PSEB Notes

This PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 11 Important Current Issues in Agriculture will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 11 Important Current Issues in Agriculture

→ Man has been practicing farming since time immemorial.

→ By using specialized genetic engineering technologies crops can be genetically modified by the transfer of genes of other plants or organisms into the crop.

→ Such improved crops are known as G.M. or transgenic crops.

→ Bt is an abbreviation for the soil bacterium Bacillus thuriengiensis.

→ A crystalline protein is produced in Bt cotton which is highly toxic for bollworms; insects pests of cotton.

→ Initially Bollguard-I hybrid had only one Bt gene and later on, Bollguard-II had two Bt genes.

→ The yield of Bt cotton is five quintal lint per acre.

→ After the introduction of Bt cotton use of insecticides has reduced a lot.

→ GM crops of Brinjal, soybean, maize, rice, etc. have been developed.

→ Some organisations, social activities consider GM crops have an adverse effect on the environment, human health, biodiversity of plants, and species of cultivated plants.

→ The government of India enacted ‘protection of plant varieties and the Farmers’ Rights Act (PPV & FR act) in 2001.

→ This act provided protection for general crops for six years and the protection period can be extended for 15 years.

→ Trees and vines were protected for 9 years and the period can be extended for 18 years.

→ One can get information about registration from the site www.plantauthority.gov.in.

→ Developed countries are using the new concept of precision farming, for this, they are using sensors, G.P.S., etc.

→ In developed countries nitrogen sensor is used to find out the requirement of nitrogen in different sections of a field.

→ We can save water by using a laser land leveler and Tensiometer.

→ In some of the developed countries, G.P.S. is used to accurately measure the fields.

→ According to reports, due to global warming earth has warmed by 0.5°C over the past 100 years.

→ Green House Gases are Carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), methane, etc.

This PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 10 Fishery will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 10 Fishery

→ Fish farming or fishery is a subsidiary occupation and is more profitable than agriculture.

→ Indian breeds of fish are Catla, Rohu, Mrigal.

→ Exotic carps – Common carp, silver carp, Grass carp.

→ The fish pond should be made in clayey land.

→ Pond size should be 1-5 acres and it should be 6-7 feet deep.

→ Keep water level in pond upto 5-6 feet.

→ The pH of the water should be 7-9. If it is less than 7 use lime water.

→ Put seed fish of 1-2 inch size at the rate of 4000 per acre.

→ Seed fish can be put in the following ratio:

• Katla 20%, Common carp 20%, Mrigal 10%, Rohu 30%, Silver carp 10%, and Grass carp 10%.
• Katla 25%, Mrigal 20%, Rohu 35%, Common carp 20%.

→ There should be 25% protein in fish feed.

→ 500-gram fish is ready for marketing.

→ One should get training before starting the occupation of the fishery.

This PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 9 Pig, Sheep, Goat and Rabbit Rearing will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 9 Pig, Sheep, Goat and Rabbit Rearing

→ Reproduction in pigs is very rapid and they also eat less.

→ Exotic breeds of pigs – White Yorkshire, Landrace.

→ A healthy female pig comes in beat at the age of 5-6 months for the first time.

→ A female pig can give birth twice a year and can produce 10-12 piglets per farrowing.

→ In a shed of 160 square feet, 20 young pigs can be reared.

→ Goat milk is valuable for patients and old persons.

→ Indigenous breeds of goat are Beetal, Jamnapari.

→ Exotic breeds of Goat are Saanen, Alpine, and Boer.

→ Breeds of sheep are Marino, Corriedale.

→ Selection of good quality goat is done on the basis of 120 days lactation milk production.

→ The gestation period of sheep and goats is the same and is 145-157 days.

→ Sheep or goat requires 10 sq. feet of space whereas young lamb needs only 4 sq. feet of space.

→ Males which are for mutton purposes should be castrated at the age of 2 months.

→ A female rabbit can become pregnant at the age of 6-9 months for the first time.

→ The average age of rabbits is 5 years.

→ Breeds of rabbit for wool – German Angora, British’ Angora, Russian Angora.

→ Breeds of rabbit for meat – Grey Giant, Soviet Chinchilla, White Giant, Newzealand White.

→ Annual wool yield from Russian, British and German Angora is respectively 215, 230, 530 grams.

→ Wool can be taken at the age of 4 months from a rabbit.

