passes through the Centre of the earth and bisects it into two equal hemispheres.

→ Geoid: Geoid means Earth-like shape.

→ Equator: An imaginary line (East-West) that bisects the earth into two equal halves.

→ Graticule: Network formed by lines of latitude and lines of longitude.

→ Prime Meridian: It is the main meridian. (Zero meridians)

→ Torrid Zone: Hot Zone (23½° N – 23½° S)

→ Frigid Zone: Cold Zone (66½° – 90°)

→ Globe: Three-dimensional models of the earth

→ Axis: The imaginary line joining the north pole and the south pole.

→ Poles: The two ends of the axis are called poles.

→ Temperate zone: The zone with moderate temperatures.

→ The earth is inclined to the plane of earth’s orbit at an angle of 23½° from the perpendicular.

→ Parallels of latitude are the lines parallel to each other and equator on the globe in an E-W direction.

→ The equator divides the globe into two hemispheres – Northern and Southern. It is an imaginary line.

→ The earth is divided into three temperature zones i.e. the Tropical, the Temperate, and the Frigid zones.

→ 0° Longitude is called Prime Meridian.

→ The earth has been divided into 24 time zones.

→ Indian Standard Time (I.S.T.) is measured from 82½° E Meridian.

→ G.M.T. means Greenwich Mean Time which is used at a global level.

→ Greenwich (0° Longitude) is a town where a laboratory is located near London.

→ 180°E or W is known as the international dateline.

→ Equator: The line that bisects the earth into two equal halves.

→ Hemisphere: The half of a sphere.

→ Sphere: Rolled like a ball.

→ Heat zones: Temperature zones.

→ Meridians: Important to calculate time.

→ Grid: Network of parallel time and Meridians

→ Atlas: A book bound with maps.

→ Chandigarh: Latitude – 31°N, Longitude – 77°E.