→ Before starting the rearing of sheep, goats, or rabbits, first, get training for this purpose.

This PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 8 Poultry Farming will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 8 Poultry Farming

→ ‘Poultry’ is a word that includes all types of birds that are reared to fulfill their economical needs.

→ Sutlej Layer is a type of breed of hen that gives about 255-265 eggs annually and the weight of the egg is 55 grams. A hen starts laying eggs at the age of 160 days.

→ IBL – 80 Broiler is a breed of hen which is reared for meat purposes. At the age of 6 weeks, its body weight becomes 1350-1450 grams.

→ White Leghorn is an exotic breed that lays 220-250 eggs annually.

→ Rhode Island Red gives about 180 eggs annually, the egg is of brown colors.

→ White Plymouth Rock gives 140 eggs annually and chicks’ weight at the age of two months is 1 kg.

→ Hens require about 40 feed nutrients in their feed.

→ Feed is divided into 6 parts i.e. carbohydrates, proteins, fat, minerals, vitamins, and water.

→ The device which is used to keep chicks warm is called a brooder.

→ A Hen needs 2 question foot space.

→ Birds cannot sweat because they don’t have sweat glands in the skin.

This PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 7 Milk Products and their Marketing will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 7 Milk Products and their Marketing

→ Milk is a boon to mankind. Milk is ideal and unique food for mankind.

→ Milk has high nutritive value like protein, calcium for bones, and other minerals.

→ Co-operative institutes play important role in the marketing of milk.

→ Cow milk should have at least 4% of fat in it and the value of solid-not-fat (S.N.F.) is 8.5%.

→ Buffalo milk should have 6% of fat and the value of solid not-fat (S.N.F.) should be 9%.

→ Types of milk are-Toned milk, double-toned milk, and standardized milk.

→ Raw milk can spoil easily. Therefore, milk can be processed and preserved for a long time by preparing different milk products.

→ We can earn more profit by preparing different milk products.

→ Milk products are Khoa, Paneer (Cheese), Ghee, Dahi (curd), etc.

→ We can get 200 grams of Khoa and 180 grams of Paneer from one-kilogram cow milk.

→ We can get 250 grams of Khoa and 250 grams of Paneer from one kg buffalo milk.

→ One can get information from Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, and National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal (Haryana) on the preparation of milk products by adopting the latest technology.

This PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 6 Dairy Farming will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 6 Dairy Farming

→ Nearly 70% population in Punjab lives in villages.

→ There are 17 lakh cows and 50 lakh buffaloes in Punjab.

→ In Punjab, 937 grams per day per capita milk is produced whereas at the national level it is 291 grams.

→ Holstein-Friesian is the highest milk-giving exotic breed of cow.

→ Indigenous breeds of cows have average lactation milk yield varying from 1000 kg to 1800 kg.

→ Indigenous breeds of cows are Hariana, Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Tharparkar.

→ Dual-purpose breeds are Tharparkar and Hariana.

→ Exotic breeds of cows are Holstein-Friesian, Jersey. Average lactation milk yield is 5500-6500 kg and 3000, 5000 kg respectively.

→ An average cow or buffalo with a bodyweight of 400 kg needs approximately 35 kg green fodder.

→ Feed nutrients for animals can be classified into four categories i.e. energy, protein, minerals, and vitamins.

→ Animals are given concentrate which is prepared by mixing cereals, oilseed cakes, etc.

→ If a milking machine is used*, clean teats by dipping in 50% betadine and 50% glycerin solution.

→ Do not transport the pregnant animal to avoid slipping of animals.

→ The animal should be milked within 2 hours of calving.

→ Dress the navel cord of the newly born calf 2-3 times daily with a tincture of Iodine or Dettol.

→ Feed milk to the calf and avoid sucking.

→ Disbud the buffalo calves at the age of 7-10 days and cow calves at the age of 15-20 days.

→ Heifer, if given proper feed it will become 300 kg in 18months.

→ Milking should be complete in 6-8 minutes with the full hand method.

→ Adult animals need 120-140 square feet of space.

→ Surplus green fodder is dried to get Hay and non-legume fodder is conserved as silage.

→ The average lactation milk yield of Indian breeds of buffalo is 500 kg at the National level and in Punjab, it is 1500 kg.

→ In India, there are 15 breeds of buffaloes. In Punjab, there are two breeds-Murrah and Nili Ravi.

→ The best breed of buffalo should have an average lactation milk yield of 2000 kg in the first lactation and in successive lactation. it should be 2500 kg.

→ Preserve the milk at 5°C. It prevents the growth of bacteria.

→ Clean the milk containers properly.

This PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 5 Quality Control of Seeds, Fertilizers and Insecticides will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 9th Class Agriculture Notes Chapter 5 Quality Control of Seeds, Fertilizers and Insecticides

→ For profitable farming, the main commodities required are seeds, fertilizers, and insecticides.

→ The government of India has made certain laws under the Essential Commodities Act.

→ These acts are Seed Control Order, Fertilizer Control Order, Insecticides Act.

→ License officers are appointed in Punjab according to Seed Control Order Act. These laws are implemented by the Department of Agriculture, Punjab.

→ If the seed seller sells lower quality seeds to the farmer, the farmer can complain to the Seed Inspector.

→ If a crop fails due to damaged or low-quality seed, Seed Inspector can cancel the sale license of the dealer.

→ Under article 7 of the Seed Act, only notified seeds can be sold.

→ Fertilizer testing laboratories are located at Ludhiana and Faridkot.

→ Fertilizer Control Order was made in 1985, which is used to prevent adulteration, low quality, and non-certified fertilizers, and to ensure quality and correct weight of fertilizers.

→ Insecticides Act was made in 1968.

→ Central Insecticide Board gives advice to the government to implement the laws.

→ Central Registration Committee provides registration for the manufacturing of agrochemicals and also provides permission for their import and export.

→ Insecticides samples are sent to the laboratories located at Ludhiana, Bathinda, Amritsar for testing.

This PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 8 How do Organisms Reproduce? will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 8 How do Organisms Reproduce?

→ The phenomenon of the formation of new individuals by the existing ones is called reproduction.

→ Reproduction is a means of the perpetuation of the species, and also a method of their multiplication.

→ Reproduction, unlike other life processes, is not essential to maintain the life of an individual organism.

→ Reproduction is the formation of similar organisms with the same body design, due to information of inheritance. (DNA or RNA).

→ Reproduction involves the creation of a DNA copy and additional cellular apparatus by the cell involved in the process.

→ DNA copies formed are not identical and have some variations but if variations are drastic then-new DNA copies cannot work.

→ All organisms reproduce. The reproducing organisms create new individuals that look very much like themselves.

→ The chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information for the inheritance of features from parents to the next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules.

→ The DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making proteins. Cells use chemical reactions to build copies of their DNA.

→ No biochemical reaction is absolutely reliable. Therefore, the process of copying the DNA will have some variations each time.

→ Some of the variations might be so drastic that the new DNA copy cannot work with the cellular apparatus it inherits. Such a newborn cell will simply die.

→ The inbuilt tendency for variation during reproduction is the basis for evolution.

→ If a population of reproducing organisms were suited to a particular niche and if the niche were drastically altered, the population could be wiped out.

→ If the water temperature increases by global warming, most of the bacteria living in temperate waters would die.

→ In unicellular organisms, cell division or fission leads to the creation of new individuals.

→ Many bacteria and protozoa simply split into two equal halves during cell division.

→ In Leishmania (which causes kala-azar), binary fission occurs in a definite orientation of the body.

→ The malarial parasite, Plasmodium, divides into many daughter cells simultaneously by multiple fission.

→ Yeast can produce small buds that separate and grow into new individuals.

→ Multicellular organisms have more complex ways of reproduction.

→ Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number of pieces and each piece grows into a complete organism. This is known as regeneration. It is carried out by specialized cells.

→ Organisms such as Hydra use regenerative cells for reproduction in the process of budding.

→ There are many plants in which parts like the roots, stems, and leaves develop into new plants under appropriate conditions.

→ The methods such as layering or grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes are used for agricultural purposes.

→ Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those produced from seeds.

→ Such methods also make possible the propagation of plants such as banana, orange, rose and jasmine that has lost the capacity to produce seeds.

→ In tissue culture, new plants are grown by taking tissue or cells from the growing tip of a plant.

→ This technique is commonly used for ornamental plants.

→ The hyphae of Rhizopus grow on the bread. They have sporangia, which contain cells or spores, which can eventually develop into new Rhizopus individuals.

→ In sexual reproduction, both sexes, males and females, are needed to produce new generations.

→ Combining variations from two or more individuals would create new combinations of variants.

→ As organisms become more complex, the specialization of tissue increases.

→ The motile germ cell is called the male gamete (pollen) and the germ cell containing the stored food is called the female gamete (ovule).

→ The reproductive parts of angiosperms are located in the flowers.

→ The flower may be unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it contains either stamens or carpels or bisexual (Hibiscus, mustard) when it contains both stamens and carpels.

→ The ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell.

→ The fusion of the germ cells or fertilization produces the zygote.

→ The transfer of pollen from one flower to another is achieved by agents like wind, water, or animals.

→ After fertilization, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.

→ The seed contains the future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under appropriate conditions. This process is known as germination.

→ Humans use a sexual mode of reproduction.

→ As adolescence starts, there are some changes taking place that are different among boys and girls. These do not happen all at the same time in one person, nor do they happen at an exact age.

→ The period of adolescence is called puberty.

→ The male reproductive system consists of portions that produce the germ cells and other portions that deliver the germ cells to the site of fertilization.

→ The formation of germ cells or sperms takes place in the testes.

→ In addition to regulating the formation of sperms, testosterone brings about changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty.

→ The female germ cells or eggs are made in the ovaries.

→ The fertilized egg, the zygote, gets implanted in the lining of the uterus and starts dividing.

→ The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called the placenta.

→ Since the ovary releases one egg every month, the uterus also prepares itself every month to receive a fertilized egg.

→ If the egg is not fertilized, the uterus lining slowly breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood and mucus. This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as menstruation. It usually lasts for about two to eight days.

→ The process of sexual maturation is gradual.

→ Gonorrhea and syphilis and viral infections such as warts and HIV-AIDS are sexually transmitted diseases.

→ The sexual act always has the potential to lead to pregnancy.

→ Many mechanical, hormonal, and surgical methods are used to avoid pregnancy.

→ Pre-natal sex determination has been prohibited by law.

→ Because of reckless female foeticides, the child sex ratio is declining at an alarming rate.

→ Population explosion is raising problem in our country.

→ Birth control is an attempt to control the number of births in a family so that a couple may not have more children than required.

→ Physical barriers include the use of condoms, diaphragm, and cervical caps.

→ Chemical methods include the use of specific drugs by females i.e. oral pill and vaginal pill.

→ The use of IUCD (Copper-T) is very effective.

→ Surgical methods include vasectomy and tubectomy.

→ The communicable diseases occurring due to sexual contact are called sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea, syphilis, and AIDS.

→ Reproduction: It is the process of producing new organisms by existing organisms of a species.

→ Sexual reproduction: The production of offspring by the fusion of male and female gametes is called sexual reproduction. It is biparental.

→ Asexual reproduction: The production of progeny without the fusion of male and female gametes is called asexual reproduction. It is uniparental.

→ Fission: The division of an organism into two or more individuals is called fission.

→ Budding: The process of development of an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site which grows into a tiny individual is called budding.

→ Vegetative propagation: The process of development of the new individual from any part of the body is called vegetative propagation.

→ Grafting: The technique of joining the different parts of two different plants to grow into one plant.

→ Unisexual: When the male and female are separate individuals, they are called unisexual.

→ Bisexual/Hermaphrodite: The organisms having male and female in a single individual are called bisexual/hermaphrodite.

→ Scion: A stem piece of good quality plant is grafted to grow into a new plant is called the scion.

→ Layering: The production of a new plant by covering the leaned branches of a plant under the soil.

→ Pollination: The transfer of pollen from another to stigma.

→ Fertilization: The fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization.

→ Syngamy: The fusion of male gamete with female gamete is called syngamy.

→ Double fertilization: When the fertilization occurs two times (with ovum and polar cell) in angiosperms the process is called double fertilization.

→ DNA Replication: Duplication of DNA molecule by copying from a molecular template of DNA.

→ Regeneration: The formation of the lost part is called regeneration.

→ Gamete: Haploid sex cell is called gamete.

→ Zygote: Diploid fertilized egg is called a zygote. If undergoes cleavage (non-motile division) to form a complete organism.

→ Sperm: Haploid male gamete is called sperm.

→ Ovum: Haploid female gamete is ailed ovum.

→ Ovule: A structure in the ovary of a seed plant that develops into a seed after fertilization.

→ Puberty: The process of becoming sexually mature.

→ Ovulation: The release of the ovum from the ovary.

→ Implantation: The fixation of the embryo in the uterus is called implantation.

→ Placenta: It is the connection between mother and embryo.

→ Parturition: The process of giving birth to foetus is called parturition.

This PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 7 Control and Coordination will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 7 Control and Coordination

→ Control and coordination are the functions of the nervous system and hormones in our bodies.

→ The responses of the nervous system can be classified as a reflex action, voluntary action, or involuntary action.

→ The nervous system uses electrical impulses to transmit messages.

→ The neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system that responds to stimuli by electrical impulses.

→ The Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

→ The brain is the highest coordinating centre of the body.

→ The nervous system gets information from our sense organs and acts through our muscles.

→ In many animals and some plants, there are some movements not connected with growth.

→ Some movements, in response to the environment, are carefully controlled. Each kind of change in the environment evokes an appropriate movement in response.

→ Living organisms must use systems providing control and coordination.

→ Specialized tissues are used to provide these control and coordination activities.

→ All information from our environment is detected by the specialized tips of some nerve cells.

→ We have generally five sense organs such as the eye, the ear, the nose, the tongue, and the skin.

→ The information is acquired at the end of the dendritic tip of a nerve cell.

→ It sets off a chemical reaction that creates an electrical impulse.

→ The nervous tissue is made up of an organized network of nerve cells or neurons.

→ ‘Reflex’ is a word we use very commonly when we talk about some sudden action in response to something in the environment.

→ Thinking is a complex activity, so it is bound to involve a complicated interaction of many nerve impulses from many neurons.

→ The thinking tissue in our body consists of dense networks of intricately arranged neurons. It sits in the forward end of the skull.

→ Nerves from all over the body meet in a bundle in the spinal cord on their way to the brain.

→ Nerves supply information to various organs of the body.

→ The reflex arcs have evolved in animals because the thinking process of the brain is not fast enough.

→ Brain and reflex arcs receive information from all parts of the body.

→ In fact, many animals have very little or none of the complex neuron networks needed for thinking.

→ The spinal cord is made up of nerves that supply information to think about.

→ The brain and spinal cord constitute the central nervous system.

→ The brain also has to send messages to muscles.

→ The brain allows us to think and take actions based on that thinking.

→ The brain has three major parts or regions, namely the fore-brain, mid-brain, and hind-brain.

→ The fore-brain is the main thinking part of the brain. It has regions that receive sensory impulses of hearing, smell, sight, and so on.

→ Many involuntary actions are controlled by the mid-brain and hind-brain.

→ All the involuntary actions including blood pressure, salivation, and vomiting are controlled by the medulla in the hind-brain.

→ The vertebral column or backbone protects the spinal cord.

→ The plants also use electrical-chemical means to convey the information from cell to cell.

→ Some tendrils are sensitive to touch.

→ Light and gravity change the directions of growing parts of the plant.

→ The directional or tropic movements can be either towards the stimulus or away from it.

→ The stimulated cells release a chemical compound, this compound would diffuse all around the original cell.

→ Hormones are used by multicellular organisms for control and coordination, show a great deal of diversity.

→ Different plant hormones help to coordinate growth, development, and responses to the environment.

→ A hormone called auxin, synthesized at the shoot tip, helps the cells to grow longer.

→ The plant hormones are gibberellins which, like auxins, help in the growth of the stem.

→ Adrenaline is a hormone secreted by the adrenal (kidney) gland in humans. It affects the heart, respiration, digestion, skeleton muscles in humans and other organisms.

→ Iodine is necessary for the thyroid gland to make the thyroxine hormone.

→ Thyroxine regulates carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism in the body so as to provide the best balance for growth.

→ In case of iodine is deficient in our diet, there is a possibility that we might suffer from goiter.

→ Growth hormone is one of the hormones secreted by the pituitary. As its name indicates, growth hormone regulates the growth and development of the body.

→ There is the secretion of testosterone in males and estrogen in females.

→ Insulin is a hormone that is produced by the pancreas and helps in regulating blood sugar levels.

→ Neuron: The structural and functional unit of the nervous system is called a neuron.

→ Sensory organ: The organs which sense the changes in the surrounding environment and pass on the information to the central nervous system are called sensory organs.

→ Hormone: The special chemical substances secreted by endocrine glands (ductless glands) and transported by the blood to control the body functions.

→ Phototropism: The movement of plants towards light is called phototropism.

→ Geotropism: The movement of plant roots due to the earth’s gravity is called geotropism.

→ Chemotropism: The movement of plant parts or plants due to the chemical stimulus is called chemotropism.

→ Phytohormones: These are the hormones secreted by plants to perform various functions.

→ Nastic movements: When the stimulus does not produce any movement in plants.

→ Phytochrome: These are special pigments that respond to the photoperiod.

→ Ganglion: The group of cell bodies of nerve cells is called a ganglion.

→ Reflex action: The involuntary actions towards emergency situations.

→ Reflex arc: The path through which the signal travels during reflex action is called the reflex arc.

→ Spinal cord: Nerves from all over the body meet to form a bundle/cord on their way to connect with the hindbrain is called the spinal cord.

→ Central nervous system: The brain and nerve cord together constitute the central nervous system.

→ Motor neurons: The neurons which carry the responses to the concerned organs.

→ Sensory neurons: The neurons which carry the message from sensory organs to the brain.

→ Nerve impulse: The conduction of chemical or electric signals by nerve cells is called nerve impulse.

→ Voluntary action: These are the actions that need thinking. They are performed knowingly, i.e., controlled by conscious thought. Example. Speaking to a friend, writing a letter, etc.

→ Involuntary action: These are not under the control of the will of an individual. They are automatic responses to a stimulus that is not under the voluntary control of the brain. Example. Touching a hot plate unknowingly.

→ Endocrine glands secrete the hormones directly into the blood.

→ Exocrine glands are glands with ducts that pour their secretion at the site of action.

→ Insulin is the hormone produced by β-cells of islets of Langerhans which controls sugar metabolism.

This PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 6 Life Processes will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 6 Life Processes

→ Visible movement is not the only defining characteristic of life.

→ Plants do not show locomotory movements, but movements occur at the molecular level.

→ Viruses are living only inside living organisms.

→ Every living organism takes food, derives energy, passes out waste material, and responds to changes within the body and environment. All these activities are collectively termed life processes.

→ These life processes are required for the maintenance of life.

→ The body needs energy which is obtained from the food that the organism eats.

→ The source of energy is called food. So there must be a process to transfer a source of energy (food) from outside to inside the body of an organism. This process is commonly called nutrition.

→ Since life on earth depends on carbon-based molecules, most of these food sources are also carbon-based.

→ Oxidizing-reducing reactions are some of the most common chemical means to break-down large molecules.

→ The process of acquiring oxygen from outside the body and using it in the process of breakdown of food sources for cellular needs is called respiration.

→ In the case of a single-celled organism, there are no specific organs for taking in food, exchange of gases, or removal of wastes because the entire surface of the organism is in contact with the environment.

→ In multicellular organisms, various body parts are specialized for the functions they perform.

→ The uptake of food and of oxygen will also be the function of specialized tissues.

→ We need energy every time for our life activities.

→ The general requirement for energy and materials is common in all organisms, but it is fulfilled in different ways.

→ The heterotrophs’ survival depends directly or indirectly on autotrophs. Heterotrophic organisms include animals and fungi.

→ The carbon and energy requirements of the autotrophic organism are fulfilled by photosynthesis.

→ Photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophs take in substances from the outside and convert them into stored forms of energy.

→ This material is taken in the form of carbon dioxide and water which is converted into carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.

→ Some of the energy derived from the food we eat is stored in our bodies in the form of glycogen.

→ The green dots are cell organelles called chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll.

→ Stomata are tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves.

→ Massive amounts of gaseous exchange take place in the leaves through these pores for the purpose of photosynthesis.

→ Since large amounts of water can also be lost through these stomata, the plant closes these pores when it does not need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

→ Plants take up materials like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and magnesium from the soil.

→ Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other compounds.

→ The form of nutrition differs depending on the type and availability of food material as well as how it is obtained by the organism.

→ Fungi like bread moulds, yeast, and mushrooms break down the food material outside the body and then absorb it.

→ In single-celled organisms, the food may be taken in by the entire surface.

→ Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger-like extensions of the cell surface which fuse over the food particle forming a food vacuole.

→ In Paramecium, which is also a unicellular organism, the cell has a definite shape, and food is taken in at a specific spot.

→ The alimentary canal is basically a long tube extending from the mouth to the anus.

→ When we eat something we like, our mouth ‘waters’. This is actually a fluid called saliva secreted by the salivary glands.

→ The saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that breaks down starch which is a complex molecule to give sugar.

→ The stomach is a large organ that expands when food enters it.

→ The gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach release hydrochloric acid, a protein-digesting enzyme called pepsin and mucus.

→ The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal.

→ Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores like tigers have a shorter small intestine. It is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

→ The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase for breaking down emulsified fats.

→ The undigested food is sent into the large intestine where a large number of villi absorb water from this material.

→ The food material taken in during the process of nutrition is used in cells to provide energy for various life processes.

→ The respiration takes place in the presence of air (oxygen), it is called aerobic respiration.

→ The release of energy in this aerobic process is much greater than in the anaerobic process.

→ The synthesis of lactic acid in our muscles during strenuous activity causes cramps.

→ The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used to synthesize a molecule called ATP which is the fuel for all other activities in the cell.

→ ATP is broken down to release a fixed amount of energy which can drive the endothermic reactions taking place in the cell.

→ At night, when there is no photosynthesis occurring, CO₂ elimination is the major exchange activity going on.

→ Aquatic animals that live in water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.

→ Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low as compared to the amount of oxygen in the air, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that of terrestrial organisms.

→ The air passing through the nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that line the nasal passage.

→ Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes which finally terminate in balloon-like structures called alveoli.

→ The blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and the oxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by the blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be transported to all the cells in the body.

→ In human beings, the respiratory pigment is hemoglobin which has a very high affinity for oxygen.

→ If the alveolar surface were spread out, it would cover about 80 square meters.

→ The blood is a fluid connective tissue.

→ Blood consists of a fluid medium called plasma.

→ Plasma transports food, carbon dioxide, and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form.

→ The heart is a muscular organ that is as big as our fist.

→ The heart has two regions; the atrium and ventricle. Ventricle has a thicker muscular wall than the atrium because the ventricle has to pump blood through the whole body.

→ Valves ensure that blood does not flow backward when the atria or ventricles contract.

→ The separation of the right side and the left side of the heart is to prevent oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing. Such separation allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body.

→ Amphibians or many reptiles have three-chambered hearts while Fishes have only two-chambered hearts.

→ Blood goes through the heart twice during each cycle in amphibians and other vertebrates. This is known as double circulation.

→ The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure. This pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins.

→ The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.

→ Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called a sphygmomanometer.

→ High blood pressure is also called hypertension. It can lead to the rupture of an artery and internal bleeding.

→ Arteries are the vessels that carry blood away from the heart to various organs of the body. Veins collect the blood from different organs and bring it back to the heart.

→ The blood has platelet cells that circulate around the body and they plug the leaks by helping to clot the blood at these points of injury.

→ There is another type of fluid also involved in transportation. This is called lymph or tissue fluid.

→ The xylem tissue (vessels and tracheids) of the roots, stems, and leaves are interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels reaching all parts of the plant.

→ The loss of water in the form of vapours from the aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration.

→ The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called translocation and it occurs in the part of the vascular tissue known as phloem.

→ Unlike transport in the xylem which can be largely explained by simple physical forces, the translocation in the phloem is achieved by utilizing energy.

→ Excretronr-All plants and animals produce harmful substances due to a number of metabolic activities occurring in their body tissues. These harmful substances are to be eliminated from the body, otherwise, they act as toxic substances.

→ In human beings, excretory products in the form of soluble nitrogen compounds are removed by the nephrons in the kidneys.

→ Plants use a variety of techniques to get rid of waste materials that are stored in the cell vacuoles, like removing them in the falling leaves or excreted into the surrounding soil.

→ The excretory system of human beings includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder, and a urethra.

→ The purpose of making urine is to filter out waste products from the blood.

→ Nitrogenous wastes such as urea or uric acid are removed from blood in the kidneys.

→ Enzymes: The bio-catalysts initiate or enhance the rate of reaction in a living system without undergoing any change in themselves. They are proteinic in nature.

→ Nutrition: It is the process by which living organisms take up nutrients from the environment and use them for the development of cells and tissues and also for energy.

→ Autotrophs: The organisms which make their food from simple substances like CO₂, water, and minerals with their own chlorophyll in the presence of sunlight are called autotrophs.

→ Heterotrophs: The organisms which cannot synthesize their own food. They depend on autotrophs for their food supply directly or indirectly. Saprophytes. The organisms which depend on dead, decaying organic matter for their nutritional requirements are called saprophytes.

→ Parasites: Those organisms which depend upon other living organisms (host) for their food and shelter are called parasites. There are two types of parasites i.e. ectoparasites (outside the body) and endoparasites (inside).

→ Holozoan: Holozoans are heterotrophs that involve the intake of solid pieces of food. Since solid food is taken in, holozoic nutrition is also called ingestive nutrition. It is found in animals and Protozoa.

→ Herbivorous: The organisms which take their food in the form of plants and plant products are called herbivorous.

→ Carnivorous: Those organisms which rely on the flesh of other organisms are called carnivorous.

→ Omnivorous: Those organisms which can feed upon plants, as well as other organisms, are called omnivorous.

→ Ingestion: The process of intake of food in the mouth is called ingestion. Digestion. The process of breakdown of complex food material into -simpler substances is called digestion.

→ Photosynthesis: The autotrophs take in CO₂ and H₂O and convert these into carbohydrates in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight is called Photosynthesis.

→ Compensation point: In the shadow (morning and evening) when photosynthesis is very low, the CO₂ produced in respiration is equal to the CO₂ consumed in photosynthesis. This situation when the CO₂ absorption from the environment is about nil is called a compensation point.

→ Respiration: It is the process of oxidation of carbohydrates in the cells to release energy that is used by the cells for different purposes.

→ Aerobic respiration: The respiration taking place in the presence of air – (oxygen) is called aerobic respiration.

→ Anaerobic respiration: The respiration taking place in the absence of air is (oxygen) called anaerobic respiration.

→ Respiratory substrate: The substance which is oxidized during respiration is called the respiratory substrate.

→ Glycolysis: It is the metabolic pathway in the cytoplasm that converts glucose into pyruvate.

→ Anabolism: It refers to chemical reactions in which simpler substances are combined to form more complex molecules. Anabolic reactions usually require energy.

→ Catabolism: It refers to chemical reactions that result in the breakdown of more complex organic molecules into simpler substances.

→ Fermentation: Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar/glucose to CO₂ and other simple carbon compounds like alcohol, lactic acid, malic acid, acetic acid, etc.

→ ATP: Adenosine triphosphate is a nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme often called the “molecular unit of currency” of intracellular energy transfer.

→ Stomata: These are tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves. Massive amounts of gaseous exchange take place in the leaves through these pores for the purpose of photosynthesis.

→ Breathing: The process of taking air into and expelling it from the lungs is called breathing.

→ Inspiration: The intake of oxygen from the environment into the lungs is called inspiration.

→ Expiration: The process of throwing out CO₂ from the lungs is called expiration.

→ Transpiration: The loss of water in the form of vapours from the aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration.

→ Xylem: A continuous system of water-conducting channels reaching all parts of the plant is called the xylem.

→ Phloem: The system transporting products of photosynthesis from the leaves where they are synthesized to other parts of the plant is called phloem.

→ Translocation: The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called translocation and it occurs through the phloem.

→ Artery: The blood vessels which carry the oxygenated blood from the heart to various parts of the body are called arteries.

→ Veins: The blood vessels which bring the deoxygenated blood from various parts of the body to the heart are called veins.

→ Capillaries: Very thin blood vessels within the tissues which connect arteries with veins.

→ Lymph: It is a clear-to-white fluid containing white blood cells that attack bacteria in the blood.

→ Hemoglobin: The iron-containing red pigment present in red blood cells to transport oxygen is called hemoglobin.

→ Clotting: The process of blood clot formation in the body is called clotting.

→ Dialysis: It is a process of removing waste and excess water from the blood and is used as an artificial replacement for kidney failure.

→ Osmoregulation: The process of maintaining a balance of water and ions inside the body is called osmoregulation.

→ Excretion: Excretion is the process by which waste products of metabolism are eliminated from the body.

→ Nephron: The basic functional unit of the kidney is called a nephron.